International Journal of English Literature and Social Sciences (IJELS) Vol -3, Issue-6, Nov - Dec, 2018

https://dx.doi.org/10.22161/ijels.3.6.51 ISSN: 2456-7620

F. Sionil Jose’s Novel “Viajero” Captures

Different Forms of Filipino Diaspora
Matilda H. Dimaano
College of Arts and Sciences, Batangas State University,Rizal Avenue Extension, Batangas City 4200, Philippines
[email protected] m

Abstract— Literature as form of art can be a medium for stated that literature is one of the most interesting and
expression of man’s lived experiences. As P.T. Barnum, significant expressions of humanity (Kleckner, 2017). It
the greatest showman stated, literature is one of the most helps address human nature and conditions that affect
interesting and significant expressions of humanity. people as well as taught them to live their lives to the
Diaspora literature conveys the idea of homeland, and fullest (Theodysseyonline.com Website).
narrates stories of people’s journeys. This study describes Reading literature enriches life and serves as a
Filipino diasporic experiences as captured in the novel gateway of learning. People learn about the past and
“Viajero”. Results show that different forms of diaspora enrich their knowledge and understanding of the world as
are depicted including diaspora with cause, diaspora as literature unites mankind. According to Tolstoy, without
escapists, diaspora silent at home and diaspora of self. literature men would be like wild beasts because it
Diaspora with cause is a form of exile where the person endows an understanding, empathy in the reader, even for
departed his country with noble intent. Diaspora as someone who is much separated to him by time and
escapists is a form of exile where the person flies out of distance (Quora.com Website).
his country because of committed wrongdoing to existing The British scholar and novelist C.S. Lewis stated that
leadership, while diaspora silent at home is a form of literature does not only add reality but also enriches the
exile where a person leaves his country because of necessary competencies that the daily life requires and
discontent, frustration from experienced injustice and loss provides; and in this respect, it irrigates the deserts that
of trust in a corrupt government. Diaspora of self is a our lives have already become. Thinking patterns and
form of exile where a person leaves his country full of social norms prevalent in society are portrayed in varied
dreams and hopes for attaining better future but literary works which depict different facets of man’s life.
experienced varied forms of hardships and abuses. The These works also stirred a person’s imagination and
lived experiences of Filipinos can serve as reference point creativity and builds strong connection to the audience
for migrant workers on the kind of life in store for them so through messages imparted. Emotions portrayed in these
they will have a sense of preparedness when they pursue works are associated with the readers as they become
their dreams of better future. This would aid governments emotionally involve, which have deep impact on their
in developing better policies protecting migrant workers’ minds and lives (Buzzzle. com Website).
rights, and allow more humane and self-fulfilling Life is best understood when reading great literary
transition in foreign lands without losing their sense- works as these help a person sees the different facets of
identity. life and its perspectives. Literature is important as it lays
Keywords— Diaspora, El Viajero, Filipinos, human and the foundation of a fulfilling life in terms of breadth of
self-fulfilling transition, lived experiences knowledge, moral values, and enjoyment which adds life
to the living. Among the literary genres, it is the novel
I. INTRODUCTION that best exemplified the significant human experiences
The meaningful lived experience of man is captured in and realistic picture of the society. Recreated in the
literature as this is the foundation of life that makes novels is the social world of man, his relationship with his
people see the world as viewed by others. In literature family, with the community, with politics and state. The
words are alive that teach the readers on life experiences many plots comprising the novel depicts societal
that touches their hearts. It enables them to connect problems that highlight people’s sufferings and hardship.
human relationships as literature serves as the very mirror It serves as a reservoir of human experiences like
to understand their own selves, the society, the world and hardships encountered in life, frustrations,
the realities in life. P.T. Barnun, the greatest showman disappointments, pains and sufferings. Kennedy et al.,
and most progressive entrepreneur of the 19th century, (1993) claimed that among the forms of imaginative

