Semiconductors 170506180045

Semiconductors
• The highest energy band completely filled with

electrons (at T = 0 K) is called the Valence Band
• The next band is called the Conduction Band
• The energy
difference between
the bottom of the
Conduction and the
top of the Valence
bands is called the
Band Gap
Conduction
• Electron Conduction is easy to imagine:
electrons (in the conduction band) move
almost like free particles
• Hole Conduction is due to positively charged
particles in the valence band
Intrinsic Semiconductors
• Consider nominally pure
semiconductor at T = 0 K
• There is no electrons in the
conduction band
• At T > 0 K a small fraction of

electrons is thermally excited
into the conduction band,
“leaving” the same number
of holes in the valence band
Intrinsic Semiconductors at T >0 K
• Electrons and holes contribute to the current
when a voltage is applied
e neτ n e nhτ p
2 2
σ= *
+ *
me mh
Doping
• Semiconductors can be easily doped
• Doping is the incorporation of [substitutional]
impurities into a semiconductor according to our
requirements
• In other words, impurities are introduced in

a controlled manner
Impurities change the conductivity of the
material so that it can be fabricated into a
device
Extrinsic Semiconductors
• Electrical Properties of Semiconductors can
be altered drastically by adding minute
amounts of suitable impurities to the pure
crystals
• Impurities: Atoms of the elements different
from those forming solid
– Interstitial: “foreign” atoms “squeezed”
between regular sites crystal sites
– Substitutional: “foreign” atoms occupying the
sites of host atoms
Donors
• We use Silicon (Si) as an example
– Substitute one Si (Group IV) atom with a
Group V atom (e.g. As or P)
– Si atoms have four valence electrons that
participate in covalent bonding
– When a Group V atom replaces a Si atom, it
will use four of its electrons to form the
covalent bonding
– What happens with the remaining electron?
Donors
• The remaining electron will not be
very tightly bound, and can be easily
ionized at T > 0K
• Ionized electron is free to conduct

– In term of the band structure, this
electron is now in the conduction band
• Such Group V impurities are called
Donors, since they “donate” electrons
into the Conduction Band
– Semiconductors doped by donors are
called n-type semiconductors
Donors: Energy Levels
• The Band Structure View
– Such impurities “create” an energy
level within the band gap, close to the
conduction band
This crystal has been doped with a pentavalent impurity.
The free electrons in n type silicon support the flow of current.

Acceptors
• Use Silicon (Si) as an example
– Substitute one Group III atom (e.g. Al or In) with a Si
(Group IV) atom
– Si atoms have four valence electrons that participate in
the covalent bonding
– When a Group III atom replaces a Si atom, it cannot
complete a tetravalent bond scheme
– An “electronic vacancy” – hole – is formed when an
electron from the valence band is grabbed by the atom so
that the core is negatively charged, the hole created is
then attracted t the negative core
Acceptors
• At T > 0 K, electron from the
neighboring Si atom can jump
into this hole – the hole starts to
migrate, contributing to the
current
• We can say that this impurity
atom accepted an electron, so
we call them Acceptors
• Acceptors accept electrons, but
“donate” free holes
Acceptors
• By “incorporating” the electron into the impurity atom
we can represent this (T = 0 K) as a negative charge in
the core with a positive charge (hole) outside the core
attracted by its [Coulomb] potential
• At T > 0 K this hole can be ionized
• Such semiconductors are called p-type semiconductors
since they contribute positive charge carriers
Acceptor: Energy Levels
• From the Band Structure View
– Such impurities “create” energy levels within the band gap,
close to the valence band
– They are similar to “negative” hydrogen atoms
– Such impurities are called hydrogenic acceptors
– They create “shallow” levels - levels that are very close to the
valence band, so the energy required to ionize the atom
(accept the electron that fills the hole and creates another hole
further from the substituted atom) is small
This crystal has been doped with a trivalent impurity.
The holes in p type silicon contribute to the current.

