Nautical Chart Basic Plotting PDF
Nautical Chart Basic Plotting PDF
A
Short
Course
on
Nautical
Charts
and
Basic
Plotting
for
the
Recreational
Boater
by
Gary
C.
Kessler
[email protected]
http://www.garykessler.net/scuba
Version
1.1.4
(1/22/2013)
Table
of
Contents
List
of
Figures ................................................................................................................................ iv
Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 1
Part
1.
Nautical
Charts ............................................................................................................ 2
1.1.
Purpose
and
Role
of
Nautical
Charts ...............................................................................2
1.1.1.
Types
of
Charts .....................................................................................................2
1.1.2.
Sources
of
Charts ..................................................................................................3
1.2.
Supplementary
Resources ...............................................................................................3
1.2.1.
Chart
No.
1 ............................................................................................................4
1.2.2.
U.S.
Coast
Pilot®....................................................................................................4
1.2.3.
USCG
Light
List ......................................................................................................6
1.2.4.
Notice
to
Mariners................................................................................................7
1.3.
Latitude
and
Longitude....................................................................................................8
1.4.
The
Anatomy
of
a
Nautical
Chart.....................................................................................9
1.4.1.
Chart
Reference
Data..........................................................................................10
1.4.2.
The
Compass
Rose ..............................................................................................14
1.4.3.
Landmarks...........................................................................................................14
1.4.4.
Marginal
Notes ...................................................................................................15
1.4.5.
Aids
to
Navigation,
and
Coastal
and
Underwater
Features ................................16
1.5.
Summary........................................................................................................................22
Part
2:
Plotting...................................................................................................................... 23
2.1.
Which
Way
is
North? .....................................................................................................23
2.1.1.
The
Compass
Rose,
Revisited..............................................................................23
2.1.2.
Deviation.............................................................................................................24
2.1.3.
Putting
it
all
Together .........................................................................................25
2.2.
Instruments
for
Plotting ................................................................................................26
2.2.1.
Parallel
Rule
and
Roller
Plotter ...........................................................................26
2.2.2.
Dividers
and
Compass.........................................................................................28
2.3.
Arithmetic
for
Plotting...................................................................................................28
2.3.1.
Measuring
Distance ............................................................................................28
2.3.2.
Manipulating
Time
Values ..................................................................................29
2.3.3.
Distance,
Speed,
and
Time..................................................................................31
2.4.
Plotting
Problems ..........................................................................................................32
2.4.1.
Finding
Latitude
and
Longitude ..........................................................................33
2.4.2.
Plotting
a
Position...............................................................................................34
2.4.3.
Finding
a
True
Bearing
and
Compass
Course......................................................35
2.4.4.
Finding
Distance
and
Speed
Made
Good ............................................................36
2.4.5.
Estimating
Time
of
Arrival...................................................................................37
2.4.6.
Dead
Reckoning ..................................................................................................38
2.4.7.
Finding
Set
and
Drift ...........................................................................................39
2.4.8.
Plotting
A
Course
With
Known
Set
and
Drift ......................................................40
2.4.9.
Obtaining
a
Fix
With
Lines
of
Position ................................................................41
ii
2.4.10.
Taking
a
Running
Fix .........................................................................................43
2.5.
Summary........................................................................................................................44
Appendix
A:
DMS,
GPS,
and
Decimal
Notations .................................................................... 45
Appendix
B:
Mercator
and
Polyconic
Projections .................................................................. 49
Appendix
C:
The
Length
of
a
Degree ..................................................................................... 51
Appendix
D:
Navigators
Quick
Reference
Card...................................................................... 52
Appendix
E:
Sample
Problem
Chart....................................................................................... 54
Acronyms
and
Abbreviations ................................................................................................ 55
References
and
Further
Reading ........................................................................................... 56
About
the
Author ................................................................................................................. 58
iii
List
of
Figures
1.1.
Chart
No.
1:
Nautical
Chart
Symbols
Abbreviations
and
Terms
..............................................4
1.2.
U.S.
Coast
Pilot®
for
Region
6
(Great
Lakes
and
St.
Lawrence
River),
including
Lake
Champlain..............................................................................................................................5
1.3.
Light
List
-‐-‐
Volume
I:
Atlantic
Coast
(St.
Croix
River,
Maine
to
Shrewsbury
River,
New
Jersey)
...............................................................................................................................................6
1.4.
Notice
to
Mariners
for
the
week
of
28
January
2012
and
Local
Notice
to
Mariners
for
the
fourth
week
of
2012,
covering
USCG
District
1 .....................................................................8
1.5.
Latitude
and
longitude
...........................................................................................................8
1.6.
Chart
14782
(Cumberland
Head
to
Four
Bothers
Islands).....................................................10
1.7.
Chart
number
and
date
of
publication
(Chart
14782)
..........................................................10
1.8.
Chart
title
and
other
information
(Chart
14782)...................................................................11
1.9.
Latitude
and
longitude
scales
on
Chart
14782 ......................................................................12
1.10.
Legends
for
distance
on
Chart
14782 ..................................................................................13
1.11.
Sounding
information
from
Chart
14782
...........................................................................13
1.12.
Compass
rose ......................................................................................................................14
1.13.
Landmarks
in
the
city
of
Burlington
(Chart
14782)
.............................................................15
1.14.
NOTE
A
from
Chart
14782 ...................................................................................................16
1.15.
Appletree
Bay,
from
Chart
14782
.......................................................................................17
1.16.
Colchester
Reef
and
Colchester
Shoal,
from
Chart
14782...................................................18
1.17.
Burlington
harbor
breakwater,
from
Chart
14785
(Burlington
Harbor)
.............................20
1.18.
Deer
Island
and
President
Roads
section
of
Chart
13267
(Massachusetts
Bay)..................20
2.1.
Compass
rose ........................................................................................................................24
2.2.
Parallel
ruler ..........................................................................................................................26
2.3.
Parallel,
or
roll,
plotter ..........................................................................................................27
2.4.
Protractor
triangle .................................................................................................................27
2.5.
Dividers..................................................................................................................................28
2.6.
Placing
the
dividers
on
two
points ........................................................................................29
2.7.
Placing
the
dividers
on
the
latitude
scale ..............................................................................29
2.8.
60
D
ST
mnemonic.................................................................................................................31
2.9.
Nautical
slide
rule ..................................................................................................................32
2.10.
Finding
latitude
and
longitude ............................................................................................34
2.11.
Plotting
position ..................................................................................................................35
2.12.
Finding
a
true
bearing
and
compass
course ........................................................................36
2.13.
Finding
distance
and
speed
made
good ..............................................................................37
2.14.
Estimating
time
of
arrival ....................................................................................................38
2.15.
Dead
reckoning....................................................................................................................39
2.16.
Determining
set
and
drift ....................................................................................................40
2.17.
Plotting
with
known
set
and
drift ........................................................................................41
2.18.
Obtaining
a
three-‐bearing
fix ..............................................................................................42
2.19.
Taking
a
running
fix .............................................................................................................43
iv
B.1.
Mercator
projection ..............................................................................................................49
B.2.
Polyconic
projection ..............................................................................................................50
v
1
Introduction
This
manual
is
intended
for
the
recreational
boater
who
wants
to
understand
the
elements
of
the
nautical
charts
that
we
employ
to
learn
how
to
navigate
through
a
new
body
of
water
and
perform
basic
plotting
tasks.
The
motivation
for
me
to
write
this
is
simple
-‐-‐
as
a
recreational
boater
myself,
I
came
to
realize
that
while
reading
a
chart
does
not
appear
to
be
all
that
difficult,
there
were
many
items
of
information
that
I
had
not
realized
were
even
there,
either
because
I
did
not
use
that
information
for
my
boating
excursions
or
because
the
charts
that
I
commonly
use
did
not
contain
certain
elements
of
information.
Prior
to
taking
a
course
in
order
to
acquire
my
captain's
license,
I
knew
nothing
about
the
Coast
Pilot®
or
Light
List,
sources
of
an
incredible
amount
of
information
of
interest
to
masters
of
a
vessel
of
any
size.
In
addition,
the
general
books
to
which
recreational
boaters
are
often
directed
are
excellent
in
many
ways
but
rarely
tackle
the
subject
of
even
simple
plotting.
This
manual
is
divided
into
two
parts.
Part
1
describes
nautical
charts
from
the
perspective
of
a
recreational
mariner.
This
section
describes
some
places
where
one
can
acquire
charts
but,
more
importantly,
where
reference
materials
can
be
obtained
that
can
help
a
mariner
interpret
the
markings
on
the
charts,
from
the
meaning
of
aids
to
navigation
and
the
period
of
a
lighthouse
light
to
the
composition
of
the
seabed
and
height
of
a
bridge.
Some
of
the
general
information
in
this
part
of
the
manual
applies
to
any
nautical
chart
anywhere,
although
the
focus
is
on
United
States
nautical
charts.
Most
of
the
examples
are
from
Lake
Champlain
(New
York
and
Vermont)
primarily
because
these
are
my
home
waters.
Part
2
of
the
manual
describes
basic
plotting.
This
sections
starts
by
an
explanation
of
the
relationship
between
magnetic
north
(as
shown
on
a
compass),
true
north
(as
shown
on
a
chart),
and
ship's
north
(i.e.,
as
shown
on
your
vessel's
compass),
and
introduces
the
concepts
of
variance
and
deviation.
That
is
followed
by
a
description
of
the
instruments
that
are
needed
in
order
to
plot
courses
on
nautical
charts.
The
bulk
of
the
chapter
describes
a
number
of
rudimentary
plotting
problems
and
how
to
solve
them,
such
as
determining
your
position
by
dead
reckoning,
estimating
time
of
arrival,
and
compensating
for
current
when
plotting
your
course.
The
focus
of
this
document
is
on
printed
charts,
and
reading
and
plotting
using
hand
tools.
Marine
electronics
make
a
lot
of
these
tasks
automatic
but
I
have
always
taken
the
posture
that
people
need
to
know
the
basic
process
behind
what
our
automated
and
computer-‐based
tools
are
telling
us.
In
that
spirit,
I
offer
this
tutorial.
Suggestions,
corrections,
and/or
any
other
comments
about
this
manual
are
welcome.
Gary
C.
Kessler
Burlington,
Vermont
Ormond
Beach,
FL
2
Part
1:
Nautical
Charts
This
section
presents
an
introduction
to
nautical
charts.
In
addition,
supplementary
resource
materials
that
can
aid
in
the
interpretation
of
the
symbols
on
the
chart
and
yield
a
better
understanding
of
the
coastal
and
navigational
features
depicted
on
the
charts
will
also
be
introduced.
This
will
be
followed
by
some
specific
examples
of
chart
features
and
symbols.
1.1.
Purpose
and
Role
of
Nautical
Charts
Nautical
charts
are,
of
course,
the
"roadmap"
of
waterways.
But
the
charts
are
so
much
more.
On
a
street
map,
pretty
much
all
you
get
are
the
streets;
maybe
you
will
also
see
identifiers
for
some
buildings,
parks,
and
other
structures,
but
you
won't
find
a
listing
of
all
of
the
traffic
signals
and
the
duration
of
a
red
and
green
light.
And
streets,
of
course,
highly
regulate
where
you
can
go
in
your
car;
if
on
a
two-‐way
road,
you
drive
on
the
right
side
(in
the
U.S.).
Lakes
and
oceans
are
a
little
less
organized.
In
some
areas,
there
are
nautical
traffic
lanes
but
boat
movement
is
not
so
restricted
on
the
vast
majority
of
the
waterways.
If
you
are
more
than
a
couple
of
miles
away
from
land,
knowing
the
landmarks
and
structures
can
help
you
orient
yourself
to
your
position.
Navigational
aids
of
all
types
help
you
find
your
way
or
keep
out
of
danger.
Charts
show
significantly
more
information
than
a
street
map.
Charts
describe
not
only
where
the
water
is
but
also
the
characteristics
of
the
waterway
and
seabed.
They
show
the
shape
of
the
coast,
location
of
islands
and
hazards,
navigation
markers,
warnings
of
hazards,
the
height
of
bridges
and
other
obstructions,
and
offer
much
more
additional
information.
Nautical
charts
are
an
essential
item
on
board
any
vessel,
even
small
recreational
boats
that
do
not
wander
very
far
from
land.
Unexpected
events
from
weather
to
current
can
take
you
a
bit
further
than
you
intended
to
go
and
the
charts
can
help
you
get
to
where
you
want
to
be
or
to
a
port
of
refuge.
1.1.1.
Types
of
Charts
The
National
Oceanic
and
Atmospheric
Agency
(NOAA)
produces
U.S.
nautical
charts.
