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Modulators
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 Analog communication
1. V. Chandra Sekar © Oxford University Press 2013
2. Introduction © Oxford University Press 2013
3. Communication Basics Communication deals with the principle of transferring information
from one place to another. It involves transmission and reception, and processing of
information between these two locations. The source could be in continuous form as in the
case of analog communication and as discrete signals as in the case of digital communication.
Short distance transmission of information is called baseband transmission. © Oxford University
Press 2013
4. Communication Basics For long distance transmission, information has to be impressed
upon an high frequency component to be able to reach the reception end of communication.
The high frequency component is termed as a carrier and the entire process is called
modulation. © Oxford University Press 2013
5. Need For Modulation To translate the frequency of a low-pass signal to a higher band so
that the spectrum of the transmitted bandpass signal matches the bandpass characteristics of
the channel. For efficient transmission, it has been found that the antenna dimension has to be
of the same order of magnitude as the wavelength of the signal being transmitted. Since C= f
for a typical low-frequency signal of 2 kHz, the wavelength works out to be 150 km. Even
assuming the height of the Antenna half the wavelength, the height works out to be 75 km, which
is impracticable. © Oxford University Press 2013
6. Need For Modulation To enable transmission of a signal from several message sources
simultaneously through a single channel employing frequency division multiplexing. To
improve noise and interference immunity in transmission over a noise channel by expanding the
bandwidth of the transmitted signal. © Oxford University Press 2013
7. Frequency Translation The modulation process shifts the modulating frequency to a higher
frequency, which in turn depends on the carrier frequency, thus producing upper and lower
sidebands. Hence, signals are upconverted from low frequencies to high frequencies and
downconverted from high frequencies to low frequencies in the receiver. The process of
converting a frequency or a band of frequencies to another location in the frequency spectrum is
called frequency translation. © Oxford University Press 2013
8. Types Of Modulation Depending on whether the amplitude, frequency, or phase of the carrier
is varied in accordance with the modulation signal, we classify the modulation as Amplitude
modulation Frequency modulation Phase modulation. The method of converting information
into pulse form and then transmitting it over a long distance is called pulse modulation. © Oxford
University Press 2013
9. Transmitter The message as it arrives may not be suitable for direct transmission. It may be
voice signal, music, picture, or data. The signals, which are not of electrical nature, have to be
converted into electrical signals. This is the role of transmitter. Typical block diagram is illustrated
below. © Oxford University Press 2013
10. Receiver A receiver is meant to receive the electromagnetic signal which carries the
information. It is tuned to receive the required information at a predetermined frequency. The
output of the receiver is usually fed into a transducer which converts the information into
understandable signal. © Oxford University Press 2013
11. Multiplexing When it is required to transmit more signals on the same channel, baseband
transmission fails, as in the case of audio signals being broadcast from different stations on the
same channel. To encounter this problem either frequency division multiplexing or time
division multiplexing is employed. This method of transmitting several channels
simultaneously is known as frequency division multiplexing (FDM). In Time Division
