Chapter 4 1. Hydraulic Pumps (Pp. 47 90, Gorla & Khan) : 1. Two Basic Categories of Pumps
Chapter 4 1. Hydraulic Pumps (Pp. 47 90, Gorla & Khan) : 1. Two Basic Categories of Pumps
Chapter 4 1. Hydraulic Pumps (Pp. 47 90, Gorla & Khan) : 1. Two Basic Categories of Pumps
Chapter 4‐1. Hydraulic Pumps (pp. 47‐90, Gorla & Khan)
1. Two Basic Categories of Pumps Example of A Reciprocating Pump
¾ Positive Displacement (PD) Pumps
A positive displacement pump causes a fluid to move
by trapping a fixed amount of it then forcing
(displacing) that trapped volume into the discharge
pipe. For a positive displacement pump, energy is
added intermittently to the fluid. A positive
displacement pump can be further classified
according to the mechanism used to move the fluid
into:
Reciprocating action pumps
Rotary action pumps
Example of Jet Pumps
¾ Kinetic Pumps
For a kinetic pump, energy is added
continuously to the fluid. Kinetic pumps
include:
Centrifugal pumps
Axial pumps
Jet pumps
2. Rotary Pumps
Source of information: http://www.pumpschool.com
Gear pumps
Lobe pumps
Vane pumps
Screw pumps
3. Centrifugal Pumps
3.1 Basic Parts:
There are three important parts: (1) the impeller, (2) volute casing, and (3) diffuser.
There are two types of diffuser designs: (1) vaneless diffuser (volute), and (2) vaned diffuser.
• For the diffusion process, the vaneless diffuser is reasonably efficient and is best suited for a wide range of
operations. It consists simply of an annular passage without vanes surrounding the impeller.
• The vaned diffuser is advantageous where small size is important. In this type of diffuser, vanes are used to
diffuse the outlet kinetic energy of the fluid at a much higher rate than is possible by a simple increase in
radius, and hence it is possible to reduce the length of flow path and diameter.
Example of A Centrifugal Pump with volute Example of A Centrifugal
Pump with volute
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Example of A Centrifugal Pump (Engineering Graph) Example of Centrifugal Pumps
(with a vaned diffuser ring)
Example of A Centrifugal Pump (with a vaneless diffuser) Question: for the vaneless
diffuser shown in the left
figure, what causes the
change in the cross‐sectional
area?
Your answer is:____________
________________________.
3.2 Velocity Triangles
There are two important angles involved in the design and analysis of a centrifugal hydraulic pump, viz.
Absolute velocity angle α
Relative velocity angle β
The absolute velocity angle α is the directional angle of the absolute velocity vector C with reference to
the peripheral velocity vector U.
The relative velocity angle β is the directional angle of the relative velocity vector V with reference to the
negative of the peripheral velocity vector -U.
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Terminologies: Blade angles and Vane angles
In general, β is determined by the geometry of the impeller passage formed by the blades. The value of β
reflects the geometry and curvature of the blades, and therefore, it is often referred to as the “blade
angle”.
In a centrifugal hydraulic pump, there are two types of blades (or vanes): installed on the impeller and in
the diffuser (outside of the impeller).
Specific for a centrifugal hydraulic pump, α2 is often referred to as the “outlet vane angle” (or, simple the
“vane angle”. This is because α2 represents the direction of the absolute velocity C to the follow‐up
diffuser vanes.
Specific for a centrifugal hydraulic pump, in some literature, β1 is often referred to as the “inlet vane
angle”. This is because at the inlet (close to the suction eye) of the centrifugal hydraulic pump, often the
liquid is directly sucked into the impeller passages formed by the impeller vanes/blades.
Velocity triangles at the inlet and outlet of an impeller of a centrifugal hydraulic pump
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3.3 Effects of the Impeller Blade Shape on the Performance
As shown in the above figure, according to the value of the outlet blade tip angle (β2), the impeller vanes
can be classified into three categories: (a) backward‐curved, (b) radial, and (c) forward‐curved types.
Also as shown in the figure, the larger the outlet blade tip angle (β2), the large the tangential component
r
(
r r r
) (r r
)
of the absolute velocity (CW2) is, as CW 2 = C2 ⋅ Û 2 = C2 ⋅ U 2 U 2 = C2 ⋅ cos C2 , U 2 . In other words, the
value of CW2 is the greatest for the forward‐curved vanes and smallest for backward‐curved vanes. From
the Euler’s equation (i.e., w = Cw 2U 2 − Cw1U 1 ), it is understood that under the same inlet conditions (i.e.,
the values of CW1 and U1 are the same), the forward‐curved vanes produces the largest theoretical head.