Charts
are
generally
categorized
by
their
scale;
large-‐scale
charts
show
a
lot
of
detail
over
a
small
geographic
area,
while
small-‐scale
charts
show
a
lesser
amount
of
detail
over
a
large
area.
In
general,
then,
mariners
would
use
small-‐scale
charts
when
on
the
open
seas
going
from
one
place
to
another
and
would
use
the
largest
scale
possible
for
navigating
near-‐shore.
NOAA
uses
the
following
chart
classifications:1
1
From
U.S.
Coast
Pilot®.
3
• Sailing
charts
have
a
scale
of
1:600,000
and
smaller.
These
charts
are
for
determining
position
along
the
coast
when
approaching
from
the
open
ocean,
or
for
sailing
between
distant
coastwise
ports.
• General
charts
have
a
scale
between
1:150,000
and
1:600,000.
These
charts
are
primarily
for
coastal
navigation
outside
of
near-‐coastal
reefs
and
shoals.
• Coast
charts
have
a
scale
between
1:50,000
and
1:150,000.
These
charts
are
for
inshore
navigation
leading
to
sizeable
bays
and
harbors,
and
for
navigating
large
inland
waterways.
• Harbor
charts
have
a
scale
larger
than
1:50,000
and
are
for
navigating
harbors,
anchorage
areas,
and
smaller
waterways.
1.1.2.
Sources
of
Charts
There
are
a
variety
of
sources
for
nautical
charts.
Most
boaters
buy
a
chart
for
local
waters
at
a
local
marine
store.
Charts
for
just
about
any
part
of
the
world
can
be
obtained
from
any
number
of
sources
online.
The
official
NOAA
site
for
charts
is
at
the
Office
of
Coast
Survey
Web
site.2
Links
from
that
page
will
assist
you
in
obtaining
paper
charts,
electronic
charts,
publications
with
additional
information,
and
historical
charts.
This
site
also
lists
a
number
of
retailers
that
sell
NOAA
charts.
NOAA
has
charts
available
in
a
number
of
formats,
including:
• Print
on
demand
(POD)
charts
are
printed
upon
request
and
shipped
to
the
customer.
• Booklet
charts
are
downloadable
charts
in
PDF
format
that
can
be
printed
for
free.3
• ChartViewer
allows
all
NOAA
charts
to
be
viewed
online.
• Electronic
charts
are
downloadable
charts
for
use
with
commercial
software.
Downloads
are
available
as
Raster
Navigational
Charts
(NOAA
RNC®)
in
.BSB
format
for
raster
display
systems
or
as
Electronic
Navigational
Charts
(NOAA
ENC®)
for
electronic
charting
systems.
Neither
of
these
formats
is
designed
for
printing.
Electronic
charts
are
constantly
updated.
1.2.
Supplementary
Resources
Nautical
charts
are
the
graphical
representation
of
the
waterways
and
coastal
zones.
Like
all
graphical
representations,
however,
their
symbols
may
seem
arcane
to
the
untrained
eye
and,
in
any
case,
it
is
impossible
for
the
diagrams
to
have
complete
information.
For
that
reason,
there
are
a
number
of
documents
that
provide
important
information
that
supplements
the
charts.
2
http://www.nauticalcharts.noaa.gov/
3
Most
of
the
chart
fragment
examples
in
this
document
come
from
booklet
charts.
4
Figure
1.1.
Chart
No.
1:
Nautical
Chart
Symbols
Abbreviations
and
Terms.
Chart
No.
1
is
divided
into
five
sections:
• Introduction:
General
introduction
to
the
document,
and
an
overview
of
the
symbols
and
information
that
can
be
found
on
a
nautical
chart.
• General:
Symbols
and
information
related
to
chart
identification,
distance,
directions,
and
the
compass.
• Topography:
Chart
symbols
related
to
features
found
on
land.
• Hydrography:
Chart
symbols
related
to
features
related
to
the
water
and
seabed.
• Aids
and
Services:
Chart
symbols
related
to
aids
to
navigation.
Sections
Q
(Buoys,
Beacons)
and
U
(Small
Craft
Facilities)
provide
information
on
the
lateral
system
of
navigation
buoys
used
worldwide
(although,
of
course,
there
are
two
systems
in
different
regions
of
the
globe,
making
this
particularly
useful
if
you
will
operate
a
vessel
outside
of
your
normal
boating
zone).
1.2.2.
U.S.
Coast
Pilot®
The
United
States
Coast
Pilot®
supplements
nautical
charts
by
providing
detailed
information
about
coastal
features
that
would
be
impossible
to
include
on
a
chart.
Published
by
the
4
http://www.nauticalcharts.noaa.gov/mcd/chartno1.htm
5
National
Ocean
Service,
U.S.
Coast
Pilot®
documents
can
be
downloaded
from
the
NOAA
Web
site.5
Figure
1.2.
U.S.
Coast
Pilot®
for
Region
6
(Great
Lakes
and
St.
Lawrence
River),
which
includes
Lake
Champlain.
The
U.S.
Coast
Pilot®
is
a
series
of
nine
documents
(Figure
1.2),
each
covering
a
different
region
of
the
United
States:
Atlantic
Coast
Regions
1. Eastport,
Maine
to
Cape
Cod,
Massachusetts
2. Cape
Cod,
Massachusetts
to
Sandy
Hook,
New
Jersey
3. Sandy
Hook,
New
Jersey
to
Cape
Henry,
Virginia
4. Cape
Henry,
Virginia
to
Key
West,
Florida
5. Gulf
of
Mexico,
Puerto
Rico,
and
U.S.
Virgin
Islands
Great
Lakes
Region
6. Great
Lakes
and
Connecting
Waterways
Pacific
Coast
Regions
7. California,
Oregon,
Washington,
Hawaii,
and
Pacific
Islands
8. Alaska
-‐
Dixon
Entrance
to
Cape
Spencer
9. Alaska
-‐
Cape
Spencer
to
Beaufort
Sea
Each
Coast
Pilot
has
the
same
general
layout.
Chapter
1
is
titled
General
Information
and
is
a
wealth
of
information
about
how
to
use
the
Coast
Pilot,
the
meaning
of
various
terms,
generic
information
about
nautical
charts,
notices
to
mariners,
aids
to
navigation,
communication
and
5
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6
assistance
procedures
when
in
distress,
radio
usage,
pollution
regulations,
and
so
much
more;6
this
chapter
alone
is
extraordinarily
valuable
even
in
the
absence
of
the
rest
of
the
document.
Chapter
2
is
titled
Navigation
Regulations
and
covers
various
rules
and
regulations
affecting
navigation
in
the
jurisdictions
covered
by
this
particular
document.
Each
subsequent
chapter
covers
a
part
of
the
region;
the
Region
6
Coast
Pilot,
for
example,
has
12
additional
chapters
covering
the
Great
Lakes,
St.
Lawrence
River,
Lake
Champlain,
and
the
connecting
waterways.
Each
chapter
identifies
the
pertinent
navigational
charts
that
cover
the
region
and
provides
detailed
descriptions
of
pertinent
landmarks,
waterways,
and
other
reference
points
useful
for
navigation.
Anchorage
areas,
special
harbor
regulations,
U.S.
Coast
Guard
facilities,
small-‐craft
facilities,
and
other
generally
useful
information
is
also
provided.
1.2.3.
USCG
Light
List
The
U.S.
Coast
Guard
Light
List
describes
lights,
buoys,
beacons,
sound
signals,
and
other
aids
to
navigation
found
in
the
United
States.
The
light
list
provides
detailed
information
about
the
aids
to
navigation
that
could
not
fit
onto
the
nautical
chart
itself.
A
chart,
for
example,
might
show
a
lighthouse
but
the
Light
List
will
contain
additional
information
such
as
the
latitude
and
longitude,
seasonal
variations,
and
other
commentary.
Published
by
the
U.S.
Government
Printing
Office,
Light
List
documents
can
be
downloaded
from
the
U.S.
Coast
Guard
Navigation
Center
Light
List
Web
site.7
Figure
1.3.
Light
List
-‐-‐
Volume
I:
Atlantic
Coast
(St.
Croix
River,
Maine
to
Shrewsbury
River,
New
Jersey).
6
There
is
also
a
section
titled
Mineclearing:
Caution.
7
http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/?pageName=lightlists
7
The
Light
Lists
are
a
series
of
seven
volumes
(Figure
1.3)
covering
the
following
geographic
regions:
I. Atlantic
Coast:
St.
Croix
River,
Maine
to
Shrewsbury
River,
New
Jersey
II. Atlantic
Coast:
Shrewsbury
River,
New
Jersey
to
Little
River,
South
Carolina
III. Atlantic
and
Gulf
Coasts:
Little
River,
South
Carolina
to
Econfina
River,
Florida
(including
Puerto
Rico
and
the
U.S.
Virgin
Islands)
IV. Gulf
of
Mexico:
Econfina
River,
Florida
to
Rio
Grande,
Texas
V. Western
Rivers:
Mississippi
River
System
VI. Pacific
Coast
and
Pacific
Islands
VII. Great
Lakes:
Great
Lakes
and
the
St.
Lawrence
River
above
the
St.
Regis
River
Each
Light
List
has
the
same
general
layout.
The
beginning
of
the
document
includes
an
excellent
overview
of
the
lateral
navigation
system
including
examples
of
the
markers
as
seen
during
the
day
and
during
the
night,
as
well
as
those
used
on
the
intracoastal
waterway
and
the
western
rivers.
This
is
followed
by
a
table
that
aids
the
mariner
in
determining
the
distance
from
which
a
light
can
be
seen
based
upon
its
stated
nominal
range
and
actual
visibility
conditions.
A
description
of
aids
to
navigation
and
a
glossary
of
terms
precede
the
list
of
lights.
Lights
are
listed
in
a
numerical
order
that
is
used
by
the
index.
Updates
to
the
light
list
are
issued
by
periodic
Notice
to
Mariners
and
documents
on
the
Light
List
Web
site.
1.2.4.
Notice
to
Mariners
Neither
the
charts,
Coast
Pilot®,
nor
Light
List
are
totally
error-‐free.
Furthermore,
many
of
the
features
and
items
on
those
documents
change
over
time;
a
storm,
for
example,
might
knock
down
a
structure
indicated
on
the
land
or
cause
an
underwater
wreck
to
shift
position,
or
an
unlighted
buoy
might
be
replaced
with
a
lighted
one.
In
any
case,
information
contained
in
any
of
these
published
references
can
change
over
time.
Two
series
of
documents
provide
updates
to
these
publications.
The
Notice
to
Mariners
(NM)
is
published
weekly
by
the
National
Geospatial-‐Intelligence
Agency
(NGA)
in
cooperation
with
the
National
Ocean
Service
and
USCG
(Figure
1.4,
left).
By
design,
the
NM
series
only
provide
chart
corrections
pertinent
to
ocean-‐going
vessels.
Notice
to
Mariners
can
be
downloaded
from
the
NGA's
Notice
to
Mariners
Web
page.8
Local
Notice
to
Mariners
(LNM)
documents
provide
weekly
updates
to
charts
and
other
publications
(Figure
1.4,
right).
Distributed
by
the
USCG
Navigation
Center
Web
site,9
LMNs
are
organized
by
USCG
district.
8
http://msi.nga.mil/NGAPortal/MSI.portal?_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=msi_portal_page_61
9
http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/?pageName=lnmMain
8
Figure
1.4.
Notice
to
Mariners
for
the
week
of
28
January
2012
(left)
and
Local
Notice
to
Mariners
for
the
fourth
week
of
2012,
covering
USCG
District
1
(right).
1.3.
Latitude
and
Longitude
In
order
to
read
a
chart
-‐-‐
and,
of
course,
in
order
to
do
any
plotting
on
a
chart
-‐-‐
one
must
be
familiar
with
latitude
and
longitude
(Figure
1.5).
Lines
of
latitude
run
east-‐west
and
are
used
to
measure
position
on
the
globe
in
the
north-‐south
direction.
Because
lines
of
latitude
drawn
on
the
globe
appears
as
concentric
circles,
a
line
of
latitude
is
also
referred
to
as
a
parallel.
Latitude
is
measured
as
a
number
between
0°
and
90°,
where
0°
is
the
Equator,
90°
north
(N)
is
the
North
Pole,
and
90°
south
(S)
is
the
South
Pole.
In
some
cases,
a
"+"
or
"-‐"
sign
precedes
the
value;
positive
latitudes
(+)
are
in
the
northern
hemisphere
and
negative
latitudes
(-‐)
refer
to
the
southern
hemisphere.
Figure
1.5.
Latitude
and
longitude.10
10
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Latitude_and_Longitude_of_the_Earth.svg
9
Lines
of
longitude
run
north-‐south
and
are
used
to
measure
position
on
the
globe
in
the
east-‐
west
direction.