Note that the hole current direction is opposite to electron current
so the electrical current is in the same direction
Carrier Concentrations in Extrinsic
Semiconductors
• The carrier densities in extrinsic semiconductors can
be very high
• It depends on doping levels ([net] dopant
concentration) and ionization energy of the dopants
• Often both types of impurities are present
– If the total concentration of donors (ND) is larger than the
total concentration of acceptors (NA) have an n-type
semiconductor
– In the opposite case have a p-type semiconductor
Charge Neutrality Equation
• To calculate the charge concentration, the charge
neutrality condition is used, since the net charge in a
uniformly doped semiconductor is zero
– Otherwise, there will be a net flow of charge from one
point to another resulting in current flow
+ −
p+ N = n+ N D A
– p is the concentration of holes in the valence band
– n is the electron concentration
– ND+ is the ionized donor concentration
– NA- is the ionized acceptor concentration
Semiconductors in Summary
• The most widely used material is silicon
• Pure crystals are intrinsic semiconductors
• Doped crystals are extrinsic semiconductors
• Crystals are doped to be n type or p type
• n type semiconductors have few minority carriers
(holes).
• p type semiconductors have few minority carriers
(electrons).
Photoconductivity
• Charge carriers (electrons or
holes or both) created in the
corresponding bands by
absorbed light can also
participate in current flow, and
thus should increase the current
for a given applied voltage, i.e.,
the conductivity increases
• This effect is called
Photoconductivity
• Want conductivity to be
controlled by light. So want few
carriers in dark → semiconductor
• But want light to be absorbed,
creating photoelectrons
• → Band gap of intrinsic
photoconductors should be
smaller than the energy of the
photons that are absorbed
PV Cell
Conversion Efficiency
PV Array
Components
oPV Cells
oModules
oArrays
PV System Components
NET METERING
Net Metering Participation
PV Array Fields
Source: Solarbuzz, a part of The NPD Group
ADVANTAGES OF SOLAR ENERGY
• Clean
• Sustainable
• Free
• Provide electricity to remote
places
Disadvantages of Solar Energy
• Less efficient and costly equipment
• Part Time
• Reliability Depends On Location
• Environmental Impact of PV Cell
Production
PV Technology Classification
Silicon Crystalline Technology Thin Film Technology
Mono Crystalline PV Cells Amorphous Silicon PV Cells
Multi Crystalline PV Cells Poly Crystalline PV Cells

( Non-Silicon based)
Silicon Crystalline Technology
 Currently makes up 86% of PV market
 Very stable with module efficiencies 10-16%
Mono crystalline PV Cells Multi Crystalline PV Cells

•Made using saw-cut from single •Caste from ingot of melted
cylindrical crystal of Si and recrystallised silicon
•Operating efficiency up to 15% •Cell efficiency ~12%
•Accounts for 90% of
crystalline Si market
Thin Film Technology
 Silicon deposited in a continuous on a base material such as glass,
metal or polymers
 Thin-film crystalline solar cell consists of layers about 10μm thick
compared with 200-300μm layers for crystalline silicon cells
PROS
• Low cost substrate and
fabrication process
CONS
• Not very stable
Amorphous Silicon PV Cells
 The most advanced of thin film technologies
 Operating efficiency ~6%
 Makes up about 13% of PV market
PROS
• Mature manufacturing
technologies available
CONS
• Initial 20-40% loss in
efficiency
Poly Crystalline PV Cells
Non – Silicon Based Technology
Copper Indium Diselinide

CIS with band gap 1eV, high
absorption coefficient 105cm-1
 High efficiency levels
PROS
• 18% laboratory efficiency
• >11% module efficiency
CONS
• Immature manufacturing
process
• Slow vacuum process
Semiconductor Material Efficiencies

Semiconductors 170506180045

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Semiconductors

• The highest energy band completely filled with

• At T > 0 K a small fraction of

• In other words, impurities are introduced in

• Ionized electron is free to conduct

The free electrons in n type silicon support the flow of current.

The holes in p type silicon contribute to the current.

Mono Crystalline PV Cells Amorphous Silicon PV Cells

Multi Crystalline PV Cells Poly Crystalline PV Cells

Mono crystalline PV Cells Multi Crystalline PV Cells

Copper Indium Diselinide

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