Question: why is it not popular to use forward‐curved vanes in centrifugal hydraulic pumps?
Your Answer is:_________________________________________________________________________.
Three types of impeller vanes with different outlet blade tip angles
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3.4 Effect of System Rotation
3.4.1 Coriolis Force & Centrifugal Force
The motion of a fluid flow is governed by the momentum equation, so‐called Navier‐Stokes (N‐S)
equation. For a turbomachine, the N‐S equation can be expressed with respect to the absolute and
relative coordinate systems. For an incompressible flow,
r
• For the absolute motion (velocity is C , the reference coordinate system for observation is fixed to
the ground)
r
∂C r r 1 r r
+ C ⋅ ∇ C = − ∇P + ν ∇ 2 C + f
∂t ρ
Transient Convection Pressure Viscous Body
term Gradient diffusion force
r
• For the relative motion (velocity is W , the reference coordinate system for observation is fixed to
the rotor)
r
∂W r r 1 r r r r r
+ W ⋅ ∇W = − ∇P + ν∇ 2W + f + ω 2 r − 2ω × W
∂t ρ Centrifugal Coriolis
force force
By comparing the above two momentum equations that govern the absolute and relative motions of
the fluid flow, it is understood that there are two additional terms in the N‐S equation for the relative
motion, which correspond to the centrifugal and Coriolis forces.
Information regarding the Coriolis force can be found from following links:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coriolis_effect
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mcPs_OdQOYU&NR=1
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iv5WL1W4‐WI&NR=1
3.4.2 Axial Relative Eddies
The Coriolis force points to the pressure side and away from the suction side. Some major effects of the Coriolis
force include: (i) inducing relative eddies, (ii) resulting a slip factor that is smaller than 1, (ii) increasing the flow
speed on the suction side and decreasing the flow speed on the pressure side, and (iv) correspondingly,
decreasing the pressure on the suction side and increasing the pressure on the pressure side.
As shown in subfigure (a), suppose that a cylinder contains irrotational and non‐viscous (frictionless)
fluid. The cylinder begins to rotate counter‐clockwise at a constant angular speed ω. Because there is
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no friction/viscous force to drive the flow, the fluid inside the cylinder remains still and irrotational.
With respect to the cylinder, the fluid rotates (relative motion) clockwise with an angular speed –ω, in
order to keep the absolute motion irrotational.
The above statement can be shown rigorously as follows:
r r v r r v
Because C = U + W , ∇ × C = ∇ × U + ∇ × W .
In fluid mechanics vorticity ( Ω ) is defined as the curl of a velocity field, and it can be shown that
vorticity is twice the angular speed Ω = 2ω . Because the absolute motion is irrotational,
r r r r r
Ω Abs = 2ω Abs = ∇ × C = 0 . As such, ∇ × W = −∇ × U .
However, for the relative motion, the flow must be rotational, because
r 1 r 1 r r
ω Re l = ∇ × W = − ∇ × U = −ω .
2 2
We conclude that for a flow field subjected to a system rotation, if the absolute motion is irrotational,
the relative motion must be rotational. In a turbomachine, this will result in the so‐called “relative
eddies” in the passage between two adjacent blades (see subfigure (b)). In subfigure (b), the axis of the
relative eddies is aligned in the axial direction.
3.4.3 Suction and Pressure Sides of A Blade
In both axial and centrifugal turbomachinery, the system rotation of the impeller induces the Coriolis
force, which has a significant impact on the flow field. The Coriolis force points to the pressure side of
the blade, therefore increasing the pressure and decreasing the velocity of the flow near this side. On
the suction side the effect is the opposite. Under the influence of the Coriolis force, relative eddies are
formed in the passages of the impeller (regardless the fluid is viscous or not).
Velocity contours in impeller and diffusers
Figure source: Dixon (2005)
3.4.4 Boundary‐Layer Development on Both Sides of the Blade
In practice, almost all fluid flows encountered in engineering are viscous (except “superfluids”). As a
result, boundary‐layer (BL) forms in the near‐wall region of a blade (on both the pressure and suction
sides of a blade).
• BL is a result of fluid viscosity.
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• Flow velocity is lower within the BL.
• BL reduces the effective width of the passage, and changes the flow pattern and direction in the
impeller passage.
• BL is thicker on the suction side and is thinner on the pressure side.
• Flow is more turbulent on the pressure side and is less turbulent on the suction side.
• BL separation takes place first on the suction side.