Lines
of
longitude
drawn
on
the
globe
appear
like
the
sectional
lines
of
an
orange,
coming
together
at
the
north
and
south
poles.
A
line
of
longitude
is
also
referred
to
as
a
meridian
and
can
take
on
a
value
between
0°
and
180°;
0°
is
the
Prime
Meridian
and
runs
through
the
Royal
Observatory
in
Greenwich
(London)
and
180°
is
the
International
Date
Line.
In
some
cases,
a
"+"
or
"-‐"
sign
precedes
the
value
instead
of
an
east
(E)
or
west
(W)
designation;
positive
longitudes
(+)
are
in
the
eastern
hemisphere
and
negative
longitudes
(-‐)
refer
to
the
western
hemisphere.
Nautical
charts
are
oriented
so
that
geographic
(true)
north
is
towards
the
top.
The
vertical
lines
are
the
meridians
(longitude)
and
the
markings
on
the
left
and
right
border
measure
latitude.
The
horizontal
lines
are
the
parallels
(latitude)
and
the
markings
on
the
top
and
bottom
border
measure
longitude.
Note
that
the
latitude
and
longitude
scales
are
not
the
same
(except
at
the
Equator).
Latitude
and
longitude
are
measured
in
degrees
(°),
minutes
('),
and
seconds
(").
A
degree
is
composed
of
60
minutes,
which,
in
turn,
comprises
60
seconds.
Nautical
charts
generally
express
latitude
and
longitude
in
a
degree,
minute,
second
(DMS)
format,
sometimes
denoted
DD°MM'SS".
Global
Positioning
Systems
(GPS),
mobile
phones,
Google
Maps,
and
other
systems
often
use
other
formats
to
denote
latitude
and
longitude.
The
GPS
format
uses
whole
degrees,
whole
minutes,
and
seconds
expressed
as
a
fraction
of
a
minute,
sometimes
denoted
DD°MM.MM'.
Decimal
notation
uses
whole
degrees
and
expresses
minutes
and
seconds
as
a
fraction
of
a
degree,
sometimes
denoted
DD.DDD°.
As
an
example,
the
latitude
and
longitude
of
the
wreck
of
the
O.J.
Walker
in
Burlington
Harbor
(Vermont)
could
be
shown
as
44°28'43"N,
073°14'26"W
in
DMS
notation,
as
44°28.72'
N,
073°14.44'
W
in
GPS
notation,
or
as
44.479°N,
073.241°W
in
decimal
notation.
Appendix
A
describes
how
to
convert
between
these
three
notations.
1.4.
The
Anatomy
of
a
Nautical
Chart
As
stated
earlier,
nautical
charts
are
the
graphical
representation
of
waterways
and
the
nearby
coast.
Nearly
everyone
who
owns
or
operates
a
boat
has
referred
to
a
chart
at
least
once
in
order
to
obtain
a
rudimentary
understanding
of
the
overall
layout
of
the
land
and
water.
Charts
also
contain
a
wealth
of
information,
including
aids
to
navigation,
landmarks,
hazards,
attractions,
anchorage
areas,
etc.
Recreational
boaters
use
the
same
chart
as
commercial
ships
so
the
information
contained
on
the
charts
has
to
suffice
for
the
biggest
of
vessels.
Figure
1.6
shows
NOAA
Chart
14782,
which
covers
the
Cumberland
Head
to
Four
Brothers
Islands
area
of
Lake
Champlain
in
New
York
and
Vermont.
Most
nautical
charts
are
at
least
a
couple
of
feet
in
each
direction,
a
good
fit
for
a
ship's
plotting
table
but
requiring
folding
on
a
small
boat.
Even
with
the
very
small
size
shown
in
the
figure,
one
can
see
that
there
is
a
lot
of
information
written
on
the
chart
that
is
often
as
important
as
the
waterway
data
itself.
10
Figure
1.6.
Chart
14782
(Cumberland
Head
to
Four
Bothers
Islands).
1.4.1.
Chart
Reference
Data
The
single
best
identifier
for
a
chart,
of
course,
is
the
chart
number
that
is
clearly
marked
on
the
outer
boundary
in
all
four
corners.
Additional
information,
such
as
date
of
publication,
is
generally
shown
in
one
place;
the
information
in
Figure
1.7
appears
in
the
lower
left
corner
of
chart
14782.
This
chart
is
in
its
25th
edition,
published
in
January
2006;
it
has
been
corrected
based
upon
NMs
through
January
14,
2006
and
LNMs
through
January
10,
2006.
The
chart
note,
in
purple,
confirms
that
this
chart
has
been
corrected
from
NMs
and
LNMs.
Figure
1.7.
Chart
number
and
date
of
publication
(Chart
14782).
Charts
also
have
a
name
that
identifies
the
specific
geographic
area
that
they
cover,
as
well
as
the
publisher
of
the
chart.
Figure
1.8
clearly
identifies
this
chart's
geographic
coverage
as
well
as
NOAA
as
the
publisher.
All
current
nautical
charts
in
the
U.S.
come
from
NOAA
and,
in
some
cases,
additional
agencies
(particularly
true
in
waters
that
border
other
countries).
11
Figure
1.8.
Chart
title
and
other
information
(Chart
14782).
Chart
14782
has
a
scale
of
1:40,000,
putting
it
in
the
harbor
chart
class.
The
identification
section
also
indicates
that
the
chart
uses
a
polyconic
projection,
as
do
most
U.S.
charts
covering
the
Great
Lakes
and
its
connecting
waterways.
(Most
nautical
charts
on
the
open
seas
employ
a
Mercator
projection.
Appendix
B
describes
the
difference
between
the
two
projections.)
Figure
1.9
shows
a
portion
of
Chart
14782
that
shows
the
latitude
and
longitude
axes.
The
vertical
lines
are
the
meridians,
or
lines
of
longitude,
on
which
north-‐south
position
is
measured.
The
vertical
line
on
the
right
edge
of
the
chart
show
the
region
between
44°25'N
to
44°30'N
latitude.
There
are
ten
black
and
white
boxes
between
these
two
reference
points,
so
each
represents
half
a
minute,
or
30".
The
horizontal
lines
are
the
parallels,
or
lines
of
latitude,
on
which
east-‐west
position
is
measured.
The
horizontal
line
on
the
bottom
edge
of
the
chart
shows
the
region
between
073°10'W
and
073°15'W
longitude.
Again,
each
alternating
black
and
white
line
is
30".
Note
that
the
longitude
scale
(horizontal)
appears
to
be
geographically
shorter
than
the
latitude
scale
(vertical).
This
is
because
one
degree
of
latitude
represents
the
same
linear
distance
regardless
of
your
position
on
the
globe,
whereas
a
degree
of
longitude
gets
linearly
smaller
as
12
the
lines
approach
the
poles
(where
the
lines
come
together).11
Only
at
the
Equator
is
a
degree
of
latitude
and
a
degree
of
longitude
equal
to
the
same
linear
distance.
(Appendix
C
describes
this
issue
in
more
detail.)
Figure
1.9.
Latitude
and
longitude
scales
on
Chart
14782.
11
The
fact
that
one
degree
of
longitude
represents
a
different
linear
distance
depending
on
latitude
was
a
significant
problem
for
mariners
prior
to
the
development
of
accurate
clocks
in
the
1700s.
An
excellent
description
of
the
history
of
the
development
of
precise
nautical
clocks
can
be
found
in
Longitude
(Sobel,
1995).
13
One
degree
of
latitude
(and
one
degree
of
longitude
at
the
Equator)
represents
60
nautical
miles.
Therefore,
a
minute
represents
one
nautical
mile,
which
equals
1.15
statute
(land)
miles
or
6,076.12
feet
(1,852
meters).
A
second
is
approximately
101.27
feet
(30.9
meters).
Figure
1.10.
Legends
for
distance
on
Chart
14782.
Figure
1.10
shows
the
legend
on
Chart
14782
for
the
distance
scales
on
the
chart.
Note
that
one
nautical
mile
is
the
same
length
as
one
minute
on
the
(vertical)
latitude
scale
on
the
chart;
one
minute
on
the
(horizontal)
longitude
scale
is
less
than
a
nautical
mile.
A
nautical
mile
can
always
be
determined
from
the
latitude
axis
of
almost
any
nautical
chart
and
can
generally
never
be
determined
from
the
longitude
axis.
(This
will
come
up
again
in
the
plotting
exercises.)
Figure
1.11.
Sounding
information
from
Chart
14782.
Numbers
over
water
on
the
chart
represent
the
depth
of
the
water
at
various
points.
It
is
important
to
know
in
what
units
the
depths
are
measured
and
the
reference
point
for
determining
those
depths.
As
Figure
1.11
shows,
depth
soundings
on
Chart
14782
are
in
feet;
this
statement
is
actually
present
on
the
chart
in
at
least
three
places.
The
plane
of
reference
is
93.0
feet,
which
is
the
low
lake
level.
It
makes
sense
to
take
soundings
when
the
water
is
at
its
lowest
because
the
soundings
then
represent
the
most
conservative
measurements
of
depth.
The
mariner
is
still
responsible
to
know
what
the
actual
lake
level
given
local
conditions
in
order
to
ensure
that
the
soundings
still
paint
an
accurate
picture
at
any
given
day
and
time.12
Many
charts
(including
this
one)
provide
a
conversion
table
between
feet,
fathoms,
and
meters.
A
fathom
is
6
feet.
12
Tide
tables,
which
are
not
discussed
in
this
tutorial,
assist
the
mariner
in
knowing
how
the
water
depth
fluctuates
on
a
daily
basis,
which
can
aid
in
planning.
The
NOAA
Tides
&
Currents
Web
page
can
be
found
at
http://tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov/.
14
Figure
1.12.
Compass
rose.13
Details
about
the
magnetic
compass
and
variation
will
be
discussed
in
the
sections
on
plotting
and
determining
north
on
the
chart
and
compass.
Section
B
of
Chart
No.
1
describes
the
compass
rose
to
the
level
necessary
for
the
recreational
mariner.
1.4.3.
Landmarks
Charts
are
primarily
a
representation
of
features
of
waterways
but
a
description
of
major
landmarks
is
provided
to
assist
in
navigation
and
determining
one's
location.
Figure
1.13
shows
the
city
of
Burlington
from
Chart
14782.
The
detail
here
shows
a
few
of
the
major
roads
and
the
location
of
a
number
of
spires
in
downtown;
note
the
presence
of
topographic
lines
of
elevation
representing
the
hill
on
which
Burlington
is
built.
The
note
indicates
that
even
more
detail
can
be
found
using
Chart
14785.
13
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Modern_nautical_compass_rose.svg
15
Figure
1.13.
Landmarks
in
the
city
of
Burlington
(Chart
14782).
The
chart
also
shows
a
tank
and
radio
mast
to
the
east
of
downtown
(on
the
top
of
the
hill).
The
tank
has
two
vertical
occulting14
red
lights
on
it,
while
the
radio
mast
has
an
occulting
red
light
and
two
fixed
red
lights
in
a
vertical
configuration.
The
Coast
Pilot
(Volume
6)
contains
additional
information
about
Burlington
(referencing
Charts
14782
and
14785):
(48) Burlington, VT, just N of the entrance to Shelburne Bay, is the largest port on Lake Champlain. Several
companies have dock facilities for receipt of petroleum products by barge. The Radisson Hotel, with a red
lighted sign, is the most prominent object in the harbor approach.
(49) Burlington Breakwater North Light (44°28'50"N., 73°13'47"W.), 35 feet above the water, is shown from a
white square lighthouse on the N end of the N breakwater.
1.4.4.
Marginal
Notes
Additional
information
on
the
charts
appears
in
the
form
of
marginal
notes,
which
are
printed
in
purple.
The
reference
to
Chart
14785
in
Figure
1.13,
for
example,
is
such
a
note.
To
the
west
of
downtown
Burlington
is
a
special
anchorage
area
with
a
statement
to
"(see
note
A)."
Note
A
can
be
found
looking
elsewhere
on
the
chart
(Figure
1.14).
14
An
occulting
light
is
one
where
the
light
is
on
for
a
noticeably
longer
time
than
it
is
off
during
the
period
of
the
light
cycle.
16
Figure
1.14.
NOTE
A
from
Chart
14782.
1.4.5.
Aids
to
Navigation,
and
Coastal
and
Underwater
Features
The
primary
purpose
of
nautical
charts
-‐-‐
and
the
primary
reason
that
recreational
boaters
refer
to
them
-‐-‐
is
to
learn
about
the
characteristics
of
the
water
rather
than
the
land.
The
primary
characteristics
are
the
aids
to
navigation,
as
well
as
coastal
and
underwater
features.
