Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol (2008) 7:155–172

DOI 10.1007/s11157-008-9127-x

REVIEW PAPER

Rotating biological contactors: a review on main factors

affecting performance
S. Cortez Æ P. Teixeira Æ R. Oliveira Æ M. Mota

Published online: 24 January 2008

Ó Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2008

Abstract Rotating biological contactors (RBCs) 1 Introduction

constitute a very unique and superior alternative
for biodegradable matter and nitrogen removal on A rotating biological contactor (RBC) is an attached
account of their feasibility, simplicity of design and growth bioreactor that offers an alternative technol-
operation, short start-up, low land area requirement, ogy to the conventional activated sludge process.
low energy consumption, low operating and mainte- The first RBC system was used in the early 1900s
nance cost and treatment efficiency. The present and consisted of a cylinder with wooden slats
review of RBCs focus on parameters that affect (Mathure and Patwardhan 2005). The availability of
performance like rotational speed, organic and polystyrene marked the beginning of commercial
hydraulic loading rates, retention time, biofilm sup- application of RBCs with the first full-scale system
port media, staging, temperature, influent wastewater being installed in Germany in 1958 (Rodgers and
characteristics, biofilm characteristics, dissolved oxy- Zhan 2003). Significant refinements in media type
gen levels, effluent and solids recirculation, step- and equipment configuration occurred during the
feeding and medium submergence. Some RBCs 1960s and early 1970s (Tchobanoglous and Burton
scale-up and design considerations, operational prob- 1991; Grady et al. 1999). Currently, there are many
lems and comparison with other wastewater treatment thousands of units operating worldwide and several
systems are also reported. different designs available depending upon specific
requirement criteria (Mba et al. 1999).
Keywords Aerobic/Anaerobic/Anoxic RBC
A RBC unit typically consists of a series of closely
Design
Medium submergence
Rotational speed
spaced large flat or corrugated discs that are mounted
Scale-up
Staging on a common horizontal shaft and are partially or
completely submerged in wastewater (Fig. 1). A
drum filled with some lightweight packed supports
can also be used in place of conventional discs. The
shaft continually rotates by a mechanical motor or a
compressed air drive and a biofilm is established
onto the entire surface area of the media, which
S. Cortez (&)
P. Teixeira
R. Oliveira
M. Mota metabolizes the organic materials contained in the
IBB – Institute for Biotechnology and Bioengineering,
wastewater. In aerobic processes the rotation of
Centre of Biological Engineering, University of Minho,
Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal the media promotes oxygen transfer and maintains
e-mail: [email protected] the biomass in aerobic conditions. The rotation also

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156 Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol (2008) 7:155–172

Over the years RBCs have been successfully used

to provide secondary treatment to municipal waste-
water from small units serving residential dwellings
to large ones treating flows of up to several million
litres per day (Banerjee 1997a). They have also been
used to nitrify municipal wastewater, either in
combined carbon oxidation and nitrification applica-
tions or in separate stage nitrification applications,
denitrification and phosphorus removal. In addition,
decolourization of wastes like textile dyes (Axelsson
et al. 2006) and coloured sugar refinery effluents
(Guimarães et al. 2005); bioremediation of landfill
leachates (Cema et al. 2007) or organopollutants such
as of chlorophenols (Majumder and Gupta 2007,
Radwan and Ramanujam 1997) and trichloroethylene
(Brar and Gupta 2000); treatment of effluents from
wineries (Malandra et al. 2003), bakeries (Nahid
et al. 2001), food processors (Nasr et al. 2006), pulp
and paper mills (Selvam et al. 2002), leather tanner-
ies (Zao-yan and Zhen-san 1990) and other
Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of RBC units: (a) conventional biodegradable industrial discharges can be performed
RBC with two-stages; (b) single-stage closed RBC with high by the RBC system.
submergence level
In the last decade, RBC facilities tightly closed
to avoid air entrance started to be used for anoxic
provides turbulence in the mixed liquor surface and (denitrification) (Teixeira and Oliveira 2001) or
enables the removal of excess solids from the media anaerobic processes (Lu and Yeh 1995; Lu et al.
(Patwardhan 2003; Rodgers and Zhan 2003). Bio- 1997a, b).
mass clarification is used to remove these solids. The RBC system optimisation and adaptability
RBC systems due to their advantages (Table 1) under different environmental conditions and influent
constitute a very unique and superior alternative for characteristics remain challenging tasks for the
biodegradable matter and nitrogen removal. efficient design and use of this technology.

Table 1 General
Advantages Drawbacks
advantages and drawbacks
of the RBC process Land requirement relatively small Difficult scale-up
Easy construction and expansion Slow process start-up
Compact design with separate compartments Adequate primary treatment
and secondary clarifier required
Simple process control and monitoring Limited process flexibility
Low operating and maintenance cost
Short HRTs
High OTE
High biomass concentration per volume
reactor
Low sludge volume index values
in the second clarifier
No requirement of sludge recirculation
Resistance to shock and toxic loads
No problems with malodours and flies

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Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol (2008) 7:155–172 157

