Eukaryotic

Cell Structure

Lecture 5
Eukaryotic cells
 The main feature of eukaryotic cells is their
possession of membrane-bound organelles
 a structure or part that is enclosed within its own membrane
inside a cell and has a particular function(s)
 more elaborate compartmentalisation of the cell
 These organelles have specific roles defined by the
chemical reactions that take place within each
 Characteristic of the
 Protists
 Fungi
 Plants
 Animals
Extracellular matrix
 Very diverse and functions in:
1. Cellular organisation in tissues binding
2. Providing support and anchorage for cells
3. Segregating tissues from one another
4. Cell signalling: regulating intercellular communication
5. Provides lubrication in joints
6. Influences the processes of growth and repair
7. Influences the physical properties of the tissue
 Thick ECM: connective tissue
 Cartilage: collagen
 Bone: collagen + minerals (CaCO3)
 Interstitial tissue: collagen
 Thinner ECM:
 Basement membrane of epithelial tissue
 Role in selective absorption / filtration
8. sequesters a wide range of cellular growth factors, and acts as a
local depot for them, influencing development
 (animals)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Extracellular_Matrix.png
Extracellular matrix
 three major proteinaceous components:
 highly viscous proteoglycans (cushion cells)
 insoluble collagen fibres (strength / resilience)
 soluble multi-adhesive matrix proteins (binding
components to receptors on the cell surface)
 communicates directly and indirectly with the
intracellular signalling pathways
 direct a cell to carry out specific functions
 not just an inert framework that supports or surrounds
cells
5 Principal classes of CAMs:
• cadherins: Calcium dependent adhesion molecules
• immunoglobulin (Ig) superfamily: attached to the membrane of the effector B cells
• selectins: initial attachment of leukocytes during inflammation
• mucins: coats many epithelial surfaces and is secreted into fluids such as saliva
• integrins: mediate cell-cell and cell-matrix interaction and communication
 Cell junctions
 3 types: based on the organisation of cell-adhesion molecules (CAM’s)

 Tight junctions: rigid portions of the cell membrane of

adjacent cells
 seals tissues and prevents leakage or pathogenic entry
 promote directional movement of substances between the conduit
and surrounding tissues: filtration, gas exchange & gut
 surrounds lumens of conduits
 Desmosomes: adhesive junctions which
 “rivet” cells at certain tight spots on the membrane (transmembrane
plaque proteins)
 protect the integrity of body surfaces against wear & tear
 Communicating junctions: aka gap junctions with specialised
proteins (connexions)
 allow passage of chemicals & electric impulses to pass
 plasmodesmata & ionic channels / pumps
Types of cell junctions
Plant Cell
wall

Middle lamella
Cytoskeleton
 The collection of long, thin fibres which fulfil the
roles of:
 Maintaining cell shape
 Support for cellular movements
 Facilitate the transport of substances into, around and
out of the cell
 See lecture 7 for further details
Centrioles
 Found in most eukaryotic cells, except higher plants and
fungi
 Barrel-shaped structures, usually in pairs oriented at right
angles to one another
 The wall of each centriole cylinder is made of 9
interconnected triplet microtubules, arranged as a pinwheel
 Centriolar microtubules are relatively stable.
 They organize the pericentriolar material (PCM) which plays
a role in organizing the mitotic spindle, which in turn helps
the cells to divide.
 The mitotic spindle functions in the migration of the
chromosomes during cell division
Cilia & Flagella
 Cilia and flagella are outgrowths from the cell
 The major difference is in their length, numbers
& primary functions
 They arise from a cytoplasmic basal body
beneath the cell membrane, and extend to
form an axoneme
 Cilia and flagella have the same internal
structure of constituent microtubules