The
examples
below
are
meant
to
introduce
some
of
the
details
and
symbols
on
a
chart
that
might
have
been
overlooked
by
a
recreational
mariner;
if
you
are
not
looking
for
a
dive
site,
as
an
example,
you
might
not
care
much
about
wrecks.
While
navigational
markers
are
shown
and
described,
this
is
not
a
tutorial
about
the
lateral
system.
Chart
No.
1
and
the
Light
Lists
cover
this
topic
quite
well.
The
first
chart
snippet
shows
the
Appletree
Bay
portion
of
Chart
14782
(Figure
1.15).
All
of
the
following
information
can
be
found
on
this
chart:
• All
of
the
numbers
that
have
no
other
contextual
meaning
are
depth
soundings.
The
legend
on
this
chart
indicates
that
soundings
are
in
feet.
Note
that
the
water
with
depths
at
6
feet
(1
fathom)
or
less
are
shaded
in
dark
blue;
depths
between
7-‐12
feet
(2
fathoms)
are
shaded
in
light
blue.
• The
upper
left
of
the
chart
area
shows
a
buoy
(the
green
diamond
at
an
angle
to
a
small
white
circle)
to
the
southwest
of
a
shoal.
The
color
and
the
letter
G
indicate
this
as
a
green
buoy.
The
letter
C
indicates
that
this
is
a
"can,"
referring
to
the
buoy's
square
shape.
The
"39"
indicates
the
number
marked
on
this
buoy.15
The
white
circle
at
the
bottom
of
the
diamond
represents
the
(intended)
actual
position
of
the
buoy
and
that
this
buoy
is
not
lighted.
• Just
to
the
east
of
Appletree
Point
-‐-‐
and
just
south
of
another
shoal
-‐-‐
is
another
unlighted
green
can
buoy,
this
one
marked
with
a
"1".
• There
is
a
third
buoy
just
south
of
Appletree
Shoal.
The
red
colored
circle
indicates
that
it
is
a
lighted
buoy
(but
does
not
indicate
the
color
of
the
light).
The
"green
over
red"
15
In
the
lateral
navigation
system,
green
buoys
are
generally
can-‐shaped
and
have
an
odd
number,
red
buoys
are
nun-‐shaped
and
have
an
even
number,
and
preferred
channel
markers
may
have
letters
but
will
never
have
a
number.
For
a
reference
to
the
navigation
buoys,
see
U.S.
Coast
Guard
(2011b).
17
color
of
the
buoy
indicates
two
things;
first,
this
is
a
preferred
channel
marker
(with
the
top
half
being
green
and
the
bottom
half
being
red)
and
second,
the
light
is
green.
The
letters
GR
are
additional
indicators
that
this
a
green-‐over-‐red
colored
buoy,
marked
with
the
letters
"AS".
The
light
is
a
green
light
that
flashes
twice,
rests,
then
flashes
once,
and
rests,
all
in
a
six-‐second
cycle;
this
is
indicated
on
the
chart
by
the
letters
Fl
(2+1)
G
6s.
Figure
1.15.
Appletree
Bay,
from
Chart
14782.
• Two
potable
water
intakes
(PWI)
can
be
found
south
of
Lone
Rock
Point.
Both
terminate
in
cribs
that
are
in
about
43
feet
of
water
(per
the
wording
on
the
chart).
A
pipeline
(possibly
disused)
leads
to
each
of
the
cribs.
• A
wreck
can
be
found
to
the
east
of
the
two
cribs
and
between
the
two
pipes.
Because
the
position
of
the
wreck
is
not
known
exactly,
it
is
marked
PA
(position
approximate).16
• The
red
dashed
line
represents
the
route
of
a
ferry.17
16
The
wreck
indicated
is
called
the
Horse
Ferry,
the
only
known
wreck
of
a
horse-‐powered
vessel
in
North
America.
17
This
ferry
runs
between
Burlington
and
Port
Kent,
New
York.
18
All
of
the
information
found
here
can
be
interpreted
using
the
information
in
Chart
No.
1.
For
this
chart
fragment,
the
following
sections
of
Chart
No.
1
are
particularly
helpful:
• Section
B:
Positions,
Distances,
Directions,
Compass
• Section
K:
Rocks,
Wrecks,
Obstructions
• Section
L:
Offshore
Installations
• Section
Q:
Buoys,
Beacons
Additional
information
about
markers
in
Appletree
Bay
can
also
be
found
in
the
Light
List
for
the
region.18
The
entries
for
buoys
"1"
and
"AS"
are
shown
below,
and
include
the
latitude
and
longitude.19
In
addition,
the
entry
for
the
"AS"
buoy
notes
that
it
can
be
seen
up
to
a
nominal
distance
of
3
nautical
miles
and
that
it
is
a
seasonal
marker,
replaced
by
a
can
from
November
1
to
May
1.
Figure
1.16.
Colchester
Reef
and
Colchester
Shoal,
from
Chart
14782.
Figure
1.16
shows
another
example
from
Chart
14782
in
order
to
demonstrate
a
few
more
chart
symbols.
The
information
that
is
recorded
here
includes:
18
Lake
Champlain
information
is
in
Volume
I:
Atlantic
Coast
(St.
Croix
River,
Maine
to
Shrewsbury
River,
New
Jersey).
19
Note
that
latitude
and
longitude
are
expressed
to
the
thousandth
of
a
second,
which
is
roughly
1.2
inches
(3
cm).
19
• There
is
a
white
light
at
the
north
end
of
Colchester
Reef
(the
absence
of
any
other
color
code
indicates
that
the
light
is
white).
The
light
flashes
once
ever
4
seconds,
stands
51
feet
high,
and
has
a
nominal
visibility
of
7
statute
miles
(Fl
4s
51
ft
7
St
M).
• The
seabed
around
Colchester
Reef
and
Colchester
Shoal
is
rocky
("rky").
• Just
south
of
the
reef
(position
approximate)
is
a
wreck,
marked
by
a
yellow
buoy,
denoted
"E."20
This
buoy
is
privately
maintained.
• There
is
a
green
buoy
at
the
north
end
of
Colchester
Shoal,
with
the
number
"35".
This
is
a
lighted
buoy,
with
a
green
light
that
flashes
every
2.5
seconds
(Fl
G
2.5s).
• There
is
a
green
can
buoy
marked
with
the
number
"37"
at
the
south
end
of
the
shoal.
The
Light
List
provides
information
about
these
four
markers,
as
shown
below.
As
before,
the
entries
show
the
latitude
and
longitude;
since
the
wreck
is
denoted
with
a
PA
and
the
two
buoys
are
not
fixed,
the
most
reliable
position
of
the
four
is
the
light
on
the
reef.
The
Colchester
Reef
Light
entry
states
explicitly
that
it
is
a
white
light
and
stands
51
feet
high;
the
nominal
visibility
in
the
light
list
is
given
in
nautical
miles
rather
than
statute
miles,
which
is
why
that
entry
shows
a
6
whereas
the
chart
shows
a
7.
The
entries
for
the
buoys
on
Colchester
Shoal
indicate
that
they
are
only
seasonally
maintained.
Finally,
the
Light
List
shows
that
the
yellow
buoy
"E"
is
a
yellow
spherical
marker
maintained
by
the
Lake
Champlain
Underwater
Preserve.
:
:
:
Figure
1.17
shows
a
portion
of
Chart
14785
(Burlington
Harbor).
The
information
shown
here
includes:
• The
light
just
to
the
north
of
the
breakwater
-‐-‐
naturally
called
North
Breakwater
Light
-‐-‐
flashes
red
every
2.5
seconds;
standing
at
35
feet,
the
nominal
visibility
of
the
light
is
14
statute
miles
(Fl
R
2.5s
35
ft
14
St
M).
• Just
south
of
the
light,
at
the
opening
in
the
breakwater,
is
a
white
daybeacon
(W
Bn).
• A
pipe
(black
dashed
line)
extends
past
the
north
end
of
the
breakwater,
running
roughly
east-‐west.
There
is
also
a
submarine
cable
(red
squiggly
line)
in
that
area,
leading
to
the
light.
• The
route
of
the
ferry
(red
dashed
line)
is
just
to
the
north
of
the
light.
20
This
wreck
is
called
the
Phoenix.
20
Figure
1.17.
Burlington
harbor
breakwater,
from
Chart
14785
(Burlington
Harbor).
Figure
1.18.
Deer
Island
and
President
Roads
section
of
Chart
13267
(Massachusetts
Bay).
A
final
example
shows
the
Deer
Island
and
President
Roads
portion
of
Massachusetts
Bay
(Figure
1.18).
The
first
item
of
particular
interest
is
the
light
to
the
south
of
Deer
Island.
The
codes
under
the
"DEER
ISLAND"
label
on
the
chart
mean:
• This
is
an
alternating
white/red
light
with
a
10s
rotation
period.
The
light
stands
53
feet
high
and
can
be
seen
from
a
nominal
distance
of
11
(nautical)
miles.
• The
light
has
a
horn.
21
• There
is
a
fixed
red
light
at
a
height
of
15
feet
that
can
be
seen
from
a
distance
of
6
(nautical)
miles.
The
label
"LT
OBSC"
can
be
seen
north
of
the
light
(in
fact,
north
of
the
tank).
This
refers
to
a
region
where
the
view
of
the
light
is
obstructed.
In
addition,
the
label
"RED
SEC"
appears
roughly
northeast
of
the
light,
referring
to
the
sector
where
a
vessel
can
see
the
red
light
at
sea.
The
chart
provides
a
lot
of
information
but
this
is
an
example
where
the
Light
List
provides
so
much
more.
The
Volume
I
Light
List
has
this
entry
for
Deer
Island:
The
Light
List
provides
the
exact
location
of
both
the
primary
light
and
the
red
danger
light,
and
indicates
that
the
horn
sounds
a
one-‐second
blast
every
10
seconds.
The
entry
also
indicates
that
the
light
is
obscured
in
the
range
of
112°
to
186°;
these
bearings
are
true
compass
headings
from
the
perspective
of
the
vessel.
In
addition,
the
red
danger
light
can
be
seen
from
a
vessel
at
sea
from
the
true
headings
between
198°
to
222°.
The
other
features
of
interest
on
the
chart
are
the
shipping
channels
to
the
east
of
President
Roads.
Remember
that
in
the
lateral
navigation
system
used
in
the
U.S.,
red
buoys
are
kept
to
the
port
side
(left)
of
the
vessel
when
going
out
to
sea
and
the
green
buoys
kept
to
the
starboard
(right)
side.
The
channel
starts
between
the
Deer
Island
light
and
the
green
buoy
("15")
to
the
southeast
of
the
Deer
Island
light.
This
buoy
has
a
bell
and
has
a
quickly
flashing
green
light
(Q
G).
Continuing
northeast
towards
the
channel
is
a
lighted
green-‐over-‐red
buoy
("PR"),
which
is
a
preferred
channel
marker.
Since
the
top
band
is
green,
this
buoy
indicates
that
vessels
should
generally
proceed
toward
the
Boston
North
Channel
(i.e.,
keeping
this
buoy
to
the
vessel's
starboard
side).
This
buoy
flashes
a
green
light
twice,
and
then
flashes
once,
in
a
six-‐second
cycle
(Fl
(2+1)
G
6s).
The
north
(left,
as
you
go
out
to
sea)
side
of
the
Boston
North
Channel
is
marked
by
five
red
buoys
with
the
following
characteristics:
• "10"
-‐-‐
A
lighted
buoy
with
a
bell
and
a
quick
flashing
red
light.
• "8"
-‐-‐
A
lighted
buoy
with
a
red
light
that
flashes
every
six
seconds.
• "6"
-‐-‐
A
lighted
buoy
with
a
bell
and
with
a
red
light
that
flashes
every
four
seconds.
• "4"
-‐-‐
A
lighted
buoy
with
a
red
light
that
flashes
every
2.5
seconds.
• "2"
-‐-‐
A
lighted
buoy
with
a
bell
and
a
quick
flashing
red
light.
22
The
south
("right")
side
of
the
Boston
North
Channel
is
marked
by
four
green
buoys
with
the
following
characteristics:
• "9"
-‐-‐
A
lighted
buoy
with
a
green
light
that
flashes
every
six
seconds.
• "7"
-‐-‐
A
lighted
buoy
with
a
green
light
that
flashes
every
four
seconds.
• "5"
-‐-‐
A
lighted
buoy
with
a
green
light
that
flashes
every
2.5
seconds.
• "3"
-‐-‐
A
lighted
buoy
with
a
quick
flashing
green
light.
A
vessel
might
choose
to
take
the
south
channel.
The
north
("left")
side
of
the
south
channel
is
marked
with
two
red
buoys:
• "10"
-‐-‐
A
lighted
buoy
with
a
quick
flashing
red
light.