Multiplexing (TDM) several signals are transmitted over a time interval. Each signal is allotted a
time slot and it gets repeated cyclically. The only difference compared to FDM is that the signals
are to be sampled before sending. © Oxford University Press 2013
12. V. Chandra Sekar © Oxford University Press 2013
13. Signals – An Introduction © Oxford University Press 2013
14. Signals: Any function that carries information. Shows how a parameter varies with
another parameter. Will be dealing with signals with time or frequency as an independent
variable Signals © Oxford University Press 2013
15. Signals are classified as: Continuous and discrete. Causal and Non causal. Even and
Odd. Deterministic and Random Real and complex Energy and power type Signals ©
Oxford University Press 2013
16. Discrete Signals © Oxford University Press 2013
17. Continuous Signals © Oxford University Press 2013
18. Causal Signals © Oxford University Press 2013
19. Even & Odd Signals © Oxford University Press 2013
20. ( )sin sin ( ) , t c t t π π = © Oxford University Press 2013 Special Signals
21. Sgn(t) = 1, t > 0 = -1, t < 0 © Oxford University Press 2013 Signum Signals
22. Impulse or Delta signal ( ) 1 ( ) ( ) ( ) t and v t t dt v t δ δ ∞ −∞ ∞ −∞ = = ∫ ∫ © Oxford
University Press 2013
23. Classification Of Systems Discrete time and Continuous Time systems. Time Invariant
and Time varying systems Causal and Non Causal system Instantaneous and Dynamic
systems Stable and Unstable systems © Oxford University Press 2013
24. Fourier Series & Transform 1. Fourier series: - Any periodic of function of time x(t) having a
fundamental period ‘T’ and frequency 1/T can be represented as an infinite series of sinusoidal
waveforms of fundamental and its harmonic frequencies. 2. If a function is x(t), its Fourier series
is given by: 0 1 1 ( 0 cos(2 ) sin(2 )n n n n x t a a fnt b fntπ π ∞ ∞ = = =+ +∑ ∑ © Oxford
University Press 2013
25. Where: 2 0 2 2 2 1 ( ) 2 2 ( ) cos 2 ( ) sin(2 ) T T T n T n a x t dt T nt a x t dt T T b x t nt dt T π
π − − = = = = ∫ ∫ © Oxford University Press 2013
26. Fourier Transform To represent aperiodic function Fourier transform is used Unlike
Fourier series, this representation will be continuous in frequency domain It is given by: Also
x(t) can be obtained from X(f) as: x(t) = 2 ( ) ( ) j ft X f x t e dtπ ∞ − −∞ = ∫ ∫ ∞ ∞− dfefX ftj π2 )( ©
Oxford University Press 2013
27. Laplace Transform 1. It converts time domain signal into frequency domain a plane called ‘s’
plane having as the real part and ω as the imaginary part. 2. Laplace transform is given by the
expression: 3. The inverse Laplace transform is given by: σ ( ) ( ) ( ) . . ( ) ( ) st jw t x x t e dt i e X
x t e dtσ ω ω ∞ − −∞ ∞ − + −∞ = = ∫ ∫ 1 ( ) ( ) 2 st x t X s e ds jπ ∞ ∞ = ∫ © Oxford University
Press 2013
28. Z Transform Z transform is a polar representation compared to rectangular representation
in Laplace transform It is for discrete time function Z transform of a function x(t) is given by:
Inverse Z transform is given by: In Z transforms a term ROC is defined as “region of
convergence” where the Z transform of a function has finite value. [ ] [ ] n X z x n z− = ∑ 1 [ ] [ ]x
n x z Z = © Oxford University Press 2013
29. V. Chandra Sekar © Oxford University Press 2013
30. Amplitude Modulation © Oxford University Press 2013
31. Amplitude of the carrier is changed in proportion to the instantaneous amplitude of a
message signal Carrier frequency must be relatively higher than the message frequency
Modulation index ‘m’ is the ratio of Em/Ec Percentage of modulation = m x 100% Amplitude
Modulation © Oxford University Press 2013
32. AM Envelope © Oxford University Press 2013
33. Frequency Spectrum Of AM Wave © Oxford University Press 2013
34. Power Spectrum Of AM © Oxford University Press 2013
35. Suppressed Carrier Systems Double side band (DSB) system Single side band
system(SSB) SSB with pilot carrier Independent side band (ISB) system Vestigial side