 See lecture 7 for further details

Cytoplasm
 the site where most cellular activities are done:
 energy transfers
 vital metabolic reactions take place here, for example glycolysis and protein synthesis

 cell expansion
 growth
 replication of organelles
 gives the cell its shape
 home of the cytoskeleton, responsible for the movement of the cell
 vesicles & materials move around the cell by moving and
churning through a process called cytoplasmic streaming /
cyclosis
 a storage place for chemical substances indispensable to life
Cytoplasm
 Comprises:
 Cytoplasmic matrix / cytosol
 semi-transparent fluid in which the organelles are suspended
 makes up about 80% of the cell (aqueous phase)
 Proteins, including enzymes
 Vitamins
 Ions - salts
 Nucleic acids and their precursors
 Amino acids and their precursors
 Sugars, carbohydrates and their derivatives
 Fatty acids and their derivatives
 Colloidal suspension
 Viscosity constantly changes
 Inclusions: crystalline or insoluble
 chemical substances that store nutrients, secretory products and pigment granules

 Constitute the microtrabecular lattice (MTL)

 three-dimensional lattice of thin protein-rich strands
 serves to interconnect and hold together the organelles within the cytoplasm
Organelles
 Constitute the metabolic machinery of the cell
 Membrane-bound
 Single:
 Golgi, lysosomes, peroxisomes, vacuoles, vesicles
 Double:
 nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts
 Non-membranous
 Ribosomes
 Energy-transducers
 Mitochondria
 Chloroplasts
 Information processors
 Nucleus
 Ribosomes
 Secretory
 Storage
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
 Extensive network of interconnecting tubules and
vesicles within the cytoplasm
 provides a greatly expanded surface area for biochemical
reactions that normally take place at, or across membrane
surfaces
 also involved in the synthesis and transport of important
metabolites
 part of the secretory system of the cell
 2 types
 Rough ER
 Protein synthesis with associated ribosomes & mRNA
 segregation of newly synthesised proteins
 chemical modification of proteins
 Smooth ER
 modifies chemicals imported into the cell
 lipid & steroid synthesis
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
 Rough endoplasmic reticulum with numerous
ribosomes on cisternae surface (from a neuron).
Golgi Complex
 This is a stack of flattened, parallely- appressed
sacs (cisternae)
 greater stacking in protist, plant & fungal cells
 It occurs in close association with the ER.
 receives synthesised proteins from the ER
 concentrates, modifies & final packaging of proteins
 synthesis of cell wall polysaccharides
 stores the proteins and enzymes of the cell.
 forms secretory vesicles and lysosomes
Golgi Complex
Golgi apparatus, stacks of cisternae, and vesicles near the
nucleus of a nerve cell.
Lysosomes
 These are tiny vesicles within the cytoplasm
 Usually associated with the Golgi complex
 They contain hydrolytic (digestive) enzymes that aid in the
disposal of bacteria and other foreign bodies
 Function in
 Autophagy:
 degradation of cell organelles
 maintains the balance between the synthesis, degradation, and
subsequent recycling of cellular products
 a major mechanism by which a starving cell may re-allocate nutrients from
unnecessary processes to more essential processes
 Autolysis:
 Programmed self-destruction of a cell by its own lytic enzymes
 usually occurs in injured cells or dying tissue
 Tay Sachs disorder
Lysosomes
 Peroxisomes
 ubiquitous organelles that participate in the
metabolism of fatty acids and other metabolites
 posses enzymes (e.g. catalase) that rid the cell of toxic
peroxides (detoxification)
 breakdown of fatty acid molecules (β-oxidation) to
2-carbonfragments and converted to Acetyl-CoA &
fed back into cellular respiration
 occurs in plant cells as glyoxysomes
 gluconeogenesis in seedlings
 the sugars synthesized from fatty acids (glyoxylate cycle) are until
the seedling is mature enough to produce them by photosynthesis.
Peroxisome
Vacuoles
 Extensive in plants and some protists
 The single large vacuole of the plant cell is surrounded by a membrane,
the tonoplast and filled with an aqueous solution of dissolved ions,
sugars, amino acids
 Turgor in plant cells:
 Support by hydrostatic forces
 Driving force behind cell extension in the 1° growth in plant cells
 Storage of waste products
 waste disposal and recycling centre for worn-out organelles, e.g.
mitochondria and chloroplasts, (similar to lysosomes in animal cells)
 Storage of toxins
 nicotine and other toxins are stored in vacuoles, since these are as toxic to the
plant as they are to the herbivores they are meant to repel
 Attraction of pollinators /dispersal agents
 juice of the orange and other citrus fruits is stored in vacuoles
 Pigmentation
 the bright pigments that give autumn leaves their colour.
 Germination
 hydrolysis of proteins in cotyledons
Plastids
 Any of several pigmented cytoplasmic organelles
found in plant cells and protists
 Carry out various physiological functions, such as
the synthesis and storage of food
 Chromoplasts
 Attraction of pollinators & dispersal agents through floral & fruit
colours
 Β-carotene in carrots
 Leucoplasts
 specialized for bulk storage
 amyloplasts (starch), elaioplasts (lipids), or proteinoplasts (protein)
respectively.
 leucoplasts may not have a major storage function and are present
to provide a wide range of essential biosynthetic functions,
including the synthesis of fatty acids and many amino acids
 Energy tranducers
 Chloroplasts
 Mitochondria
Chloroplasts