• "6"
-‐-‐
A
lighted
buoy
with
a
red
light
that
flashes
every
four
seconds.
The
south
("right")
side
of
the
south
channel
is
marked
with
six
green
buoys:
• "13"
-‐-‐
A
can
buoy.
• "11"
-‐-‐
A
can
buoy.
• "9"
-‐-‐
A
lighted
buoy
with
a
quick
flashing
green
light.
• "7"
-‐-‐
A
can
buoy.
• "5"
-‐-‐
A
lighted
buoy
with
a
green
light
that
flashes
every
four
seconds.
• "3"
-‐-‐
A
can
buoy.
1.5.
Summary
There
are
many
reasons
that
the
recreational
mariner
should
have
a
thorough
understanding
of
nautical
charts.
The
primary
reason,
obviously,
is
safety.
The
chart
provides
necessary
information
that
can
help
you
avoid
hazards,
particularly
when
going
into
unfamiliar
waters.
But
knowledge
of
charts
can
also
add
an
element
of
enjoyment
by
having
a
greater
understanding
of
familiar
and
even
unfamiliar
waters.
This
section
provides
a
very
a
very
basic,
rudimentary
overview
of
issues
related
to
obtaining
and
reading
charts,
and
accessing
supplementary
resources
with
which
to
better
understand
them.
The
focus
here
has
been
on
paper
charts.
Indeed,
an
increasing
number
of
recreational
boaters
employ
marine
GPS
units.
There
are
many
issues
related
to
keeping
the
GPS
unit
up-‐to-‐date,
and
managing
the
differences
between
the
electronic
and
paper
charts.
Readers
are
urged
to
continue
reading
other
resources,
such
as
How
to
Read
a
Nautical
Chart
(Calder,
2012),
to
obtain
more
detailed
information.
23
Part
2:
Plotting
This
section
presents
basic
information
about
the
tools
used
for
charting
and
some
of
the
basic
arithmetic
needed
in
order
to
solve
simple
navigation
problem.
The
section
will
also
review
the
relationship
between
geographic
north,
magnetic
north,
and
the
compass
on
your
vessel.
Several
simple
navigation
and
charting
problems
will
also
be
introduced
with
methods
in
which
to
solve
them.
2.1.
Which
Way
is
North?
Nautical
charts
are
always
oriented
so
that
true
(geographic)
north
is
towards
the
top
of
the
chart
and
vertical
lines
run
true
north-‐south.
Compasses,
however,
point
towards
magnetic
north
-‐-‐
and
the
difference
between
true
and
magnetic
north
is
different
at
different
parts
of
the
globe.
Issues
with
the
compass
are
exacerbated
by
the
affect
of
nearby
metal
on
the
compass.
This
section
will
describe
the
relationship
between
the
different
perspectives
of
north
and
how
they
relate
to
each
other.
Understanding
these
relationships
is
essential
to
being
able
to
solve
navigational
problems
and
then
actually
turning
the
solutions
into
actionable
plans
for
your
vessel.
2.1.1.
The
Compass
Rose,
Revisited
Figure
2.1
shows
the
compass
rose,
a
common
presence
on
every
nautical
chart.
As
described
in
Part
1
of
this
manual,
the
compass
rose
has
two
concentric
rings,
where
the
outer
ring
represents
headings
relative
to
true
north
and
the
inner
ring
represents
headings
relative
to
magnetic
north.
On
the
outer
ring,
000°
points
to
true,
or
geographic,
north
and
always
points
towards
the
top
of
the
chart.
On
this
ring,
090°
is
true
east,
180°
is
true
south,
and
270°
is
true
west.
It
has
long
been
known
to
geologists
and
geographers
that
the
magnetic
north
pole
is
not
in
the
same
place
as
the
geographic
north
pole.
The
difference
between
true
and
magnetic
north
-‐-‐
called
the
variation
-‐-‐
will
depend
upon
where
you
are
located
on
the
globe.
The
problem
is
exacerbated
by
the
fact
that
the
magnetic
north
pole
is
actually
constantly
moving,
a
phenomenon
is
known
as
the
wandering
magnetic
pole.21
Thus,
the
variation
between
magnetic
and
true
north
at
any
given
spot
is
changing
every
year.
The
center
of
the
compass
rose
in
the
figure
indicates
that
when
this
rose
was
drawn
(1985),
the
variation
between
true
and
magnetic
north
was
4°15'W.
Look
closely
to
see
that,
indeed,
magnetic
north
(i.e.,
0°
on
the
inner
ring)
corresponds
to
approximately
356°
on
the
outer
ring.
21
See
NOAA
(2011)
for
an
excellent
explanation
and
maps
of
the
wandering
magnetic
north
pole.
24
The
label
in
the
center
of
the
compass
rose
says
that
the
variation
deceases
annually
by
8'
(i.e.,
8'E).
This
is
important
information
because
the
compass
rose
on
most
charts
that
recreational
boaters
use
might
be
five,
ten,
or
more
years
in
age.
Twenty-‐seven
years
elapsed
between
when
this
particular
compass
rose
was
drawn
and
when
this
manual
was
written.
The
variation,
therefore,
has
decreased
by
3°36',
meaning
that
the
variation
in
2012
is
only
39'W,
well
less
than
a
degree.
Figure
2.1.
Compass
rose.22
2.1.2.
Deviation
The
compass
rose
indicates
how
the
compass
pointing
to
magnetic
north
relates
to
true,
geographic
north.
Metal
near
a
compass,
however,
affects
the
compass
reading.
Most
recreational
boaters
have
vessels
that
are
made
of
wood,
fiberglass,
and/or
other
non-‐
magnetic
materials,
thus
the
construction
of
the
vessel
has
minimal
affect
on
the
compass.
Ships
that
are
made
of
metal,
however,
may
have
a
significant
additional
impact
on
the
compass
reading.
This
additional
affect
is
called
the
deviation.
22
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Modern_nautical_compass_rose.svg
25
The
deviation
has
a
constant
affect
on
the
ship's
compass
(i.e.,
it
doesn't
change
based
upon
location
on
the
globe)
and
can
be
measured.
The
deviation
will
generally
be
of
a
different
magnitude
in
different
headings,
so
the
measurements
will
be
stated
on
a
deviation
table
that
is
near
the
ship's
compass.
An
example
deviation
table
is
shown
below:
Heading
Deviation
Heading
Deviation
Heading
Deviation
0°
1°E 120° 1°E 240° 2.5°W
30° 1.5°E 150° 0° 270° 2°W
60° 2°E 180° 1°W 300° 0°
90° 3°E 210° 2°W 330° 0.5°E
In
practice,
deviation
applies
only
to
a
ship's
compass.
No
additional
correction
is
applied
to
a
handheld
compass
because
it
is
impractical,
if
not
impossible,
to
measure
its
deviation.
For
a
handheld
compass,
a
deviation
of
0°
is
used.
2.1.3.
Putting
it
all
Together
When
a
course
is
laid
out,
the
heading
is
determined
from
the
chart
relative
to
true
north.
Accounting
for
variation
and
deviation
is
necessary
to
determine
the
proper
heading
on
the
ship's
compass,
which
is
referred
to
as
the
course
per
steering
compass
or
course
made
good.
Simply
stated,
the
course
made
good
is
the
sum
of
the
true
heading,
variation,
and
deviation.
Variation
or
deviation
values
that
are
to
the
west
are
added,
while
values
to
the
east
are
subtracted.
So,
for
example,
if
the
true
heading
is
032°,
the
variation
3.5°W,
and
the
deviation
1.5°E,
then:
Course
Made
Good
=
32
+
3.5
-‐
1.5
=
34°
There
are
a
number
of
common
acronyms
that
are
used
to
teach
this
relationship.
The
most
polite
acronym
appears
to
be:
Tele
TRUE
Vision
Variation
Makes
MAGNETIC
Dull
Deviation
Children
COURSE
add
Wonder
add
West
(subtract
east)
Applying
the
example
from
above,
then,
yields:
26
Figure
2.2.
Parallel
ruler.
23
One
such
site
is
http://captnmike.com/2011/11/13/tvmdc-‐%E2%80%93-‐practice-‐%E2%80%93-‐correcting-‐and-‐
un-‐correcting-‐the-‐compass/.
24
Instruments
shown
here
are
from
Weems
&
Plath.
Pictures
are
for
example
purposes
only
and
should
not
be
interpreted
as
a
product
endorsement.
27
Use
of
a
parallel
ruler
can
be
mastered
with
a
little
bit
of
practice.
There
are
a
number
of
tutorials
on
the
Internet
that
might
interest
the
reader
including
"How
to
Use
Parallel
Rulers"
(http://www.boatsafe.com/navigation/rules1.htm)
and
"How
to
Use
a
Parallel
Ruler
and
Compass
Rose
to
Determine
Direction"
(http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xKSBYfscA80).
The
parallel
ruler
can
also
be
used
as
a
straight
edge
when
connecting
two
points
on
a
chart.
Some
parallel
rulers
(such
as
the
one
in
the
figure)
have
additional
protractor
markings
around
the
edges
allowing
the
course
heading
to
be
determined
by
moving
the
rule
to
any
line
of
median
(longitude)
on
the
chart
rather
than
only
the
compass
rose.
Figure
2.3.
Parallel,
or
roll,
plotter.
A
parallel,
or
roll,
plotter
(Figure
2.3)
is
an
alternative
to
a
parallel
ruler.
A
parallel
plotter
has
a
roller
that
allows
the
device
to
be
moved
across
a
chart
without
changing
its
orientation.
Most
roll
plotters
have
protractor
markings,
allowing
the
heading
to
be
determined
without
having
to
move
to
a
compass
rose.
The
plotter
can
also
be
used
as
a
regular
straight
edge.
Figure
2.4.
Protractor
triangle.
Another
common
tool
is
the
protractor
triangle
(Figure
2.4).
In
addition
to
being
a
straight
edge,
it
can
also
help
find
the
heading
when
used
in
conjunction
with
a
parallel
ruler
or
roll
plotter.
28
Figure
2.5.
Dividers.
Note
that
the
dividers
have
two
points
at
the
end.
Replacing
one
point
with
a
pencil
or
lead
marker
turns
this
into
a
compass.
Although
not
discussed
further
here,
a
compass
can
be
used
in
charting
to
mark
a
circle
(e.g.,
a
swing
circle
when
determining
the
area
for
an
anchorage)
or
an
arc
(e.g.,
when
estimating
possible
positions).
2.3.
Arithmetic
for
Plotting
There
are
a
number
of
basic
arithmetic
skills
that
are
essential
to
being
able
to
solve
simple
charting
problems.
This
section
will
briefly
review
how
to
measure
distance
with
dividers,
how
to
make
time
calculations,
and
the
relationship
between
time,
distance,
and
speed.
2.3.1.
Measuring
Distance
Distances
can
be
determined
using
dividers
or
a
ruler,
although
the
former
is
more
commonly
employed
because
it
can
be
used
with
more
precision.
The
most
common
way
to
determine
a
distance
is
to
set
the
dividers
to
the
length
of
the
line
connecting
two
points.
The
dividers
are
then
placed
against
a
scale
on
the
chart
to
find
the
actual
geographic
distance.
In
most
cases,
plotting
problems
require
determining
distances
in
nautical
miles.
Remember
that
a
minute
of
latitude
is
equal
to
one
nautical
mile.
Thus,
the
distance
of
a
line
on
a
chart
can
be
determined
by
holding
the
dividers
up
to
the
latitude
(vertical)
scale
on
the
side
of
a
chart.
Never
use
the
longitude
(horizontal)
scale
to
determine
the
distance
between
two
points.
As
an
example,
suppose
we
want
to
measure
the
distance
between
two
points
on
a
chart
(in
this
example,
between
two
buoys).
First,
set
the
dividers
to
the
two
points
over
which
to
measure
the
distance
(Figure
2.6).
Next,
place
the
dividers
against
the
latitude
scale
on
the
chart
to
find
the
distance,
which
is
approximately
3.8
nautical
miles
(Figure
2.7).
29
Figure
2.6.
Placing
the
dividers
on
two
points.
Figure
2.7.
Placing
the
dividers
on
the
latitude
scale.
If
the
line
connecting
the
two
points
is
larger
than
the
span
of
the
dividers,
set
the
dividers
to
a
span
representing
a
known
distance,
and
then
count
the
number
of
increments
of
your
compass
span
in
order
to
cover
the
length
of
the
line.
A
tutorial
called
"How
to
use
dividers"
(http://www.boatsafe.com/navigation/divide1.htm)
also
shows
this
procedure.
2.3.2.