2 Factors affecting performance loading (Najafpour et al. 2005). Table 3 summarizes

the experimental details and performance results of
The performance of RBCs depends upon several different works to study the effect of organic loading
design parameters. Particularly significant are: rota- on the performance of some RBC systems.
tional speed, organic and hydraulic loading rates, Available data show that, for a given system, as the
hydraulic retention time (HRT), RBC media, staging, applied organic loading rate increases, the substrate
temperature, wastewater and biofilm characteristics, removal rate increases and removal efficiency
dissolved oxygen (DO) levels, effluent and solids decreases. Reduction in substrate removal efficiency
recirculation, step-feeding and medium submergence. may be an indication of limitation in dissolved oxygen.
Under normal operating conditions, carbonaceous
substrate is mainly removed in the first-stage of the
2.1 Rotational speed RBC. To avoid oxygen transfer limitations the first-
stage design load must be limited to a BOD5 load of
The rotational speed of the RBC media is a very about 30 g BOD5/m2 d or to a soluble BOD5 load of
important parameter that affects nutrient and oxygen 12–20 g BOD5/m2 d according to WEF and ASCE
mass transfer in the biofilm and consequently (WEF and ASCE 1998). The use of higher first-stage
substrate removal. Table 2 summarizes some studies organic loadings will increase the probability of
on the effect of rotational speed in the performance of developing problems such as excessive biofilm
RBC systems. thickness, depletion of dissolved oxygen, deteriora-
Usually an increase on the speed of rotation tion of process performance, appearance of H2S
increases the dissolved oxygen concentration avail- odours and excessive growth of nuisance organisms
able to the microorganisms and as a result they are such as Beggiatoa (Tchobanoglous and Burton 1991;
able to degrade the substrate at a higher rate (Israni Grady et al. 1999). Overloading problems can be
et al. 2002). However, increasing the rotational speed overcome by removing baffles between the first and
leads to higher power consumption, which may not second-stages to reduce surface loading and increase
be economical for wastewater treatment applications oxygen transfer. Other approaches include supple-
(Ramsay et al. 2006). Besides, if the rotational speed mental air systems, step-feed, or recycle from the last
gets too high, the microorganisms will be stripped off stage (Surampalli and Bauman 1997).
the media, deteriorating the effluent quality and The organic loading affects nitrification in a RBC
lowering the biodegradation rate in the reactor. unit. In the initial stages, where the organic load is
Packed supports will provide considerably more high, heterotrophic bacteria offer strong competition
oxygenation than disc RBCs at the same rotational to nitrifiers displacing them within the bioreactor
speed, but they will require greater power consump- (Brazil 2006). Therefore, the maximum nitrification
tion (Hoccheimer and Wheaton 1998). rate occurs when the soluble BOD load reduces
Thus, the guiding principle is to adopt the sufficiently, which always takes place in the latter
minimum speed commensurate with acceptable treat- stages of the RBC set-up. In the case of full-scale
ment. According to Mathure and Patwardhan (2005), RBCs for nitrification of municipal wastewater with
typically rotational speeds are 1–10 rpm for RBC four units in series, the German ATV guideline (ATV
media in disc form with discs with 1–4 m diameter 1989) proposes a design value of 5 g BOD5/m2 d.
mounted on shafts around 5–10 m long. Nowak (2000) has investigated nitrification in
full-scale RBCs (with discs and plastic packages)
and proposed that the surface loading rate should
2.2 Organic loading not exceed 2.5 g BOD5/m2 d to keep the effluent
ammonia concentration below 5 mg NHþ 4 N=l; at
The organic loading of a RBC reactor must be temperatures above 13°C. In the same investigation
accurately defined during planning and designing. nitrification rates of 1.5 g N oxidized/m2 d at 8°C and
The variation of the organic loading rate is generally of 1.8 g N oxidized/m2 d at 13°C were obtained in
accomplished by changing the inlet flow rate or the tertiary full-scale RBCs with ammonia effluent
HRT, which also results in a change in the hydraulic concentrations mostly below 4 mg NHþ 4 N=l:

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 Table 2 Experimental details and summary of results of different studies on the effect of rotational speed in the performance of RBC systems
158

Type of Reactor specifications Type of Modified parameters Performance Reference

operation wastewater

123
and scale Type of Media No. of Submergence Hydraulic Inlet organic Rotational
material and dimensions stages/no. (%) loading/ loading/ speed
media of discs influent substrate
or filling flow rate concentration
ratio

Aerobic Stainless Diameter: 1/9 50 Synthetic 8.77– 1,754–3,508 mg 40–175 rpm For 23.42 dm3/m2 h and Israni et al.
lab-scale steel discs 0.09 m phenolic 23.42 dm3/ phenol/m2 h 3,508 mg phenol/m2 h at: (2002)
2
covered with wastewater m h 40 rpm: 30.9 mg phenol
cloth removed/dm3
150 rpm: 114 mg phenol
removed/dm3
Lightweight Diameter: 3/54 – Food cannery – 22.13 g COD/ 3 and 11 rpm At: Najafpour et al.
clear plastic 0.35 m wastewater m2 d 3 rpm: 1.03 g SCOD removed/ (2006)
discs dm3 d and 62.67% SCOD
removed
11 rpm: 1.76 g SCOD
removed/dm3 d and 93.70%
SCOD removed
Propylene Diameter: 3/85% 40 Bakers yeast – 210 g COD/m2 d 15 and 17 rpm At: Nahid et al.
Pallrings 2.54 cm wastewater 456 mg COD/ 15 rpm: 77% COD removed (2001)
dm3 17 rpm: 78% COD removed
Aerobic Hard Diameter: 6/16 37 Industrial 0.013 and 5.3–17.8 mg 8 and 11 rpm No effect was observed on Torkian et al.
pilot-scale polyethylene 0.5 m wastewater 0.017 SBOD/m2 d RBC performance. Perhaps (2003)
discs m3/m2 d the range of the rotational
speed studied was greater
than the optimum.
Anaerobic Acrylic plastic Diameter: 4/60 100 Synthetic high- 6.3 kg 52.8 g COD/ 0–60 rpm For the first stage at: Lu et al.
lab-scale discs 0.12 m strength COD/m3 d m2 d 0 rpm: 26% COD removed (1997a)
organic
wastewater 24 rpm: 45% COD removed
48 rpm: 32% COD removed
60 rpm: 28% COD removed
Anoxic full- – Diameter: 1/91 40 Municipal 0.67–2.1 min-1 At: Hanhan et al.
3
9.80–12.40 mg
scale 3m wastewater NO3 N dm 0.67 min-1: 1.53 g NO (2005)
3 N
removed/m2 d and 7.0% DC
1.4 min-1: 1.16 g NO
3 N
removed/m2 d and 7.5% DC
2.1 min-1: 1.29 g NO
3 N
removed/m2 d and 7.5% DC
Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol (2008) 7:155–172

