Theory of Boundary Layer and separation

1. Theory of Boundary Layer

1.1. Introduction

When a real fluid flows past a solid boundary, a layer of fluid which comes in contact with the

boundary surface adheres to it on account of viscosity. Since this layer of the fluid cannot slip

away from the boundary surface it attains the same velocity as that of the boundary. If the

boundary is stationary, the fluid velocity at the boundary surface will be zero. Thus at the

boundary surface the layer of the fluid undergoes retardation.

Therefore in the immediate vicinity of the boundary surface, the velocity of the fluid increases

gradually from zero at boundary surface to the velocity of the mainstream. This region is known

as BOUNDARY LAYER.

Figure 1: Real fluid flows past a solid boundary

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HIGH RENOLDS NUMBER FLOW BOUNDARY

R ∞ LAYERS

BOUNDARY LAYER;-Thin region adjacent to surface of a body where viscous forces

dominate over inertia forces

Re= (inertia forces/Viscous forces) Re>>1

Boundary
Layer
separation

Wake:

Viscous effects not

important

Out flow viscous

effects negligible Flow field around
Vorticity not zero
Vorticity zero
(inviscid potential
flow)
Inner flow
arbitrary strong
Shape viscous
effects

Figure 2: Boundary layer region

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1.2. Causes of Its Formation

Large velocity gradient (Larger variation of velocity in relatively smaller distance) leading to

appreciable shear stress.

Consists of two layers:

CLOSE TO BOUNDARY: large velocity gradient, appreciable viscous forces.

OUTSIDE BOUNDARY LAYER: viscous forces are negligible, flow may be treated as non-

viscous or in viscid.

1.3. Development of Boundary Layer

The boundary layer starts at the leading edge of a solid surface and the boundary layer thickness

increases with the distance x along the surface.

Near the leading edge of the solid surface, where thickness is small, the flow is laminar

(LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYER UPTO Re 3 x 105 ~ 3.2 x 105

LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYER PROFILE – PARABOLIC

As the thickness of the layer increases in the downstream direction, the laminar layer becomes

unstable, leading to transition from laminar to turbulent boundary layer. Re ~ 5.5 x 105 (Onset of

turbulent BL)

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Turbulent flow is characterized by greater interchange of mass momentum and energy within the

fluid particles.

The velocity profile is more uniform in turbulent BL.

Velocity gradient is higher in turbulent BL, hence shear stresses are higher.

BL depends on Reynolds’s number & also on the surface roughness. Roughness of the surface

adds to the disturbance in the flow & hastens the transition from laminar to turbulent

2. Parameters of Boundary Layer

2.1. BOUNDARY LAYER THICKNESS (δ)

The velocity within a boundary layer approaches the free stream velocity value asymptotically,

and so the limit of boundary layer is not easily defined.

A distance δ is prescribed at the velocity lies within 1 % of the asymptotic value u = 0.99 U0

δ becomes the measure of the thickness of a region in which major portion of the velocity

distribution takes place

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LAMINAR FLOW OVEW FLAT PLATE

U∞

U≈
0,99U∞

Figure 3: BOUNDARY LAYER THICKNESS

Laminar boundary layer predictable

Turbulent boundary layer poor predictability

Control Parameter Re=U L/V

To get two boundary Layer Flow identical match Re

(Dynamic similarity)

Although boundary layer’s and prediction are complicated simplify the N-S equation to make job

easier

2.2. DISPLACEMENT THICKNESS (δ*)

Consider an elementary strip of thickness dy & at a distance y from the plate surface.

Area of elementary strip dA = b x dy, where b is the width of the plate of this page.

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Theory of Boundary Layer and separation
Mass flow rate through this strip = ρ x flow velocity x area = ρub x dy

In absence of the plate, the fluid would have moved with a constant velocity equal to free stream

velocity U0.

Corresponding mass flow rate = ρU0b x dy

Loss in mass flow rate through the elemental strip = ρU0b x dy – ρub x dy = ρ(U0 – u) b x dy

Where δ is the value of y at which u = U0

Hence we define the displacement thickness as the thickness of flow moving at the free stream

velocity and having the flow rate equal to the loss in flow rate on account of boundary layer

formation.

U∞ U∞

*
δ δ *
δ
Figure 4: DISPLACEMENT THICKNESS

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2.3. Momentum Thickness (Θ)

Loss in mass flow rate due to velocity defect = ρ (U0 – u) b dy

Loss in momentum = ρ (U0 – u) b dy x u

The momentum thickness (θ) is defined as the thickness of flow moving at free stream velocity

and having the same momentum flux equal to the deficiency of the momentum flux in the region

of boundary layer.

Momentum thickness can be conceived as the transverse distance by which the boundary layer

should be displaced to compensate for the reduction in the momentum of the flowing fluid on

account of the boundary layer formation

U∞

Figure 5: Momentum Thickness

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Theory of Boundary Layer and separation

2.4. Energy Thickness (Δ**)

Mass of fluid = ρubdy

K.E = ½ * ρu x b x dy x u2

K.E. in absence of boundary layer = ½ * ρu x b x dy x U02

Loss in K.E through the elemental strip = ½ * ρu x b x dy x (U02 – u2)

Total loss of K.E.