Manipulating
Time
Values
For
purposes
of
plotting
and
navigation,
times
should
be
expressed
using
a
24-‐hour
format,
where:
30
To
convert
minutes
back
to
hours
and
minutes,
merely
divide
the
minutes
by
60;
the
whole
part
of
the
answer
is
the
number
of
hours
and
the
remainder
is
the
number
of
minutes.
Thus,
• 108
minutes
=
108
min
÷
60
min/hr
=
1
hr,
48
min
• 152
minutes
=
152
min
÷
60
min/hr
=
2
hr,
32
min
• 202
minutes
=
202
min
÷
60
min/hr
=
3
hr,
22
min
2.3.3.
Distance,
Speed,
and
Time
Many
charting
problems
involve
distance
traveled,
speed
made
good
(i.e.,
actual
speed
of
the
vessel),
and
the
elapsed
time
to
get
from
one
place
to
another.
These
problems
are
generally
set
up
that
you
know
two
of
these
variables
and
need
to
find
the
third.
For
purposes
of
these
exercises,
the
following
assumptions
and
symbols
will
be
used:
• Distance
(D)
is
given
in
nautical
miles
(nm)
• Speed
(S)
is
given
in
nautical
miles
per
hour,
or
knots25
(kn26)
• Time
(T)
is
given
in
minutes
These
three
variables
are
related
by
a
formula
that
can
be
manipulated
depending
upon
which
two
factors
are
known
and
which
one
is
unknown.
A
commonly
used
mnemonic
for
this
formula
is
"60
D
Street,"
abbreviated
60
D
ST
(Figure
2.8).
In
the
figure,
find
the
unknown
factor,
replace
the
nearest
division
operator
(÷)
with
an
equal
sign
(=),
and
then
continue
moving
in
that
same
direction
around
the
circle
to
apply
the
remaining
factors
and
arithmetic
operators.
Figure
2.8.
60
D
ST
mnemonic.
Example
1:
You
have
traveled
18
nm
(D)
in
72
minutes
(T).
What
was
the
speed
made
good?
S
=
60
×
D
÷
T
=
60
min/hr
×
18
nm
÷
72
min
=
15
kn
25
Note
that
the
speedometer
on
many
small
recreational
boats
uses
miles
per
hour
(MPH)
as
the
unit
of
measurement
rather
than
knots.
If
you
perform
these
calculations
using
MPH,
distances
will
be
in
statute
miles
rather
than
nautical
miles.
26
The
abbreviation
kt
is
also
commonly
used
for
knots
although
kn
is
the
international
standard.
32
Example
2:
You
have
been
underway
for
75
minutes
(T)
at
a
speed
of
14
knots
(S).
How
far
have
you
traveled?
D
=
T
×
S
÷
60
=
75
min
×
14
kn
÷
60
min/hr
=
17.5
nm
Example
3:
You
need
to
travel
16
nm
(D)
and
can
make
a
speed
of
12
knots
(S).
How
long
should
your
trip
take?
T
=
60
×
D
÷
S
=
60
min/hr
×
16
nm
÷
12
kn
=
80
min
=
1
hr
20
min
A
nautical
slide
rule
(Figure
2.9)
can
aid
the
mariner
to
quickly
perform
these
calculations.
Figure
2.9.
Nautical
slide
rule.
2.4.
Plotting
Problems
The
paragraphs
below
will
introduce
a
number
of
routine
plotting
problems
and
the
methods
by
which
they
can
be
solved.
Keep
in
mind
that
when
trying
to
solve
a
navigational
problem,
you
need
to
first
determine
what
it
is
you
are
trying
to
find
out
and
what
pertinent
information
you
already
know
or
need
in
order
to
solve
the
problem.
You
can
ignore
irrelevant
facts.27
Charting
tasks
covered
in
this
section
include:
1. Finding
latitude
and
longitude
2. Plotting
a
position
3. Finding
a
true
bearing
and
compass
course
27
E.g.,
suppose
you
know
the
distance
to
your
destination,
course
heading,
and
speed,
and
are
asked
to
determine
how
long
the
trip
will
take.
To
solve
for
time,
you
need
only
know
distance
and
speed;
heading
is
irrelevant.
33
28
From
http://captnmike.com/2009/10/01/piloting-‐and-‐navigators-‐quick-‐reference/
34
Figure
2.10.
Finding
latitude
and
longitude.
Figure
2.10
shows
an
example
of
this
process.
In
order
to
find
the
position
of
green
buoy
#3
on
the
chart,
start
by
positioning
the
parallel
ruler
through
the
vertical
line
at
83°15'
and
then
walk
the
ruler
to
run
through
the
buoy's
position
and
the
vertical
scale.
Next,
position
the
parallel
ruler
through
the
horizontal
line
at
54°35'N
and
walk
the
ruler
to
run
through
the
buoy
and
the
horizontal
scale.
The
lines
show
the
position
of
the
buoy
to
be
54°35.5'N,
083°12.8'W.
If
the
position
of
interest
is
further
from
the
edge
of
the
chart
than
the
length
of
the
parallel
ruler,
you
can
find
the
latitude
and
longitude
by
employing
dividers.
Line
up
the
ruler
with
any
vertical
or
horizontal
line
on
the
chart,
move
to
the
position
to
measure,
and
use
the
dividers
to
see
how
far
you
are
from
the
line.
Then,
use
the
dividers
on
the
vertical
or
horizontal
scale
to
find
the
latitude
or
longtitude,
respectively.
The
video
titled
"Measuring
Lat
and
Long
w/
Dividers"
(http://www.youtube.com/watch
?v=K02gFTAz5Mo)
also
shows
a
nice
demonstration
of
this
technique.
As
an
aside,
note
that
this
chart
does
not
specifically
indicate
whether
the
location
is
north
or
south
of
the
Equator,
or
east
or
west
of
the
Prime
Meridian.
You
can
determine
this
information,
however,
from
the
context
of
the
latitude
and
longitude
markings
on
the
chart.
Remember
that
charts
are
always
oriented
with
true
north
towards
the
top.
When
looking
at
this
chart,
notice
that
the
minutes
on
the
vertical
scale
increase
going
from
bottom
to
top;
this
means
that
this
chart
is
in
the
north
latitudes.
Similarly,
the
minutes
along
the
horizontal
scale
are
increasing
from
right
to
left,
meaning
that
the
chart
is
in
the
western
longitudes.
2.4.2.
Plotting
a
Position
Plotting
a
position
from
latitude
and
longitude
is
the
opposite
of
determining
those
coordinates.
In
this
case,
you
are
given
the
latitude
and
longitude,
and
need
to
find
out
where
you
are
on
the
chart.
This
is
accomplished
much
like
the
steps
above.
35
Figure
2.11.
Plotting
position.
Suppose
you
need
to
find
LAT
54°34.5'N
LONG
083°21.7'W
on
the
chart.
Use
your
parallel
ruler
to
mark
a
line
at
the
proper
line
of
latitude
and
another
at
the
proper
line
of
longitude;
the
intersection
of
the
two
lines
is
your
position
(Figure
2.11).
2.4.3.
Finding
a
True
Bearing
and
Compass
Course
When
laying
out
a
course
on
a
chart,
it
is
important
to
remember
that
all
headings
are
relative
to
true
north.
There
are
times
when
you
need
to
account
for
variation
and
deviation
-‐-‐
such
as
when
you
obtain
a
magnetic
heading
from
a
compass
or
need
to
determine
what
compass
heading
to
steer
on
your
vessel
-‐-‐
but
plotting
routes
on
a
chart
are
always
true.
Finding
the
true
heading
requires
two
points,
a
parallel
ruler
(or
roll
plotter),
and
the
compass
rose.
The
procedure
is
as
follows:
Find
the
two
points
on
the
chart,
draw
a
line
between
the
points,
align
the
parallel
ruler
to
the
line,
and
walk
the
parallel
ruler
to
the
compass
rose.
As
an
example,
suppose
you
need
to
plot
your
course
from
LAT
54°35.5'N
LONG
083°20.5'
to
red
buoy
#4
(Figure
2.12):
1. Find
the
two
points
and
draw
a
line
between
them;
this
is
called
the
trackline.
2. Line
up
your
parallel
ruler
and
"walk"
it
to
the
compass
rose.
3. Note
that
your
line
will
intersect
the
compass
rose
in
two
places.
To
select
the
proper
heading,
you
need
to
recall
that
since
you
started
a
couple
of
miles
east
of
The
Face
and
headed
towards
the
buoy;
therefore,
you
know
that
you
will
be
going
roughly
36
southwest,
which
means
that
you
want
to
be
in
the
southwest
quadrant
of
the
compass
rose.
Alternatively,
if
you
were
at
the
center
of
the
compass
rose,
you
would
be
moving
down
and
to
the
left.
In
either
case,
you
should
see
that
the
line
intersects
the
outer
compass
ring
at
211°
true.
This
is
referred
to
as
the
course
made
good.
Figure
2.12.
Finding
a
true
bearing
and
compass
course.
To
actually
steer
this
course,
you
need
to
convert
course
made
good
to
a
compass
course.
To
do
this,
use
the
TVMDC
+W
calculation.
Remember,
for
this
manual
the
variation
is
2°W
and
the
deviation
comes
from
the
table
in
Section
2.4:
T
TRUE
211°
V
Variation
+2°W
M
MAGNETIC
213°
D
Deviation
+2°W
(Deviation
is
2°W
for
210°
magnetic)
C
COMPASS
215°
2.4.4.
Finding
Distance
and
Speed
Made
Good
As
described
in
Section
2.3.1,
measuring
distance
is
a
job
for
the
dividers.
To
measure
the
distance
between
the
two
points
above,
merely
place
the
two
ends
of
the
dividers
on
the
two
points.
Then,
find
a
convenient
location
on
the
vertical
(latitude)
scale
and
measure
the
distance.
In
this
case,
the
two
points
are
approximately
3.3
nautical
miles
apart
(Figure
2.13).
37
Figure
2.13.
Finding
distance
and
speed
made
good.
Determining
the
speed
made
good
means
to
calculate
your
speed
over
some
distance.
As
shown
in
Section
2.3.3,
use
the
60
D
ST
formula
to
calculate
speed
if
distance
and
elapsed
time
are
known.
In
this
example,
the
trip
started
at
1017
and
the
red
buoy
was
reached
at
1031;
thus,
the
elapsed
time
is
14
minutes.
Applying
the
formula
to
find
speed,
we
get:
S
=
60
×
D
÷
T
=
60
min/hr
×
3.1
nm
÷
14
min
=
13.3
kn
2.4.5.
Estimating
Time
of
Arrival
Estimating
the
time
of
arrival
at
a
destination
is
another
time-‐speed-‐distance
problem.
In
Figure
2.14,
we
leave
the
mouth
of
the
inlet
south
of
Jigsaw
Point
and
would
like
an
estimated
time
of
arrival
(ETA)
at
the
small
bay
to
the
west
of
Bulge
Island.
1. The
start
time
is
1452.
2. The
trackline
on
the
chart
shows
that
the
distance
is
5.4
nm
and
we
are
planning
of
making
a
speed
of
10
kn.
Knowing
distance
and
speed,
we
can
solve
for
time:
T
=
60
×
D
÷
S
=
60
min/hr
×
5.4
nm
÷
10
kn
=
32
min
3. The
ETA
is
32
minutes
after
we
started,
or
1524.
38
Figure
2.14.
Estimating
time
of
arrival.
2.4.6.
Dead
Reckoning
Dead
reckoning
is
a
method
by
which
a
vessel's
position
can
be
estimated
when
the
starting
position,
speed,
course,
and
elapsed
time
are
known.
In
this
example
(Figure
2.15),
the
starting
position
is
just
off
the
most
westerly
point
of
Altamont
Island
at
1554.
The
vessel
is
heading
on
a
course
of
330°
T
at
a
speed
of
15
kn.
What
is
the
vessel's
position
at
1615?
1. Create
a
trackline
using
the
initial
point
and
course.
(The
triangle
around
the
starting
point
indicates
that
this
is
a
known
position.)
2. The
second
point
on
the
trackline
can
be
estimated
given
the
starting
point,
course,
and
distance.
The
distance
can
be
calculated
using
the
60
D
ST
formula
because
the
speed
and
elapsed
time
(21
minutes)
are
known:
D
=
T
×
S
÷
60
=
21
min
×
15
kn
÷
60
min/hr
=
5.3
nm
3.
Plot
the
latitude
(54°28.6'N)
and
longitude
(083°23.9'W)
of
the
estimated
position.
(The
arc
around
the
point
indicates
that
this
is
a
dead
reckoning
estimate.)
Dead
reckoning
is
a
crude,
but
effective,
estimation
technique.
It
does
not
account
for
-‐-‐
but
helps
us
measure
-‐-‐
the
effects
of
winds,
tides,
and
currents,
a
subject
that
will
be
discussed
in
the
next
two
sections.