Note: – Denotes that the particular information is unavailable; COD: chemical oxygen demand; DC: denitrification capacity; SCOD: soluble chemical oxygen demand
 Table 3 Experimental details and summary of results of different studies on the effect of organic and hydraulic loading in the performance of RBC systems
Type of Reactor specifications Type of Modified parameters Performance Reference
operation wastewater
and scale Type of Media No. of Submer- Rotational Hydraulic Inlet organic HRT
material dimensions stages/no. gence speed loading/ loading/ (h)
and media of discs or (%) (rpm) influent substrate
filling ratio flow rate concentration

Aerobic Acrylic discs Diameter: 3/42 32 5 High strength 20–32 dm3/ 10–32 g COD/ 24-15 For HRT = 24 h and Gupta and Gupta
lab-scale 0.25 m municipal m2 d m2 d HLR = 20 dm3/m2 d, at: (2001)
wastewater 1.1–3.3 g 20 g COD/m2 d and 2.2 g N/m2 d:
N/m2 d 19.4 g COD/m2 d removed in the 1st
stage and 99.45% NHþ
4 N overall
removed;
10 g COD/m2 d and 1.1 g N/m2 d:
8.7 g COD/m2 d removed in the 1st
Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol (2008) 7:155–172

stage and 90.50% NHþ

4 N overall
removed
Lightweight Diameter: 1/60 – 10 Palm oil mill 1.1–6 dm3/h 38–210 g COD/ 55-10 At: Najafpour et al.
clear plastic 0.35 m wastewater m2 d 38 g COD/m2 d and 10 h: 88% COD (2005)
discs 1–6.2 g N/m2 d removed and 80 g COD removed/
m2 d;
210 g COD/m2 d and 55 h: 35%
COD removed and 72 g COD
removed/m2 d At:
1 g N/m2 d and 55 h: 80% TKN
removed and 0.8 g N removed/m2 d;
6.2 g N/m2 d and 10 h: 68% TKN
removed and 4 g N removed/m2 d
Propylene Diameter: 1/– 40 3 Synthetic food 0.6–1.2 g 2.04–4.07 g 16-8 At: Sirianuntapiboon
square rings 68 mm industrial BOD5/ BOD5/m2 d 2.04 g BOD5/m2 d and 0.6 g BOD5/ (2006)
wastewater dm3 d dm3 d:
91.7, 92.5 and 47.4 for COD, BOD5
and TKN removal, respectively;
4.07 g BOD5/m2 d and 1.2 g BOD5/
dm3 d: 87.4, 90.0 and 44.1 for COD,
BOD5 and TKN removal,
respectively
Aerobic Hard Diameter: 6/16 37 8 Industrial 0.013 m3/ 5.3–17.8 mg 16 At: Torkian et al.
pilot-scale polyethylene 0.5 m wastewater m2 d SBOD5/m2 d 5.3 mg SBOD5/m2 d: 76, 75 and 85% (2003)
discs for COD, BOD5 and SBOD5 removal,
respectively;
17.8 mg SBOD5/m2 d: 59, 65 and
74% for COD, BOD5 and SBOD5
removal, respectively
159

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160 Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol (2008) 7:155–172

Note: – Denotes that the particular information is unavailable; BOD5: 5-day biochemical oxygen demand; COD: chemical oxygen demand; HLR: hydraulic loading rate; HRT:
2.3 Hydraulic loading

Surampalli and
Baumann
Reference

The performance of RBCs has historically been

(1997)
correlated with hydraulic loading. Increasing the flow
rate through the bioreactor reduces the liquid reten-

430 mg SCOD/dm3: 67.4 and 25.6%

tion time in the system and results in a reduction in

4 N removal,
removal efficiency (Table 3). In defined conditions
164.4 mg SCOD/dm3: 72.7 and
4 N

hydraulic retention time; SCOD: soluble chemical oxygen demand; SBOD5: 5-day soluble biochemical oxygen demand; TKN: total Kjeldahl nitrogen
20.2% for SCOD and NHþ increasing hydraulic loading also leads to an increase
removal, respectively; of attached biomass on RBC media surface (Alem-
for SCOD and NHþ
zadeh and Vossoughi 2001).
Performance

respectively Hydraulic loading rates vary widely depending on

the design, the substrate being removed and the
effluent concentration desired (Hoccheimer and
At:

Wheaton 1998). Some RBC manufacturers developed

design relationships for municipal wastewater in
Inlet organic HRT
(h)

which effluent quality is plotted as a function of

–

hydraulic loading, at a given temperature. These

3
concentration

period: 430 mg
4 N dm

Higher loading
Lower loading
18–42 mg 

relationships are very useful for characterizing

SCOD/dm3

SCOD/dm3
substrate
loading/

164.4 mg
Modified parameters

full-scale RBC facilities performance. However,

period:
NHþ

since in these relationships the intrinsic biodegrada-

tion constants and hydrodynamics of the system are
Hydraulic

3,785 m3/d
flow rate

not taken into consideration and equipment manu-

loading/
influent

facturers provide optimistic estimates, care should be

exercised in the selection and application of such
wastewater

empirical relationships (Grady et al. 1999). Typical

wastewater

Municipal
Type of

hydraulic loading rate range recommended by RBC

manufacturers (full-scale) is 1.292–6.833 dm3/m2 h
(Tchobanoglous and Burton 1991).
Submer- Rotational

Due to the large amount of biological mass present

speed
(rpm)

(low operating feed/microorganisms) RBCs offer

–

good stability under high or toxic hydraulic and

organic loadings (Sirianuntapiboon 2006).
dimensions stages/no. gence
of discs or (%)

–
filling ratio

2.4 Hydraulic retention time

No. of

Studies with RBC systems have revealed that longer

4/–

contact times improve the diffusion of the substrate

into the biofilm and its consequent removal of the
Reactor specifications
Media

influent (Hanhan et al. 2005; Najafpour et al. 2006).