The energy thickness δ** is defined as the thickness of the flow moving at the free stream

velocity & having the energy equal to the deficiency of energy in the boundary layer region

K.E . Through distance δ** = ½ * (ρbδ**U0)xU02 = ½ * (ρbδ**)xU03

Energy thickness may be conceived as the transverse distance by which the boundary layer

should be displaced to compensate for the reduction in energy of the flowing fluid on account of

the boundary layer formation

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3. High Reynolds Number Flow

3.1. 2-D Boundary Layer Eqn.

PRANDTL’S BOUNDARY LAYER EQUATIONS

Consider steady two dimensional incompressible viscous flow in x-direction along the wall & y

normal to the wall

BASIC EQUATIONS (NAVIER STOKES EQUATION & CONTINUITY EQUATIONS)

BL on Flat Plate

U∞
U∞

U (x,y)
y

Figure 6: BL on flat plat

BLASIUS SOLUTION

He showed that the boundary equations can be solved exactly for u & v assuming free stream

velocity U as constant or ∂U/∂x =0

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With an ingenious coordinate transformation, Blasius showed that the dimensionless velocity

profile u/U is a function only of a single composite dimensionless variable

Momentum Integral Eqn.

A complete description of the boundary layer with the aid of non-linear differential equation is

very cumbersome.

Therefore approximate solution is required.

Since boundary layer is satisfied in a stratum near the wall & near the region of transition. In the

remaining region of the fluid, the mean over the differential equation is satisfied.

The mean is taken over the whole thickness of the boundary layer. Such a mean is obtained from

the momentum equation, by integrating over the boundary layer thickness

Karman Pohlhausen Method for Flow over Flat Plate

Outcome of the Results Derived So Far

Boundary layer thickness increase as the square root of the distance X from the leading edge and

inversely as square root of free stream velocity. wall shear stress is inversely proportion to the

square root of X and directly to 3/2 power of u local & average skin friction vary inversely as

square root of X and directly proportional to 3/2 power of u local & average skin friction vary

inversely as squarely as square root of both X & U.

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4. Boundary layer separation

Separation wake formation

Increase in drag

Total force exertion body in direction of fluid motion

Weak

Figure 7: Boundary layer separation

Boundary layers have a tendency to separate and form wake

Wake leads to large stream wise pressure differentials across the body

Results in substantial pressure drag (form drag)

For large Re (10^4 or higher) bluff bodies (e.g. circular cylinder) pressure drag constitutes

Almost all the total drag

Total drag = pressure drag + viscous drag

due to shear stress along the surface

due to pressure differences caused by separation of flow

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Separation takes place due to excessive momentum loss near the wall in a
boundary layer trying to move downstream against increasing pressure,
i.e., dp/dx>0 which is called adverse pressure gradient.

u u dU 1 
(u  v ) U 
x y dx  y MOMENTUM

EQUATION …..
 2u dU dp
  2  U  ATWALL V=U=0
y wall y wall dx dx
 2u 1 dp
2

y wall  dx

In FAVOURABLE GRADIENT, profile is rounded, no point of inflexion, no

separation.
In ZERO PRESSURE GRADIENT, point of inflexion is at the wall itself. No
separation.
In ADVERSE GRADIENT, point of inflexion (PI) occurs in the boundary layer, its
distance from the wall increasing with the strength of the adverse gradient
CRITICAL CONDITION is reached where the wall shear is exactly zero (∂u/∂y =0).
This is defined as separation point.

w  0 SHEAR STRESS AT WALL IS ZERO

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5. Summary

To summarize, for any object immersed in a fluid, the mechanical forces are transmitted at every

point on the surface of the body. The forces are transmitted through the pressure, which acts

perpendicular to the surface. The net force can be found by integrating (or summing) the pressure

times the area around the entire surface. For a moving flow, the pressure will vary from point to

point because the velocity varies from point to point. For some simple flow problems, we can

determine the pressure distribution (and the net force) if we know the velocity distribution by

using Bernoulli's equation.

6. Conclusion

•The concept of the boundary layer was introduced.

•Boundary layers require special treatment in the CFD model. •The influence of pressure

gradient on boundary layer attachment showed that an adverse pressure gradient gives rise to

flow separation.

•For accurate drag, lift, and torque predictions, the boundary layer and flow separation need to be

modeled accurately.

•This requires the use of:

–A suitable grid.

–A suitable turbulence model.

–Higher order discretization.

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–Deep convergence using the force to be predicted as a convergence monitor.

Reference

1. Bird R.B., Stewart W.E and E.N. Lightfoot,”Transport Phenomena” 2nd edition.

2. Blassius, Laminar & Turbulent Boundary layer,Von Karman integral.

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