band (VSB) system Other AM Systems © Oxford University Press 2013
36. AM Waveforms For AM, DSB & SSB © Oxford University Press 2013
37. Single Sideband Advantages: Lesser power consumption. Conservation of bandwidth.
Noise reduction. Less fading. Disadvantages: Requires complex receiver. At the receiver,
coherent carrier has to be generated. In case of pilot carrier, at the receiver end it has to be
boosted properly. © Oxford University Press 2013
38. Square law Modulators Switching Modulators Transistor Modulators Low level
Medium level High level AM Modulators © Oxford University Press 2013
39. Balanced Modulators 1. Balanced ring Modulator 2. Balanced bridge Modulator 3. Transistor
balanced Modulator 4. FET balanced Modulator SSB Generation 1. The filter method 2. The
phase shift method 3. The Third method Types Of Modulators © Oxford University Press 2013
40. AM Demodulators 1. Rectifier detector 2. Envelope detector Detector Distortions 1. Diagonal
peak clipping 2. Negative peak clipping SSB Reception 1. Coherent detection 2. Reception with
pilot carrier Demodulators, Distortions & Reception © Oxford University Press 2013
41. AM Transmitters Low Level AM DSBFC Transmitter © Oxford University Press 2013
42. High Level DSBFC Transmitter © Oxford University Press 2013
43. SSB Transmitter SSB suppressed carrier Transmitter: BPF is used to remove the other
sideband © Oxford University Press 2013
44. Phase Shift Method © Oxford University Press 2013
45. SSB Transmitter With Pilot Carrier © Oxford University Press 2013
46. AM Receiver © Oxford University Press 2013 Super Heterodyne Receiver
47. SSB Pilot Receiver © Oxford University Press 2013
48. Communication Receiver © Oxford University Press 2013
49. Selectivity Sensitivity Dynamic range Fidelity Bandwidth Noise temperature
and equivalent noise temperature © Oxford University Press 2013 Receiver Parameters
50. Costas Loop © Oxford University Press 2013
51. V. Chandra Sekar © Oxford University Press 2013
52. Angle Modulation © Oxford University Press 2013
53. Angle modulation includes both frequency and phase modulations. In Frequency
Modulation(FM), the frequency of the carrier is changed with respect to amplitude of the
message signal In phase modulation(PM), the phase of the carrier is changed with respect to
amplitude of the message signal Unlike AM, both FM and PM are nonlinear, hence much more
difficult to implement and analyze. Introduction © Oxford University Press 2013
54. 1. Modulation index for FM wave is given by: Where ∆f is the frequency deviation and fm is
the modulating frequency 2. The expression for an FM wave is: 3. Modulation index for PM wave
is given by: where, is the phase deviation given by: 4. The expression for an PM wave is: m f f β
∆ = ( ) cos[2 sin{2 ( )}]FM c mf t A f t f tπ β π= + p mm k E= pK p m k E θ∆ = ( ) cos[2 cos{2 (
)}]PM c mf t A f t f tπ θ π= + ∆ Modulation Index & Deviation © Oxford University Press 2013
55. Frequency & Phase Modulator Phase modulator can be used to generate FM wave and FM
modulator can be used to generate PM wave as shown: © Oxford University Press 2013
56. FM & PM Waves © Oxford University Press 2013
57. FM with β <<1 is called narrowband FM Expression for narrow band FM: f(t) = Vc {cos
ωct - cos (ωc – ωm) t + cos (ωc + ωm) t} Phasor diagram of narrowband FM: Narrowband FM
© Oxford University Press 2013
58. FM with β > 10 is called wideband FM Expression for wideband FM: f(t) = Jo(β) cos
ωc t – J1(β){ cos(ωc – ωm) t – cos(ωc – ωm) t}+ J2 (β) { cos (ωc - 2ωm) t + cos (ωc + 2ωm) t} –
J3 (β) { cos (ωc - 3ωm) t – cos (ωc - 3ωm t) } + ------- The function Jn(β) is called the Bessel
function. The spectrum is composed of a carrier with an amplitude Jo (β) and a set of side
bands spaced symmetrically on either side of the carrier at frequency separation of ωm, 2ωm,
3ωm --- and so on. Unlike AM, FM has an infinite number of side bands along with carrier.
These side bands are separated from the carrier by fm, 2fm, 3fm ---------. Wideband FM ©
Oxford University Press 2013
59. Bessel Function As A Function Of β © Oxford University Press 2013
60. Bessel Function Values © Oxford University Press 2013
61. Carson’s formula for bandwidth of FM system Band width = 2(∆f + fm) HZ For low
modulation index, in case of narrow band FM since 2∆f << fm, equation reduces to Band width =
2fm and for wide band FM where ∆f >> fm, equation reduces to Band width = 2∆f. Average
power in sinusoidal wideband FM: PT = Vc 2 Jo 2 (β) /R + 2Vc 2 /R { J1 2 (β) + J2 2 (β) + J3 2
(β) + ---------- } = Vc 2 /R [ J0 2 (β) + 2 { J1 2 (β) + J2 2 (β) + J3 2 (β) + -------------- }] = Pc [ Jo 2
(β) + 2 { J1 2 (β) + J2 2 (β) + J3 2 (β) + ------------------- }] where Pc is the unmodulated power Vc
2 /R. Bandwidth Requirements For Angle Modulated Waves © Oxford University Press 2013
62. The expression for sinusoidal FM is: Kp em(t) = Kp Em sin ωm t = ∆ Φ sin ωm t where ∆ Φ =
Kp Em, ∆ Φ is defined as “Peak phase deviation” and is directly proportional to the peak
modulating signal. Sinusoidal Phase Modulation © Oxford University Press 2013
63. Phasor Representation © Oxford University Press 2013