39
Figure
2.15.
Dead
reckoning.
2.4.7.
Finding
Set
and
Drift
Dead
reckoning
provides
an
estimated
position
based
upon
speed
and
heading,
assuming
seas
that
have
neither
wind,
tide,
nor
current.
Much
more
precise
measures
are
available
for
determining
the
actual
position,
such
as
using
a
GPS
or
taking
fixes
from
known
points
on
land.
Combining
dead
reckoning
estimates
and
precise
measures,
however,
allows
for
the
calculation
of
the
effect
of
wind,
tides,
and
current
and,
armed
with
that
information,
for
determining
a
more
effective
choice
of
heading
to
efficiently
get
to
an
intended
destination.
The
set
and
drift
refers
to
the
effect
of
wind
and
seas
on
the
actual
course
that
a
vessel
takes.
This
effect
can
be
measured
by
comparing
the
estimated
position
based
upon
dead
reckoning
and
the
actual
position
based
upon
some
more
precise
means.
Set
refers
to
the
direction
of
the
sea's
effect
and
drift
refers
to
the
speed.29
The
set
and
drift
process
is
shown
in
Figure
2.16:
1. A
dead
reckoning
position
is
determined
to
be
LAT
54°28.6'
LONG
083°23.9'
at
1615.
2. The
actual
position
is
found
to
be
LAT
54°28.0'
LONG
083°24.6'
by
GPS.
29
Without
getting
too
much
into
the
topic
of
vector
analysis,
some
readers
might
have
already
recognized
that
a
trackline
is
a
vector.
In
physics,
a
vector
is
a
line
that
has
both
direction
(e.g.,
heading)
and
magnitude
(e.g.,
distance).
Adding
the
two
vectors
of
a
dead
reckoning
trackline
and
"set
and
drift"
yields
the
actual
position.
40
3. The
trackline
from
the
estimated
position
towards
the
actual
position
shows
the
direction
(set)
to
be
218°
true
and
the
distance
to
be
0.8
nm.
Using
the
60
D
ST
formula
(with
D
=
0.8
nm
and
T
=
22
min),
we
find
the
speed
(drift)
to
be
2.2
kn.
Figure
2.16.
Determining
set
and
drift.
2.4.8.
Plotting
A
Course
With
Known
Set
and
Drift
Knowing
the
set
and
drift
prior
to
plotting
a
course
can
allow
a
navigator
to
determine
the
most
direct
course
to
a
destination.
In
this
example,
we
wish
to
plot
a
course
from
a
position
near
the
base
of
Jigsaw
Point
to
a
dive
site
a
couple
of
miles
east
of
Altamont
Island
(Figure
2.17).
In
this
case,
we
plan
on
making
a
speed
of
5
kn
and
there
is
a
known
current
of
1.5
kn
at
085°
true.
1. To
plot
the
course
accounting
for
set
and
drift,
start
by
plotting
a
trackline
between
the
starting
position
(labeled
A)
and
the
intended
ending
position.
This
will
be
a
course
of
137°
true
for
a
distance
of
6.4
nm.
2. Draw
a
trackline
representing
the
set
and
drift
from
point
A
for
a
distance
representing
one
hour
of
drift
(i.e.,
1.5
nm).
Label
the
end
point
of
that
line
B.
3. On
the
original
trackline,
draw
a
point
where
the
vessel
would
be
after
one
hour;
label
this
point
C.
This
corresponds
to
the
fact
that
we
drew
a
one-‐hour
set-‐and-‐drift
trackline
because
using
an
hour
is
easy
for
calculations.
Since
the
vessel's
speed
5
kn,
it
will
travel
5
nm
in
one
hour.
41
4. Draw
a
line
connecting
points
B
and
C.
Determine
the
heading
of
that
line
to
find
the
most
direct
course
to
make
good
in
order
to
arrive
at
the
destination
without
constantly
having
to
correct
for
the
sea's
effects.
In
this
case,
this
results
in
a
course
of
153°
true.
Convert
this
to
a
compass
course
using
the
TVMDC
+W
calculation:
T
TRUE
153°
V
Variation
+2°W
M
MAGNETIC
155°
D
Deviation
0°
(Deviation
is
0°
for
150°
magnetic)
C
COMPASS
155°
Figure
2.17.
Plotting
with
known
set
and
drift.
2.4.9.
Obtaining
a
Fix
With
Lines
of
Position
A
line
of
position
(LOP)
is
a
compass
bearing
taken
on
a
known
point.
If
sightings
are
taken
of
two
known
points,
the
position
of
the
vessel
(fix)
can
be
obtained
by
finding
where
the
two
LOPs
intersect.
Obtaining
a
fix
using
three
LOPs
uses
a
similar
methodology
and
is
slightly
more
42
precise
because
there
are
three
points
of
reference
instead
of
two.
This
section
will
describe
obtaining
a
fix
with
three
LOPs
but
the
process
is
the
same
with
two.
In
the
example
in
this
section,
the
LOP
headings
are
obtained
using
a
hand-‐held
compass.
To
convert
to
true
north,
we
have
to
correct
the
magnetic
heading
by
the
variation.
We
can
ignore
the
affects
of
the
vessel
itself,
however,
so
deviation
will
not
be
an
issue.
Suppose
our
vessel
is
lying
to
the
east
of
Jigsaw
Island.
At
1315,
in
order
to
obtain
our
position,
three
headings
are
taken
using
a
hand-‐held
compass.
Since
the
compass
gives
a
reading
relative
to
magnetic
north,
the
headings
must
be
adjusted
to
true
north
(variation
=
2°
W),
as
shown
below:
Compass
Chart
LOP
Target
Heading
Heading
North
tip
of
Bulge
Island
121°M
119°
T
"Nose"
of
The
Face
310°M
308°
T
Tip
of
Jigsaw
Point
245°M
243°
T
Figure
2.18.
Obtaining
a
three-‐bearing
fix.
After
converting
the
readings
from
the
compass
to
true
headings,
the
LOPs
are
transferred
to
the
chart,
also
noting
the
time
that
the
headings
were
taken
(Figure
2.18).
The
point
at
which
the
three
LOPs
intersect
is
the
current
position.
43
When
taking
three
bearings,
the
three
LOPs
might
intersect
in
such
a
way
as
to
form
a
small
triangle.
In
that
case,
the
fix
is
generally
taken
as
the
middle
of
the
triangle.
When
using
this
procedure
with
two
bearings,
the
two
LOPs
always
intersect
at
one
point.
2.4.10.
Taking
a
Running
Fix
A
running
fix
is
a
way
to
obtain
an
estimate
of
position
while
the
vessel
is
underway.
The
running
fix
depends
only
on
taking
two
compass
readings
on
one
known
point
at
two
different
times
while
keeping
track
of
the
course
and
speed
of
the
vessel.
Figure
2.19
shows
the
process
of
obtaining
a
running
fix
based
upon
two
sightings
of
green
buoy
#7
north
of
Altamont
Island.
Figure
2.19.
Taking
a
running
fix.
1. At
1424,
the
buoy
is
found
to
be
at
a
bearing
of
057°
by
handheld
compass.
Adjusting
for
variation
yields
a
bearing
of
055°
true
from
the
vessel.
An
LOP
is
drawn
to
the
buoy.
44
2. At
this
time,
the
vessel
is
running
on
a
heading
of
003°
true
at
a
speed
of
14
kn.
Draw
a
trackline
representing
this
course.
(As
noted
below,
it
does
not
matter
where
the
trackline
is
drawn.)
3. At
1439,
another
sighting
is
taken
of
the
buoy
by
handheld
compass.
This
heading
is
found
to
be
at
136°
magnetic,
or
134°
true.
Draw
a
second
LOP.
4. The
two
LOP
observations
were
taken
15
minutes
apart.
Using
the
60
D
ST
formula,
we
can
determine
the
distance
travelled
in
that
time
at
14
kn;
namely,
3.5
nautical
miles.
Using
the
parallel
ruler
or
roll
plotter,
copy
the
first
LOP
(1424)
3.5
nautical
miles
up
the
trackline
(labeled
here
as
the
1424-‐1439
LOP).
5. The
running
fix
at
1439
is
the
point
of
intersection
between
the
1439
and
1424-‐1439
LOP
lines.
A
running
fix
works
because
it
is
measuring
a
triangle
where
one
point
(the
buoy,
in
this
case)
is
known
as
well
as
three
angles.
It
is
not
necessary
to
know
the
exact
length
of
the
three
sides
of
the
triangle,
which
is
why
is
does
not
matter
where
the
trackline
is
drawn.
Note
that
if
the
trackline
in
this
example
were
drawn
nearer
to
Altamont
Island,
the
point
of
intersection
would
be
the
same
and
possibly
to
the
left
of
the
trackline.
In
fact,
the
only
purpose
of
the
trackline
is
to
provide
a
reference
for
"moving"
the
first
LOP
to
meet
the
second
LOP.
2.5.
Summary
This
section
has
provided
an
overview
of
some
of
the
basic
charting
and
navigation
tasks
that
a
recreational
mariner
might
need
to
perform.
As
stated
in
the
introduction,
automated
devices,
particularly
marine
GPS
devices,
can
perform
all
of
these
charting
and
navigation
functions
today.
Nevertheless,
knowing
how
to
perform
these
tasks
will
add
to
your
own
knowledge
and
provide
a
backup
to
the
electronics.
45
APPENDIX
A:
DMS,
GPS,
and
Decimal
Notations
Latitude
and
longitude
are
expressed
in
degrees
(°),
minutes
('),
and
seconds
(")
notation
(DD°MM'SS")
on
nautical
charts.
Many
newer
technologies,
such
as
GPS
devices,
mobile
phones,
and
some
Web
sites,
express
latitude
and
longitude
in
a
decimal
format,
showing
the
number
of
degrees
and
fractions
of
a
degree
(DD.DDD°),
or
in
degrees,
minutes,
and
fractions
of
a
minute
(DD°MM.MM').
The
sections
below
will
show
how
one
converts
from
one
notation
to
the
other.
While
there
are
several
Web
sites
that
will
perform
this
conversion,30
it
is
useful
to
understand
the
arithmetic
behind
the
conversion.
The
key
point
to
remember
when
converting
from
one
notation
to
the
other
is
that
a
degree
is
composed
of
60
minutes,
each
of
which
is
further
subdivided
into
60
seconds.
Therefore,
a
degree
comprises
3,600
seconds.
To
obtain
a
fraction
of
a
degree,
you
need
to
find
the
number
of
seconds
and
divide
by
3600;
to
obtain
the
fraction
of
a
minute,
you
need
to
divide
the
number
of
seconds
by
60.
Converting
DMS
to
Decimal
and
GPS
The
location
of
the
wreck
of
the
O.J.
Walker
is
given
as
LAT
44°28'43"N
LONG
073°14'26"W
in
DMS
notation.
What
is
the
latitude
and
longitude
in
decimal
and
GPS
notations?
To
determine
decimal
notation,
convert
the
minutes
and
seconds
to
a
fraction
of
a
degree,
which
is
merely
the
total
number
of
seconds
divided
by
3600.
To
convert
to
GPS,
convert
the
seconds
to
a
fraction
of
a
minute,
which
is
merely
the
seconds
divided
by
60.
Example
1:
44°28'43"
Fraction_of_degree
=
(minutes
×
60
+
seconds)
÷
3600
=
(28
×
60
+
43)
÷
3600
=
(1680
+
43)
÷
3600
=
0.4786666666...
Decimal
=
degrees
+
Fraction_of_degree
=
44
+
0.478666666...
=
44.479°
30
One
such
site
is
http://www.csgnetwork.com/gpscoordconv.html.
A
spreadsheet
for
performing
these
calculations
can
also
be
found
at
http://www.garykessler.net/scuba/library/DMS_GPS_Decimal.xls.
46
Fraction_of_minute
=
seconds
÷
60
=
43
÷
60
=
0.71666666...
GPS
=
degrees,
minutes
+
Fraction_of_minute
=
44,
28
+
0.71666666...
=
44°28.71667'
Example
2:
73°14'26"
Fraction_of_degree
=
(14
×
60
+
26)
÷
3600
=
(840
+
26)
÷
3600
=
0.24055555...
Decimal
=
73
+
0.24055555...
=
73.241°
Fraction_of_minute
=
26
÷
60
=
0.4333333...
GPS
=
73,
14
+
0.4333333...
=
73°14.43333'
Converting
Decimal
to
DMS
and
GPS
The
location
of
the
wreck
of
the
Phoenix
is
reported
as
LAT
44.666°N
LONG
073.335°W
in
decimal
notation.
What
is
the
latitude
and
longitude
in
DMS
and
GPS
notations?