This trend is also verified with toxic and heavy metals
–

substrates (Costley and Wallis 2000; Majumder and

and media

Gupta 2007; Sirianuntapiboon and Chuamkaew

material
Type of

2007).
Table 3 continued

Discs

Too short a HRT will result in low removal rates,

whereas too long a HRT will not be economically
full-scale
operation
and scale

feasible. In order for a biological system to compete

Type of

Aerobic

successfully with conventional physicochemical

methods of treatment, the shortest possible HRT

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Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol (2008) 7:155–172 161

associated with the most efficient removal rates is

required (Costley and Wallis 2000).
A significant advantage offered by full-scale RBCs
is to require short hydraulic retention periods (gen-
erally less than 1 h) (Benefield and Randall 1980).

2.5 RBC media

RBC systems have evolved considerably from the

original design of several rotating discs. Many
variations now exist, ranging from simple flat discs
through corrugations to cellular meshes all of which
are designed to give extra surface area per unit
volume (Fig. 2). However, as the supporting medium
gets more complex its cost increases (Ware et al.
1990).
The media used for RBCs are actually produced
from Styrofoam, polycarbonate sheets or high-density
polyethylene (HDPE) and others (Tables 2, 3). HDPE
containing UV inhibitors such as carbon black is the
material most commonly used and is provided in
different configurations or corrugation patterns (Ware
et al. 1990; Rodgers and Zhan 2003). Corrugations
enhance structural stability, improve mass transfer
and increase the available surface area (Grady et al.
1999). The types of biofilm supporting media are
classified on the basis of surface area provided and
are commonly termed low- (or standard-) density,
medium-density and high-density. Standard-density
media are defined as having a surface area of about
115 m2/m3 of reactor, with larger spaces between
media layers and are normally used in the lead stages
of a RBC process train. Medium and high-density
media have surface areas of about 135–200 m2/m3 of
reactor and are used typically in the middle and final
Fig. 2 (a) Closely spaced discs in a full-scale RBC (http://
stages of a RBC system where thinner biological www.dmw.co.jp); (b) RBC with a random packed medium
growth occurs (Tchobanoglous and Burton 1991; (http://www.wateronline.com)
Patwardhan 2003). Standard-density media must be
used in the first two stages that are highly loaded or attached a layer of polyurethane foam on plastic discs
where Beggiatoa growth is possible because excess in order to enhance the adhesion of filamentous
biological growths are more difficult to remove from organisms.
high-density media (Grady et al. 1999). At the laboratory and pilot-scale, random packed
Some modifications of conventional RBCs media media have been successfully used as substitutes for
have been explored at laboratory-scale with positive discs. Such media provide more area for attachment
results concerning substrate removal. In order to of the biofilm within the same RBC reactor size,
enhance biofilm area and volume, Radwan and contributing to higher mass transfer efficiency due to
Ramanujam (1997) modified RBC discs by attaching increased turbulence. Besides they have low energy
porous netlon sheets. Guimarães et al. (2005) also consumption and the fabrication cost is nearly one

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162 Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol (2008) 7:155–172

third that of discs (Ware et al. 1990; Mathure and

Patwardhan 2005). Different types of packing such as
Pallrings, saddles and cylindrical plastic elements
with distinctive sizes have been applied in random
packed RBC systems presenting attractive results
(Nahid et al. 2001; Mathure and Patwardhan 2005;
Sirianuntapiboon 2006).
Whilst the use of random packed media is not new,
few manufacturers are commercially exploiting it. On
large-scale, like with conventional discs, some oper-
ational problems can occur, leading to a lot or any
biofilm growth. With careful design it may be
possible to develop packing media with the appro- Fig. 3 Staging arrangements of RBC units accomplished by
priate orientation and movement allowing the (a) baffles in a tank; (b) using a series of tanks, both with flow
perpendicular to shaft
development of a suitable biofilm in a full-scale
packed cage (Ware et al. 1990). low. As the wastewater moves to the second and
As recommendation, at the design stage of a subsequent stages the RBC tends to first removing
particular RBC system, it is necessary to evaluate the ammonia and then nitrite with the final product being
characteristics of the wastewater being treated, the nitrate, assuming that the RBC is sized and operated
treatment objectives and to compare the various types correctly (Hoccheimer and Wheaton 1998). When
of biofilm supporting media reported in the literature there is recycling of wastewater from the last stage to
in terms of costs, the interfacial area offered, mass the first one, denitrification may be achieved in the
transfer coefficients, and power consumption. This first stage, where there is high organic loading and
will enable the process design engineer to choose the low dissolved oxygen content.
most appropriate type of medium (Patwardhan 2003). Experimental results of Banerjee (1997a) justify
the use of staging in a RBC reactor, since mixing
decreases gradually along the reactor, better approx-
2.6 Staging imating the system to the plug-flow regime. Radwan
and Ramanujam (1997) concluded that staging in the
Staging of RBC media is recommended to maximize design of RBC systems is especially important at
removal of BOD5 and ammonia nitrogen (NHþ 4 N). higher organic loadings and also if high effluent
Stages are accomplished by using baffles in a tank or treatment quality is required. Moreover, according to
using a series of tanks. Typical RBC staging Tawfik et al. (2002) staging of RBC decreases the
arrangements are illustrated in Fig. 3. detrimental effect of shock load on the performance
In secondary treatment applications, RBCs shall be of the system.
designed and operated in a series of three stages per Different numbers of stages have been used in
flow. For combined BOD5 and NHþ 4 N removal a several applications (Tables 2, 3). The number of
minimum of four stages is recommended per flow. stages to be used depends on the organic content of
For small plants, multiple stages are acceptable on a the influent, flow rate and several other variables
single shaft oriented in parallel to the direction of (Hoccheimer and Wheaton 1998). Staging calcula-
flow. In larger installations, shafts are mounted tions, based on COD and NHþ 4 N effluent
perpendicular to flow with several stages in series concentrations, can be done using literature tables
(Tchobanoglous and Burton 1991). (Grady et al. 1999), with the appropriate adaptations.
As the wastewater flows through the system, each
subsequent stage receives an influent with an organic
concentration lower than the previous stage. Because 2.7 Temperature
heterotrophic bacteria grow faster than nitrifiers the
first stage tends to be primarily an organic removal Temperature is one of the most important factors
device, unless the wastewater organic content is very that affect the rate of biological processes and