64. FM generation Varactor diode modulators Reactance modulators Modulators using
linear integrated circuits Indirect methods for narrow band and wideband PM generation:
Varactor diode in direct PM modulators Direct method with transistor FM & PM Generation ©
Oxford University Press 2013
65. Slope detector Balance slope detector Foster Seeley discriminator Ratio detector
Demodulator using PLL Quadrature detector Zero crossing detector FM Detectors © Oxford
University Press 2013
66. Crosby Direct FM Transmitter: FM Transmitter © Oxford University Press 2013
67. Indirect FM Transmitter © Oxford University Press 2013
68. Super heterodyne Receiver FM Receivers © Oxford University Press 2013
69. Double Superheterodyne Receiver © Oxford University Press 2013
70. Phased Lock Loop It is a feedback system that generates a signal that has a fixed relation
to the phase of a reference signal . A phase locked loop circuit responds to both the frequency
and phase of the input signals, by changing the frequency of the voltage controlled oscillator until
it matches to the reference input in both frequency and phase. Hence it is a negative feedback
system except that the feedback error signal is a phase rather than a current or voltage signal as
usually the case in conventional feedback system. © Oxford University Press 2013
71. PLL Block Diagram (Analog) © Oxford University Press 2013
72. PLL Block Diagram (Digital) © Oxford University Press 2013
73. Data and Tape Synchronization Modems FSK Modulation FM Demodulation
Frequency Synthesizer Tone Decoding Frequency Multiplication and Division PLL
Applications © Oxford University Press 2013
74. Is a powerful technique to generate RF signals. A direct digital synthesizer operates by
storing the points of a waveform in digital format, and then recalling them to generate the
waveform. The rate at which the synthesizer completes one waveform then determines the
frequency. Direct Digital Synthesis © Oxford University Press 2013
75. Direct Digital Synthesis © Oxford University Press 2013 Block Diagram :
76. V. Chandra Sekar © Oxford University Press 2013
77. Pulse Modulation © Oxford University Press 2013
78. Pulse Modulation In analog pulse modulation, the carrier is a periodic pulse train The
amplitude, position and width of the carrier pulse train are varied in a continuous manner in
accordance with the corresponding sample value of message signal. Thus in Pulse
modulation, information is transmitted basically in analog form, but the transmission takes place
at discrete times. © Oxford University Press 2013
79. In the case of digital pulse modulation the message signal is represented in a form that is
discrete in both time and amplitude The data is transmitted as a sequence of coded pulse.
This type of modulation is also called pulse code modulation (PCM). PCM is the most widely
used form in the field of Telecommunication. Digital Data transmission provides a higher level
of noise immunity, more flexibility in the band width Power tradeoff possibility of providing
more security to data and ease of implementation using large scale integrated circuits. © Oxford
University Press 2013
80. Pulse width modulation (PWM) Pulse position modulation (PPM) Pulse amplitude
modulation (PAM) Pulse code modulation (PCM) Predominant Methods Of Pulse Modulation
© Oxford University Press 2013
81. Pulse Width Modulation © Oxford University Press 2013
82. Pulse Amplitude Modulation © Oxford University Press 2013
83. Pulse Amplitude Modulation © Oxford University Press 2013
84. Pulse Modulation Technique © Oxford University Press 2013
85. PCM offers a method of over coming some of the disadvantages of other type of pulse
modulation. In PCM the instantaneous amplitude of the sample is represented by a binary
code resulting in a series of ones and zeros or mark and space. All pulses have the same
height and same shape Since only ones and zeros are sent. The receiver has only to detect
the presence or absence of a pulse. A distorted pulse does not degrade the signal as long as
the pulse can still be recognized. Hence PCM is less sensitive to noise than wither PAM or PWM
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) © Oxford University Press 2013
86. PCM Transmitter & Receiver © Oxford University Press 2013
87. When more than one application or connection share the capacity of one link it is called
multiplexing. This results in better utilization of resources. A typical example is, many
conversations over telephone line, trunk line, wireless channel, etc. A few examples of
multiplexing are: TDM- Time division multiplexing FDM- Frequency division multiplexing
WDM- Wavelength division multiplexing CDMA- Code division multiple access Multiplexing ©
Oxford University Press 2013
88. FDM Transmitter © Oxford University Press 2013
89. FDM Receiver © Oxford University Press 2013
90. Synchronous TDM Transmitter © Oxford University Press 2013
91. Synchronous TDM Receiver © Oxford University Press 2013
92. Analog Carrier System Using FDM © Oxford University Press 2013
93. Digital Carrier System Using TDM © Oxford University Press 2013

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