Converting
from
decimal
notation
to
DMS
and
GPS
notation
is
the
inverse
of
the
examples
above.
The
hardest
part
is
converting
the
fractional
degree
back
to
minutes
and
seconds.
To
obtain
a
DMS
value,
convert
the
fraction
back
to
seconds
by
multiplying
by
3600,
and
then
dividing
by
60;
the
number
of
minutes
is
the
whole
number
part
of
the
answer
and
the
number
of
seconds
is
the
remainder.
To
obtain
a
GPS
value,
convert
the
fraction
back
to
seconds
by
multiplying
by
60.
Example
1:
44.666°
Minutes_and_seconds
=
Fraction_of_degree
×
60
=
0.666
×
60
=
39.96
minutes
47
minutes
=
39
seconds
=
(0.96
×
60)
=
57.6
DMS
=
degrees,
minutes,
seconds
=
44°39'58"N
GPS
=
degrees,
Minutes_and_seconds
=
44,
39.96000
=
44°39.96000'
Example
2:
73.335°
Minutes_and_seconds
=
0.335
×
60
=
20.1
minutes
=
20
seconds
=
0.1
×
60
=
6
DMS
=
73°20'06"N
GPS
=
73,
20.10000
=
73°20.10000'
Converting
GPS
to
DMS
and
Decimal
The
location
of
the
Horse
Ferry
wreck
is
reported
as
LAT
44°29.12000'N
LONG
073°14.58000'W
in
GPS
notation.
What
is
the
latitude
and
longitude
in
DMS
and
decimal
notations?
To
obtain
a
DMS
value,
convert
the
fraction
of
second
to
actual
seconds
by
multiplying
by
60.
To
obtain
the
decimal
value,
convert
the
minutes
(including
the
fraction
of
a
minute)
to
a
fraction
of
a
degree
by
dividing
by
60.
Example
1:
44°29.12000'
seconds
=
Fraction_of_minute
×
60
=
0.12
×
60
=
7.2
DMS
=
degrees,
minutes,
seconds
=
44°29'07"N
Decimal
=
degrees
+
(minutes
+
Fraction_of_minute)
÷
60
48
APPENDIX
B:
Mercator
and
Polyconic
Projections
Maps
and
charts
are
drawn
on
a
two-‐dimensional
plane,
such
as
a
piece
of
paper
or
GPS
screen.
They
are,
however,
a
representation
of
a
three-‐dimensional
object,
namely,
the
Earth.
There
are
a
number
of
ways
to
present
the
picture
of
the
globe
in
two
dimensions
and
these
are
called
projections.
Figure
B.1.
Mercator
projection.31
Mercator
projections
(Figure
B.1)
are
the
oldest
way
of
representing
navigation
maps
and
charts
(developed
by
Gerardus
Mercator
in
1569).
Mercator
projections
represent
latitude
(parallels)
and
longitude
(meridians)
as
straight
lines
that
intersect
at
right
(90°)
angles.
This
is
not
a
true
representation
of
the
parallels
and
meridians
on
the
globe,
of
course;
lines
of
latitude
are,
indeed,
concentric
circles
that
have
smaller
and
smaller
circumferences
as
they
nearer
the
poles
whereas
lines
of
longitude
are
all
the
same
length.32
Most
nautical
charts
are
drawn
using
a
Mercator
projection.
On
any
particular
chart,
the
distances
between
meridians
are
equal
but
the
distances
between
parallels
increase
progressively
from
the
Equator
toward
the
poles.
This
feature
allows
the
straight
line
between
any
two
points
on
the
chart
,
so
that
a
straight
line
between
any
two
points
is
a
rhumb
line.
The
advantage
of
a
Mercator
projection
is
that
a
constant
course
between
any
two
points
on
the
31
http://mathworld.wolfram.com/MercatorProjection.html
32
It
is
because
lines
of
longitude
are
the
same
length
that
distance
is
always
measured
on
the
vertical
scale
of
a
nautical
chart
using
Mercator
projections.
The
horizontal
scale
shows
degrees
of
longitude,
which
vary
in
distance
depending
upon
how
far
north
or
south
they
are.
50
chart
can
be
represented
as
a
straight
line,
called
a
rhumb
line
(or
loxodrome).
This
property
of
the
Mercator
projection
is
the
primary
reason
that
it
is
preferred
for
use
with
nautical
charts.
Polyconic
projections
(Figure
B.2),
first
described
in
the
1880s
by
Hunt
and
Tissot,
look
down
on
a
flat
representation
of
the
globe
with
the
Equator
and
Prime
Meridian
intersecting
at
right
angles
in
the
middle.
With
this
type
of
projection,
parallels
of
latitude
appear
as
nonconcentric
arcs,
and
meridians
of
longitude
appear
as
curved
lines
that
converge
at
the
poles.
The
scale
is
correct
along
any
parallel
and
along
the
central
meridian
of
the
chart.
Along
other
meridians,
the
scale
increases
as
distance
increases
from
the
central
meridian.
Polyconic
projections
are
used
on
most
U.S.
nautical
charts
for
the
Great
Lakes
and
its
connecting
waterways.
Figure
B.2.
Polyconic
projection.33
This
information
is
included
here
because
it
is
pertinent
to
charting.
That
said,
for
most
nautical
charts
used
by
the
recreational
boater,
it
does
not
make
that
much
difference
because
the
distances
covered
by
the
charts
are
so
small.
33
http://mathworld.wolfram.com/PolyconicProjection.html
51
APPENDIX
C:
The
Length
of
a
Degree
There
are
several
places
in
this
document
that
state
that
a
degree
of
latitude
is
equal
to
a
60
nautical
miles
whereas
the
linear
distance
of
a
degree
of
longitude
varies
with
latitude.
In
fact,
a
degree
of
longitude
is
roughly
60
nautical
miles
at
the
Equator
and
gets
shorter
as
the
latitude
approaches
the
poles.
The
obvious
question,
of
course,
is
how
to
determine
the
linear
distance
of
a
degree
of
longitude.
One
common
formula
states
that
the
length
of
one
degree
of
longitude
(in
meters)
can
be
calculated
by:
1852.3
-‐
9.4
x
cosine
(2
x
latitude)
Meeus
(1999)
provides
a
wonderful
set
of
formulas
related
to
calculating
many
things
related
to
calendars,
time,
and
the
planets.
From
this
book,
R.L.
Hutchison
created
a
table
at
his
Web
site
(http://www.zodiacal.com/tools/lat_table.php)
that
provides
the
following
information:
Latitude
One
degree
of
latitude
One
degree
of
longitude
Equator
(0°)
68.71
miles
(110.57
km)
69.17
miles
(111.32
km)
10°
68.73
miles
(110.61
km)
68.13
miles
(109.64
km)
20°
68.79
miles
(110.70
km)
65.02
miles
(104.65
km)
30°
68.88
miles
(110.85
km)
59.85
miles
(96.49
km)
40°
68.99
miles
(111.03
km)
53.06
miles
(85.39
km)
50°
69.11
miles
(111.23
km)
44.55
miles
(71.70
km)
60°
69.23
miles
(111.41
km)
34.67
miles
(55.80
km)
70°
69.32
miles
(111.56
km)
23.73
miles
(38.19
km)
80°
69.38
miles
(111.66
km)
12.05
miles
(19.39
km)
Poles
(90°)
69.40
miles
(111.69
km)
0
miles
(0
km)
The
Web
site
http://www.csgnetwork.com/degreelenllavcalc.html
provides
a
"Length
of
a
Degree
of
Latitude
and
Longitude
Calculator."
52
APPENDIX
D:
Navigators
Quick
Reference
Card
These
quick
reference
cards
are
from
http://captnmike.com/2009/10/01/piloting-‐and-‐
navigators-‐quick-‐reference/
53
54
APPENDIX
E:
Sample
Problem
Chart34
34
This
chart
was
created
for
example
purposes
only.
The
chart
is
wholly
fictitious.
A
PDF
version
can
be
downloaded
from
http://www.garykessler.net/scuba/library/SampleChart.pdf.
55
Acronyms
and
Abbreviations
DMS
Degree,
minute,
and
second
notation
GPS
Global
Positioning
System
kn
Knots
(nautical
miles
per
hour)
LMN
Local
Notice
to
Mariners
LOP
Line
of
position
NGA
National
Geospatial-‐Intelligence
Agency
NM
Notice
to
Mariners
nm
Nautical
miles
NOAA
National
Oceanic
and
Atmospheric
Agency
USCG
U.S.
Coast
Guard
56
References
and
Further
Reading
Bowditch,
N.
(2002).
The
American
Practical
Navigator:
An
Epitome
of
Navigation.
Publication
No.
9.
Bethesda,
MD:
National
Imagery
and
Mapping
Agency.
Retrieved
from
http://msi.nga.mil/NGAPortal/MSI.portal?_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=msi_portal_page_62
&pubCode=0002
Calder,
N.
(2012).
How
to
Read
a
Nautical
Chart,
2nd
ed.
Camden,
ME:
International
Marine/Ragged
Mountain
Press.
Husick, C.B. (2009). Chapman Piloting & Seamanship, 66th ed. New York: Hearst.
Meeus, J. (1999). Astronomical Algorithms, 2nd ed. Richmond, VA: Willmann-‐Bell.
NOAA.
(2011).
Wandering
of
the
Geomagnetic
Poles.
National
Geophysical
Data
Center.
Retrieved
from
http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/geomag/GeomagneticPoles.shtml
Sobel,
D.
(1995).
Longitude:
The
True
Story
of
a
Lone
Genius
Who
Solved
the
Greatest
Scientific
Problem
of
His
Time.
New
York:
Walker
&
Co.
U.S.
Coast
Guard.
(2011a).
Navigation
Rules
for
International
and
Inland
Waters.
Arcata,
CA:
Paradise
Cay
Publications.
(See
also
http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/?pageName
=navRulesContent)
U.S.
Coast
Guard.
(2011b,
June).
U.S.
Aids
to
Navigation
System.
Retrieved
from
http://www.uscgboating.org/assets/1/workflow_staging/Publications/486.PDF
U.S.
Coast
Guard.
(2012).
Light
List
document
series.
Publication
16502.
Washington,
D.C.:
U.S.
Government
Printing
Office.
Retrieved
from
http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/?pageName
=lightlists
U.S.
Department
of
Commerce.
(various
dates).
United
States
Coast
Pilot®
document
series.
Washington,
D.C.:
U.S.
Department
of
Commerce,
National
Oceanic
and
Atmospheric
Agency,
National
Ocean
Service.
Retrieved
from
http://www.nauticalcharts.noaa.gov/nsd
/cpdownload.htm
U.S.
Department
of
Commerce
and
U.S.
Department
of
Defense.
(1997).
Chart
No.
1:
Nautical
Chart
Symbols
Abbreviation
and
Terms,
10th
ed.
Washington,
D.C.:
U.S.
Department
of
Commerce,
National
Oceanic
and
Atmospheric
Agency,
National
Ocean
Service.
Retrieved
from
http://www.nauticalcharts.noaa.gov/mcd/chartno1.htm
U.S.
Department
of
Defense.
(1969,
rev.
2003).
International
Code
of
Signals
for
Visual,
Sound,
and
Radio
Communications
(United
States
Edition).
Publication
102.
Washington,
D.C.:
U.S.
57
Department
of
Defense,
National
Imagery
and
Mapping
Agency.
Retrieved
from
http://msi.nga.mil/NGAPortal
Wing,
C.
(2008).
Get
Your
Captain's
License:
The
Complete
Study
Guide,
4th
ed.
Blacklick,
OH:
McGraw-‐Hill.
58
About
the
Author
Gary
C.
Kessler
was
certified
as
a
SCUBA
diver
as
a
teenager
in
southern
California
in
1967.
He
was
later
certified
as
an
Open
Water
Diver,
Advanced
Open
Water
Diver,
and
Rescue
Diver
by
the
Professional
Association
of
Dive
Instructors
(PADI)
as
part
of
the
Colchester
(Vermont)
Rescue
Dive
Team
in
1991.
In
2009,
Gary
became
a
PADI
Divemaster
and
Open
Water
Instructor,
becoming
a
Master
SCUBA
Diver
Trainer
in
2011.
Living
on
Lake
Champlain
(the
sixth
largest
fresh
water
lake
in
the
U.S.)
and
wanting
to
dive
whenever
he
wanted,
Gary
bought
his
first
boat
in
1994.
He
received
his
USCG
Captain's
license
in
2012.
In
his
other
life,
Gary
is
an
information
security
and
digital
forensics
consultant,
educator,
and
practitioner.
He
holds
a
B.A.
in
Mathematics,
M.S.
in
Computer
Science,
and
Ph.D.
in
Computing
Technology
in
Education.