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Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol (2008) 7:155–172 163

consequently influences RBCs performance. At over the first-stage of an overloaded RBC, shifting
limited conditions, an increase in the influent tem- the load to the next stage and progressively taking
perature leads to an increase in the microbial activity over the system (Mba et al. 1999).
and a higher substrate removal can be observed in all RBC units properly designed and supplemented
RBC stages (Banerjee 1997b; Israni et al. 2002). Low with essential nutrients consistently produce the best
influent temperatures can adversely affect biofilm effluents and maintain biofilm on the media with
establishment, particularly in its early stages (Costley better adhesion characteristics, especially when treat-
and Wallis 2000). When wastewater temperatures ing industrial wastewater.
less than 13°C are expected, organic and nitrogen
removal rates may decrease.
Temperature correction factors need to be taken 2.9 Biofilm characteristics
into account in design criteria and can be obtained
from the equipment manufacturers or from pilot To optimize the removal of organic matter and
studies. Generally, when the temperature drops from nitrogen compounds from wastewater in a RBC, an
13 to 5°C, nearly 2.5 times more media surface area adequate understanding of the dynamic nature and
is required for achieving the same performance characteristics of the biofilm, the major constituent of
(Rodgers and Zhan 2003). the process, is essential.
In biofilms the nitrification process is less temper- A biofilm is a living microbial system composed
ature-dependent than in activated sludge. The mainly of microorganisms, extracellular polymers,
nitrification rate increases by about 4.5% per °C and water. The spatial distribution of these compo-
(Nowak 2000). nents within the biofilm matrix may influence the
Year-round operation requires that rotating cont- biofilm functions and the relationship to the imme-
actors be covered to protect the biological growth diate aquatic environment. This, in turn, depends on
from freezing temperatures or excessive heat gain, the operating conditions. For example, biofilm thick-
which accelerates media deterioration. Covers also ness depends on applied organic loading and shearing
reduce heat loss, allow the offgas to be collected for forces (Griffin and Findlay 2000).
odour control, and minimize algae growth. Individual Observations of full-scale RBCs biofilms treating
covers are preferable than entire installations being municipal wastewaters report that biofilms from the
placed in buildings (Tchobanoglous and Burton initial stages have a gelatinous aspect, being usually
1991). greyish and may present some white zones probably
due to filamentous bacteria like Beggiatoa. Biofilms
of the last stages appear more compact: are always
2.8 Wastewater characteristics thinner than in the first stages and have a brown-like
colour or sometimes reddish. In addition, the main
The influent substances and its concentration levels limiting factor of microfauna growth is the degree of
may play a significant role in the operation of RBCs. pollution in the influent expressed in terms of COD or
For example, the flux into the biofilm may be smaller BOD5. As long as this parameter decreases along the
for large and slowly biodegradable compounds. The RBC, its effect as a limiting factor decreases too,
presence of particulate organic matter can reduce the resulting in an increase in the majority of existing
flux of soluble substrate since the particulate matter species. Initial stages are almost entirely constituted
occupies space within the biofilm, which decreases by species of ciliates, whereas the last stages show
the rate of biodegradation (Grady et al. 1999). more diversified communities, not only in species of
When sulphide is present, either in the influent ciliates but also in flagellates, amoebae and metazoa
wastewater or by its production deep within the (Martı́n-Cereceda et al. 2001a; Salvadó et al. 2004).
biofilm, sulphide-oxidizing bacteria such as Beggia- Microscopic studies reveal that the outer biofilm
toa will grow on the biofilm surface. The production layer of a full-scale RBC is very heterogeneous and
of sulphide within the biofilm is due to oxygen complex, mainly composed of filamentous bacteria,
depletion. Beggiatoa will compete with heterotrophic protozoa, green eukaryotic algae and small metazo-
organisms for oxygen and in extreme cases will take ans. The inner layer is more uniform and compact

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(Martı́n-Cereceda et al. 2001b). In aerobic RBC units minimal levels, increasing along the reactor where
for carbonaceous oxidation, during the initial stages, substrate concentration is low.
heterotrophs compete with nitrifiers in the outermost An increase in the speed of rotation, at a given
biofilm layer for oxygen and space. The microbial level of submergence, leads to an increase in the
density is reduced in the innermost biofilm layer, oxygen transfer capacity of a RBC, in terms of the
which has a larger percentage of non-viable bacteria overall oxygen transfer coefficient, KLa (Rodgers and
than the outer layer (Rodgers and Zhan 2003). The Zhan 2003). At a particular rotational speed, as
active metabolic cell fraction decreases from submergence increases the KLa decreases (Mathure
35 ± 13% in the outermost to 15 ± 4% in the and Patwardhan 2005). Figure 4 shows this behav-
innermost biofilm (Okabe et al. 1996). When the iour. Some researchers have attempted to develop
depth of the biofilm is large and the concentration of empirical/mathematical models for the estimation of
dissolved oxygen in air is low, the outer layer acts KLa in RBC reactors. It is very difficult, however, to
aerobically and the inner side acts anoxic or anaer- model the oxygen transfer because these systems
obically (Nahid et al. 2001). The filamentous are very complex and include biofilm growth
organisms frequently present in the biofilm are and detachment, the participation of suspended
Beggiatoa sp. and Sphaerotilus natans (Galvan et al. biomass, etc.
2000). The development of Beggiatoa, as mentioned Israni et al. (2002) and Mathure and Patwardhan
before, is always taken as a warning for the perfor- (2005) evaluated the performance of pilot-scale RBC
mance of RBC units because its blooming prevents systems in terms of the oxygen transfer efficiency
the sloughing of thick biofilm from the discs, which (OTE). They observed that the OTE per unit energy
can lead to overload on the media supports (Rodgers consumed decreased rapidly with an increase in
and Zhan 2003). rotational speed and increased with a decrease in
Biofilm ranging from 0.5 to 4.5 mm in thickness hydraulic loading rate. Mathure and Patwardhan
have been found in full-scale disc RBCs treating (2005) also compared the oxygen transfer efficiencies
municipal wastewater. The biofilm thickness control of a conventional RBC and a RBC with different
is very important to avoid clogging or material packings such as rings, superintalox saddles and a
fatigue stresses (Griffin and Findlay 2000). A positive wiremesh spiral bundle. The OTE values for the
mechanism to strip excessive biofilm growth from the typical RBC were found to be 1–2 kg/kWh, which
media such as variable rotational speeds, supplemen- were poor in comparison with the values found with
tal air, air or water stripping or the ability to reverse packings (2–5 kg/kWh).
shaft rotation must be provided to the RBC units
(Tchobanoglous and Burton 1991).