 Found also in animal & animal-like protists

 mutualism
 ingestion
 Chloroplasts:
 Double membrane
 Grana
 Thylakoids
 Stroma
 DNA
Chloroplast structure
Mitochondria
 These are relatively large, rod-like structures found within
the cytoplasm.
 Like the chloroplasts
 Bounded by two membranes
 Extensive internal membrane system (cristae) with respiratory
enzymes
 Energy transducer
 Matrix, analogous to the stroma
 Possesses its own DNA
 Similar to prokaryotes: size & genome
 They are the organelles for the production of energy through
cellular respiration:
 Krebs cycle
 electron transport chain,
 -oxidation of fatty acids
Mitochondria
Mitochondria, glycogen, rough endoplasmic reticulum with
ribosomes on surface (liver cell)
Endosymbiotic origin of organelles
 Prokaryotic genome size ≈ genome of these organelles
 Prokaryotic DNA sequence ≈ DNA sequence of these organelles
 Similar biochemistry (e.g. photosynthesis, protein synthesis initiation)
 Double membrane could be derived from phagocytosis w/o digestion
Nucleus
 Largest organelle in the cell
 Double membrane:
 Disintegrates for cell division
 Nuclear pores
 Communication with cytoplasm: provide aqueous channels through the
envelope, are composed of multiple proteins, collectively referred to as
nucleoporins
 Transport of ribosomes, nucleotides & proteins
 Associated with RER
 Site of DNA storage
 Genetic control of cell metabolism
 Nucleolus produces ribosomes & RNA
 The nuclear lamina is a dense, ~ 30 to 100 nanometers thick,
fibrillar network composed of intermediate filaments made
of lamin that lines the inner surface of the nuclear envelope
Nucleus
 Nucleoplasm:
 fluid contained within the nucleus of a eukaryote in which
the chromosomes and nucleoli are found
 Chromatin is the ground material
 fibrous complex of eukaryotic DNA and histone proteins
 The extensive DNA of eukaryotic cells is tightly bound to
small basic proteins (histones) that package the DNA in an
orderly way in the cell nucleus
 assembled into individual repeating units called
nucleosomes
The basic structural unit of chromatin consisting of DNA wrapped around a
histone core
 Histones are involved in a range of activities,
including DNA replication and gene expression
 Nucleosome

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/bookshelf/br.fcgi?book=cooper&part=A618&rendertype=figure&id=A622
Nucleus
 Chromatin consists of
 Euchromatin
 found in both prokaryotes & eukaryotes
 loosely organised chromatin
 appears as lightly staining bands
 appreciable gene activity
 undergoes transcription
 Heterochromatin
 only in eukaryotes
 highly condensed DNA-protein complex
 little or no transcription or gene activity
 protect chromosome integrity
 Chromosomes
 highly condensed chromatin
 visible as strands
 The carriers of genes, consisting of long DNA molecules and
associated proteins
Nucleus
Nucleus
Nucleus