Typical BL structure for flow passing over a flat plate Velocity profile for flow passing over a plate
BL structure for flow passing over an airfoil BL separation in airfoil cascades (YouTube)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JCeFzPAZRhQ
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fCniTNB2ONQ&feature=related
3.4.5 Slip Factor
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As shown in the subfigures (a) and (b), β 2 is the actual relative velocity angle (with slip), and β 2 ∞ is
blade angle (without slip). Flow exits the impeller at angle β 2 (relative motion) which is influenced by
many factors. In contrast, β 2 ∞ is purely determined by the geometry of the vane. Corresponding to β 2
and β 2 ∞ , the absolute velocity is C 2 and C 2 ∞ , respectively, and the tangential component of the
absolute velocity is CW 2 and CW 2 ∞ , respectively. The difference between the two tangential velocity
components CW 2 and CW 2 ∞ , i.e. ΔCW = CW 2 ∞ − CW 2 , is defined as the “slip”. The slip factor is defined as
C
σ = W 2
CW 2 ∞
Major reasons that are responsible for the slip (or correspondingly, for the difference between β 2
and β 2 ∞ and that between C 2 and C 2 ∞ ), include
¾ Relative eddies (induced by the Coriolis force) , which
increase the velocity on the suction side and decrease the velocity on the pressure side;
influence the tangential velocity component close to the impeller outlet.
¾ Boundary‐layer: because the fluid is viscous in practice, BL develops on both sides of the blade.
the BL makes the effective flow passage narrower, and therefore changes velocity field by
increasing the bulk velocity.
the BL is asymmetrical, which is thicker on the suction side and thinner on the pressure side
of a blade. This asymmetry also has an influence on the velocity field in the passage.
For purely radial blades (which are often used in centrifugal compressors), β 2 ∞ is 90o and the Stodola
slip factor is
π π
σ = 1 − sin β 2 ∞ = 1 − .
n n
where n is the number of vanes. The Stanitz slip factor is given by
0.63π
σ = 1 − .
n
When applying a slip factor, the Euler pump equation becomes
w = σ U 2 CW 2 ∞ − U 1CW 1 .
Typically, the slip factor lies in the region around 0.9. The slip occurs even if the fluid is ideal. Why?
Your answer is:___________________________________________________________________.
8
Electronic Notes and Work Sheets
Chapter 4‐2. Hydraulic Pumps (pp. 47‐90, Gorla & Khan)
4. Cavitation in Hydraulic Machinery (Pumps, Propellers and Turbines)
4.1 What is Cavitation? What are the Undesirable Effects of Cavitation?
Cavitation on a Propeller (an axial pump, used on, e.g. a boat/ship) What causes cavitation?
Local vaporization of the fluid when the
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GpklBS3s7iU&feature=related
local static pressure falls below the
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KExSxt‐lo5c&feature=related
vapour pressure of the fluid. Small
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R‐LAwH5wKpg&NR=1 bubbles and cavities are formed.
Dissolved gas (e.g., coca cola).
Cavitation on a Propeller (e.g., on a boat/ship) Effect of Cavitation on a Propeller
Cavitation damage to a Francis turbine
Undesirable Effects of Cavitation:
Vapour bubbles collapse with tremendous forces, giving rise to pressure up to 3500 atm;
Local pitting and erosion in the impeller;
Vibrations and noises (sharp cracking sound) when cavitation takes place;
Drop of efficiency due to vapour formation, which reduces the effective flow areas.
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4.2 An Important Parameter for Evaluating Cavitation in Hydraulic Pumps
A cavitation parameter is defined as:
NPSH P01 PV P C2 P
C H mano 1 1 V H mano ,
H mano g g 2 g g
Where, NPSH is the so‐called “net positive suction head” of a pump, defined as
P P P C2 P
NPSH 01 V 1 1 V .
g g 2 g g
Here, P1 and C1 are the pressure and velocity at the entrance (or, at suction flange/eye). P01
represents the total (stagnation) pressure at the entrance, and PV represents the vaporization pressure
at the given temperature of the fluid. In the above equations, H mano is referred to as the “manometric
head” defined as the head (energy) against which a centrifugal pump has to work. The manometric
head is the sum of the actual lift ( H L hS hd ), the friction losses in the pipes ( h f h fS h fd ), and the
discharge velocity head ( Cd2 / 2 g ), i.e.
C d2
H mano H L h f .