2.10 Dissolved oxygen levels

In an aerobic RBC system the biofilm is allowed to

form on the medium, which is partly submerged in
the wastewater and partly exposed to the air. The
rotation alternately exposes this biofilm to atmo-
spheric oxygen and wastewater. Oxygen transfers
from the air to the RBC unit in three ways: by oxygen
absorption at the liquid film over the biofilm surface
when the biofilm is in the air; by direct oxygen
transfer at the air-water interface; and by direct
oxygen absorption by the microorganisms during the
air exposures (Grady 1982).
Usually, as a consequence of an active respiration Fig. 4 KLa values versus submergence level and rotational
in the initial stages, the oxygen concentration reaches speed of RBC media

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Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol (2008) 7:155–172 165

Dissolved oxygen is very important in carbona- of step-feed and effluent recirculation in increasing
ceous oxidation and nitrification being the most RBC activity was reported by Ayoub and Saikaly
important design factor for aerobic RBCs. During (2004), but for a simple soluble substrate.
operation oxygen levels must be properly controlled Besides step-feeding and recirculation other alter-
and to prevent from becoming a limiting factor, native modes of operation can be implemented. For
initial stages should have at least 2 mg DO/l (Nowak example, to avoid the excessive fungal biofilm
2000). If the rotating motion does not supply growth in the first-stage of the RBC system, after
sufficient oxygen, a supplemental aeration system 17 days of operation, Guimarães et al. (2005)
should be installed (Surampalli and Bauman 1997; reversed the feed inlet. With this simple modification
Rodgers and Zhan 2003). Usually this promotes a it was possible to double the active biofilm lifetime,
remarkable performance of the RBC, with an estab- improving the removal efficiency.
lished thinner and active aerobic biomass, allowing
considerable cost savings in design and construction
of RBC units. 2.13 RBC medium submergence
Denitrification occurs if the oxygen in the liquid
inside of the RBC media is depleted as well as in the The percentage of RBC medium submergence
liquid, which surrounds the fixed-film. Primary depends on several factors, namely the operation
clarifier effluent is the carbon source for denitrifica- type, microorganisms and characteristics of the
tion (Neu 1994). effluent to be treated. Typically in aerobic processes
of municipal wastewater treatment the submergence
is about 40%, although in nutrients removal it can
2.11 Effluent and solids recirculation attain 60%. However, due to the diversity of indus-
trial wastewater there is no reference value for disc
Effluent or solids recirculation is an attractive solu- submergence.
tion for existing RBC plants that need to be upgraded Increased submergence was developed to reduce
to meet stricter effluent limits or for increased shaft and bearing loads and to improve equipment
performance. Improved COD, BOD5 and ammonia reliability (Tchobanoglous and Burton 1991). Sub-
removal efficiencies have been reported when recir- merged biological contactors (SBCs), as are called,
culation is applied, increasing with recirculation operate at 70–90% submergence providing the
ratios (Klees and Silverstein 1992; Neu 1994). advantages of larger medium volume available and
Improved nitrification with recirculation has been fewer SBC units required (Schwingle et al. 2005).
attributed to the dilution of influent biodegradable Submergence in excess of 50% will decrease the rate
organic carbon. of oxygen transfer in the system, thereby if the SBC
In spite of being optional, recirculation should be is used to treat wastewater aerobically, additional air
considered in the RBC design for adverse conditions. drive units to provide oxygen and rotation must be
The rate of recirculation recommended is approxi- used (Rodgers and Zhan 2003). The increased
mately 25% of the average design flow (Le Groupe submergence combined with the air drive rotation
Teknika 1988). of the SBC has dramatic economic and operating
benefits (Schwingle et al. 2005).
The deeper submerged RBCs can also be applied
2.12 Step-feeding as anaerobic RBCs (Lu and Yeh 1995; Lu et al.
1997a, b) or used for denitrification (Teixeira and
To increase the process capacity, to have a more Oliveira 2001). In these applications the RBC units
robust performance and to reduce or prevent are completely closed to avoid air entrance.
overloads, the capability to step-feed RBC stage(s) At bench-scale various aspects of the anaerobic
should be provided. Working in a step-feed mode RBC process have been exploited (Lu and Yeh 1995;
Janczukowicz and Klimiuk (1992) and Saikaly and Lu et al. 1997a, b). According to Laquidara et al.
Ayoub (2003) improved the removal rates and found (1986), this system combines advantages of the
higher dissolved oxygen values. The combined effect aerobic RBC reactor with the anaerobic process

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166 Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol (2008) 7:155–172

(no oxygen transfer limitations, low quantities of data from similar systems provide the basis to
waste biological solids and recovery of the usable optimize the expansion of an existing RBC system.
energy in the form of methane). Due to these A mechanistic model is also a useful tool for this
advantages, the anaerobic RBC process appears to purpose. Investigation of the dependence of disc
be well suited for treating both medium-strength and biomass thickness and density on the shear force
high-strength organic wastewater (Lu et al. 1997a). distribution appears to be the appropriate next step
There is a great scope of application for anaerobic for improving RBC mechanistic models and resolv-
RBCs in industrial wastewater treatment, which are ing the RBC scale-up dilemma (Spengel and
presently considered suitable for treatment by other Dzombak 1992).
anaerobic processes. It is in anaerobic degradation
that RBCs could prove to be even more successful
than they have been in aerobic treatment (Ware et al. 3 Operational problems
1990).
The use of deeper submerged RBCs in denitrifi- In spite of all of the referred advantages, RBCs have
cation is not very widespread. Teixeira and Oliveira some operating problems such as difficulty in main-
(2001) investigated the effect of disc submergence on tenance of an appropriate biofilm thickness under
the performance of lab-scale RBCs, in terms of the adverse conditions (Sirianuntapiboon 2006). Mechan-
denitrification process. For an influent NO 3 N ical failures are also commonly pointed to RBCs. The
concentration of 50 mg/l, at 26°C and 2 rpm, using most common are shaft, bearing and media support
citrate ascarbon source the higher efficiency (36.71 g structure failures. These may arise due to overloading
NO 3 2
3 N m m removed) was attained with a com- conditions, excess of biofilm growth, microbiologi-
pletely submerged reactor. With the partially
 3 (64.5%) cally influenced corrosion, low frequency corrosion

submerged RBC only 16.97 g NO3 N m m2 were fatigue, improper greasing and inadequate locking of
removed. Using a pilot-scale RBC with ethanol as nuts and bolts or poor engineering design (Mba et al.
carbon source, at 2 rpm and with a plastic package, 1999).
Mohseni-Bandpi and Elliott (1996) achieved a max- A reputation for mechanical failures has restricted
imum nitrate removal rate of 168 mg NO 2
3 N/m h the growth of RBC technology (Griffin and Findlay

for an influent of 130 mg NO3 N=l. 2000). With a thorough understanding of the mech-
anisms of mechanical failure and with the
development of improved RBC biofilm supports
2.14 RBC scale-up and bearings and stronger shafts, among others, a
new approach to RBC design has resulted in units
Effective design of full-scale RBCs based on data with an expected operational life of 20 years. Also,
from bench and small pilot-scale studies has proven the improved design could revolutionize applicability
to be difficult because of the widespread use of an of RBCs to high flow/highly populated regions (Mba
inappropriate scale-up procedure. Scale-up based et al. 1999; Brazil 2006).
only on criteria such as equal tip speed, same
hydraulic loading, equal number of discs, would
alter, for example, the stresses experienced by the 4 RBCs versus other wastewater treatment
microorganisms, as well as the biomass loading and systems
the thicknesses of the biofilm and the liquid film. As a
result, the RBC performance is likely to be affected. RBCs provide a higher level of treatment than
The influence of various geometries, hydrodynamics conventional high-rate packed-bed reactors. The
and chemical (mass transfer) processes need to be efficiency of these two systems for the treatment of
considered in the scale-up of RBCs, and it is not yet a UASB reactor effluent was compared by Van
clear which of these should drive RBC scale-up Buuren (1991): at an HRT of 3.3 h, the packed-bed
(Spengel and Dzombak 1992; Patwardhan 2003). reactor removed 50% of COD while the RBC
Design relationships and curves developed by removed 70%. Moreover, at much shorter HRT of
RBC manufacturers and pilot studies and/or full-scale 0.24 h the RBC still achieved 40–80% COD removal.

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Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol (2008) 7:155–172 167

The RBC and activated sludge processes can experimentally. In addition, available RBC design
produce high degrees of treatment. However, RBCs curves and equations are not useful for the treatment
are generally less susceptible to upset due to loading of leachates or industrial wastewaters that differ in
changes and constitute a technology less compli- composition from the well-characterized wastewaters
cated than activated sludge. Nasr et al. (2007) for which they were developed. Thus, the relatively
compared, at laboratory-scale, these two biological slow acceptance and use of RBCs has been attributed,
processes for the treatment of chemical industrial in part, to the lack of a standardized design procedure
wastewater (5,239 mg COD/l and 2,615 mg BOD5/l). (Spengel and Dzombak 1992).
As both proved to be effective, producing effluents In the RBC process design it has to be determined
within the permissible limits, the engineering design the type and dimensions of medium and degree of
of each treatment system (full-scale) was developed submergence, the rotational speed, number of stages,
and the cost estimate indicated that the construction among other parameters, to achieve the optimal
cost was similar for both systems, while the running degree of treatment. Accordingly, the physical facil-
cost of activated sludge was almost twice of the ities, including the motor, gear system, etc., have to
RBC. Thus, the use of the RBC system is be designed. Moreover, the RBC configuration so
recommended. established must be such that the overall operation
Although it is not possible to find easily compa- becomes economically viable and attractive
rable values in the literature between RBCs and (Patwardhan 2003). The process design of a RBC
other biological processes, Table 4 presents the system must also take into consideration the under-
characteristics and performance of several RBCs lying hydrodynamics, biodegradation kinetics,
and of other aerobic biofilm and activated sludge oxygen transfer, development and detachment of
processes. the biological film. Thus, the first step in the overall
Estimations reveal that RBCs require only about design process should be to carry out laboratory or
25% of the energy consumption of an activated pilot-scale experiments to determine the biodegrada-
sludge system (US Filter 1998) and 70–80% of a tion kinetics over a wide range of operating
packed-bed reactor (Rodgers and Zhan 2003). conditions with the particular wastewater. With this
Manufacturers of full-scale conventional RBCs kinetics it is possible to design the large-scale RBC
specify an energy consumption of 1–1.5 kWh/kg of system. A step-wise process design algorithm is
BOD5 removed (MSE 2006). Wanner et al. (1990) presented by Patwardhan (2003).
described an energy usage of 1.6 kWh/kg of BOD5 RBC treatment plants must contain a primary
removed in a full-scale RBC packed with cylindrical sedimentation tank (for effective removal of grit,
PVC offcuts. Watanabe et al. (1994) referred that the debris and grease), the biological chamber and a
electrical power consumption of the pilot RBC was secondary clarifier. RBC media should be constructed
0.005 kWh/m2 d at a rotational speed of 1 rpm. of noncorrosive materials. Disc shafts, bearing and
drives should be designed for heavy-duty use. Some
RBC design recommendations, like not use high-
5 RBC design hints density media in the first-stage or prevent that the
first-stage keeps an organic surface loading below
Empirical observations form the basis of the design 30 g BOD5/m2 d, along with many others, were
relationships and curves that are usually used to referred along this review and should be respected.
design RBCs for treatment of domestic and some Further RBC process recommendations can be found
common industrial wastewaters. RBC manufacturers in a design manual produced by WEF and ASCE
have each developed their own empirical design (WEF and ASCE 1998).
curves, equations and guidelines based on treatment The performance of a RBC will be favoured if it is
data collected using their equipment. However, designed to withstand normal and unusual operation
empirical models cannot be relied on to predict conditions. The use of supplemental aeration, step-
the concentration profile of a substrate through an feed or removable baffles (between stages) may
RBC for conditions other than those studied increase operational flexibility of RBCs.