2g
For the hydraulic system shown in the right figure, it can be shown that
P2 P1 C22 C12
H mano .
g 2g
Proof:
Apply the general Bernoulli equation between positions 0 and 1:
P1 C12 P0 C02
g 2 g H 1 g 2 g H 0 h fs . (1)
Apply the general Bernoulli equation between positions 2 and 3: General Bernoulli Equation with
P C 2 P C 2 involvement of work and hydraulic
H 2 3 3 H 3 h fd . (2)
2 2
losses (along a streamline):
g 2 g g 2 g
Mechanical energy at the exit =
Note that
C3 Cd , H 1 H 2 , H 3 H 0 hS hd and P3 P0 1 atm .
Mechanical energy at the inlet
By subtracting Eq.(2) by Eq.(1), we obtain:
+ work done – losses
P
2 P C 2
C 2
C 2
C 2
1
2 1
( hS hd ) ( h fd h fs ) 3 H L h f d .
g 2g 2g 2g Mechanical energy (in terms of head):
P2 P1 C 22 C12 P C2
i.e., H mano . Q.E.D. H .
g 2g g 2 g
Manometric Efficiency
The manometric efficiency is defined as the ratio between the manometric head and Euler head, i.e.
H C U Cw1U 1
mano mano H mano w 2 2 .
hth g
Because in a centrifugal pump, usually 1 90 o , CW 1 0 and
C U
mano H mano w 2 2 .
g
What is the physical meaning of the manometric efficiency for a water pump,
Your answer is:______________________________________________________________________.
2
5. Pump Losses
5.1 Losses in A Centrifugal Hydraulic Pump
Mechanical Losses
Mechanical losses are related to the friction of machine parts, e.g. bearing friction, sealing friction
and impeller disc friction.
Hydraulic Losses
Hydaulic losses are related to the viscous flow motions and dissipation, and are influenced by
turbulence, eddies, and boundary‐layer separation (which are viscous flow phenomena). Such
losses include hydrodynamic losses in the passage of the impeller (i.e., “impeller blade losses” or
simply “runner losses”), and hydrodynamic losses in the volute casing (i.e., “casing losses”).
Hydraulic losses through internal fluid shear friction (related to viscosity of the fluid) will degrade
mechanical energy to heat, and consequently, the total head (which represents the mechanical
energy) will decrease and the internal energy of the fluid will increase.
Leakage Losses
There are two basic types of leakage: internal leakage and external leakage. External leakage must
go through the impeller, and be worked on, before it can escape from the seals. Internal leakage,
allows a small quantity of liquid to recirculate around the impeller, reducing the effective pump
flow rate.
Losses in a Hydraulic Pump
5.2 Efficiencies
Symbols:
hi —impeller blade loss, or runner loss;
hc —casing loss;
H — total head developed by the pump, corresponding to the fluid power at the casing outlet;
H i — total head across (developed by) the impeller, corresponding to the fluid power at the casing inlet;
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PS — shaft power input;
Pml — mechanical power loss;
q — leaking flow rate;
Q — flow rate at the discharge (casing outlet);
Qi — flow rate through the impeller ( Qi Q q );
—density of fluid.
Overall efficiency (Pump efficiency)
Power output gQH
o .
Power input PS
Casing efficiency
Flow power at casing outlet gQH H
C ,
Flow power at casing inlet gQH i H i
where H i H hc . The casing efficiency reflects the casing losses ( hc ) due to the viscous flow motions and
dissipations in the volute casing.
Volumetric efficiency
Flow rate through the pump Q Q
V .
Flow rate through the impeller Q q Qi
Impeller efficiency
Flow power at the impeller exit gQi H i Hi
i .
Flow power suppplied to impeller gQi ( H i hi ) H i hi
The impeller efficiency reflects the impeller losses ( hi ) due to the viscous flow motions and dissipations in the
impeller passages.
Mechanical efficiency
Power supplied to the impeller PS Pml gQi ( H i hi )
m .
Shaft power input PS PS
The mechanical efficiency reflects the mechanical losses ( Pml ) due to frictions between the shaft and
bearings/seals.
It is straightforward to show that the overall efficiency is the product of the above four specific efficiencies, i.e.
o C V i m .
Hydraulic efficiency
H H Actual head developed by pump
h C i .
H i hi H hC hi Total head developed by the impeller without hydraulic losses
The hydraulic efficiency reflects the hydraulic losses (casing losses + impeller losses) due to the viscous flow
motions and dissipations in both the impeller and the casing. With this definition, we obtain
o h V m .
The actual head developed by the pump ( H ) is also known as the manometric head ( H mano ), which is the
total head against which a centrifugal pump has to work in practice. Therefore, H H mano .
4
Ch.4 Examples: Hydraulic Pumps
Q
D1
D2
N
H
b1
b2
α1
q
Pml
fc
β2
ηo
β1 α 2 C2 η mano ηV η m