123
 Table 4 Performance of different aerobic wastewater treatment systems
168

Type of Type of material Type of pH HRT (h) Hydraulic Inlet organic Other related Performance Reference
reactor and media wastewater loading/influent loading/ data

123
flow rate substrate
concentration

Lab-scale
Attached growth reactors
Rotating biological contactor
PVC discs Food industry 5.2 – 0.03 kg COD/m3 d Four-stage RBC 95, 94, 78, 94 and 87% Nasr et al. (2006)
wastewater for COD, BOD5,
TON, TSS
and oil and grease
removal, respectively
Polypropylene square Synthetic food industrial 6.8 12 – 2.72 g BOD5/ One-stage RBC 89.4, 92.0, 78 and 45.2% Sirianuntapiboon
packed rings wastewater m2 d for COD, BOD5 and (2006)
TKN removal,
respectively
Packed-bed reactor
Plastic corrugated Food industry 4.6–5.0 – 0.31 m3/m2 d 87, 93, 65, 78 and 73% Abou-Elela et al.
cylindrical tubes with wastewater 0.45 kg BOD/m3 d for COD, BOD5, (in preparation)
2 cm length and TKN, TSS and oil and
1.5 cm diameter 0.03 kg N/m3 d grease removal,
respectively
Moving-bed biofilm reactor
Kaldnes carrier elements Thermomechanical 7.0 17.9 2.7 kg SCOD/m3 d Reactor 44 and 64% for COD and Jahren et al. (2002)
with 7 mm length and pulping whitewater temperature: BOD7 removal,
10 mm diameter 55°C respectively
Suspended growth reactors
Activated sludge
Chemical industry 7.2 24 3 g MLSS/dm3 93, 95, 92, 98 and 89% Nasr et al. (2007)
wastewater for COD, BOD5,
TON, TSS and oil and
grease removal,
respectively
Food industry 5.2 3 (SRT) 3 g MLSS/dm3 96, 98, 41, 94 and 74% Nasr et al. (2006)
wastewater for COD, BOD5,
TON, TSS and oil and
grease removal,
respectively
Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol (2008) 7:155–172
 Table 4 continued
Type of Type of material Type of pH HRT (h) Hydraulic Inlet organic Other related Performance Reference
reactor and media wastewater loading/influent loading/ data
flow rate substrate
concentration

Large-scale
Attached growth reactors
Rotating biological contactor
Pilot-scale Polystyrene foam discs Municipal wastewater 6.7–7.1 5 – 22 g COD/m2 d Two-stage RBC 77, 20 and 31% for COD, Tawfik et al. (2006)
NHþ4 N;and TKN
removal, respectively
Full-scale Discs Leather and fur 9.0 – – 15–20 g BOD/ Four-stage RBCs 52.69% and 76.36% for Zao-yan and
wastewater m2 d COD and BOD5 Zhen-san (1990)
50–65 g COD/ removal, respectively
Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol (2008) 7:155–172

m2 d
Full-scale Plastic packed rings Food industry 5.2 – 0.02 m3/m2 d Four-stage RBC 86, 88, 71, 73 and 77% Nasr et al. (2006)
wastewater for COD, BOD5,
TON, TSS and oil and
grease removal,
respectively
Moving-bed biofilm reactor
Pilot-scale Polypropylene Municipal wastewater – – 0.61 kg COD/m3 d 5.5 g COD/m2 d Filling ratio: 70% 76 and 92% for COD, Andreottola et al.
corrugated cylinders Two reactors in and NHþ 4 N removal, (2000a)
with 20–30 mm series respectively
length and
15–20 mm diameter
Full-scale Polypropylene Municipal wastewater – 7.9 g COD/m2 d Filling ratio: 53% 73, 83 and 72% for COD, Andreottola et al.
(upgrading) corrugated cylinders BOD5,and NHþ 4 N (2000b)
with 20–30 mm removal, respectively
length and 15–20 mm
diameter
Suspended growth reactors
Activated sludge
Pilot-scale Municipal wastewater – – 0.61 kg COD/m3 d 5.5 g COD/m2 d Sludge 84 and 98% for COD, Andreottola et al.
recirculation and NHþ 4 N removal, (2000a)
respectively

Note: – Denotes that the particular information is unavailable; BOD5: 5-day biochemical oxygen demand; COD: chemical oxygen demand; MLSS: mixed liquor suspended solids;
SCOD: soluble chemical oxygen demand; SRT: sludge retention time; TKN: total Kjeldahl nitrogen; TN: total nitrogen; TON: total organic nitrogen; TSS: total suspended solids
169

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170 Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol (2008) 7:155–172

6 Conclusions References

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