www.ijels.com Page | 1275

International Journal of English Literature and Social Sciences (IJELS) Vol -3, Issue-6, Nov - Dec, 2018
https://dx.doi.org/10.22161/ijels.3.6.51 ISSN: 2456-7620
literature, the novel has far outdistanced the popularity of In Philippine literature, exilic sensibility is
other literary genres. This is so because the novelist tries fundamental. The Filipino is an exile whether at home or
to create in the readers certain experiences in actual life. abroad, and the exilic consciousness is central to
This sense of actuality may be the quality that sets the Philippine literature in English regardless of the side of
novel apart from other long narratives or fictional the Pacific on which it is published or written, or in which
literature. It is in the words of Reeve (1975), a picture of country such literature characters reside (Delmendo,
real life and manners, and of the time in which it was 2005). Further, in most critic evaluation of Philippine
written. In terms of the writer’s choice, the novels maybe writers of Fiction in English, it occurs time and again the
historical, psychological or social in content. Historical theme that Filipino is a stranger in his own house; that the
novel chooses an age or era in the past where it recaptures Filipino is pictured as an outsider, searching for his
its spirit and atmosphere, its historical events and identity, struggling with alienation of one form or another
characters to give authenticity to the narration while and that the search and the journey are pervasive symbols
psychological novel transfers the setting from the outside in Philippine literature (Galdon, 1972). This holds true to
world to the mind and interior life of the individual. the novel of F. Sionil Jose “Viajero” which means
Social novel deals with mores and customs of a distinct traveler or wanderer. It depicts one of the pressing social
social group and the social, economic, political, racial, problems that haunts the country today, the problem on
and problems faced by those in society. human migration or diaspora..
As regards to diaspora literature, it consisted of the According to Khan (2015) human migration is the
idea of homeland, and narratives regarding harsh journeys movement of people from one place to another to seek
of people either voluntary or compelled in terms of permanent or semi-permanent residence. People
economic, political or social as it continuously connects considered moving away from home in search for a better
to the homeland of these people personally or vicariously. life. There are many factors that contribute to the rapid
Their relationship is defined by their ethno-communal increase in human migration. The United Nations in 2014
consciousness and solidarity. The following elements reported the highest level of 59.5 million forced migration
provide basis for the origin of diaspora in literature which of people because of violence, conflict, and persecution.
focuses on either individual or community attachment to There are also the push and pull factors which include
homeland and these include the sense of yearning for their social, political and economic causes. Among the causes,
homeland and the curious attachment to the traditions and the most pressing reason for migration is economic
culture of their country and ethic group, religion and followed by political. People leave their homeland in
language (Shodhganga.inflibnet. Website). According to search for opportunities and greener pasture. Migrants
the British Indian novelist and essayist Rushdie (1991), tend to work abroad to escape the depressing condition of
the migrant remains a peripheral man, a creature living on poverty and unemployment, discrimination, and
the edge as returning to homeland is metaphorical and the oppression. These people would rather take the risk and
yearning for homeland is often counted by the desire to endure all the misery, abuses, frustration and despair out
belong to the new home. of migration to attain their dreams and hopes of finding
Experiences of displacement and the otherness of the the opportunities they seek in life.
other, the new phenomena of hybridity, crisis of language, In the Philippines the trend of migration is nothing
culture and double consciousness are considered the foci new (Wood. 2007). It is a country of emigration since the
of diasporic literature. A person who is exiled is either Philippines is one among the largest migrant countries of
forced or voluntarily leaves his homeland which leads origin in the world. It is part of Filipino’s pervasive
him to experience identity confusion, identification and culture deeply-rooted in them to migrate to have better
alienation problems. Once he is in a foreign land, he must life despite the risks and vulnerabilities they are likely to
know himself and blend in his new environment as the face. For decades, sizeable numbers of Filipinos have left
core of diasporic consciousness is the problem of identity. home in search of permanent settlement or temporary
Zang (2000) explained that diaspora enacts a sociocultural work overseas, trends long attributed to the fragile
practice that thrives on a process of constant economy (Asis, 2006). In many ways, it shaped the
resignification of the established assumptions and Philippine society. Labor migration of Filipinos affects
meanings of identity. As the exiles try to merge with their families for decades as there are limited employment
people from another country their culture, behavior, opportunities in the country. Filipinos are motivated to
relationship, and personality are affected. There is that migrate for brighter future abroad or for financial
feeling of non-acceptance and loss of sense of rewards. But, on the grounds is often very different as
belongingness. migrants remain vulnerable to exploitation and abuse
including contract violations, sexual harassment, violence

www.ijels.com Page | 1276

International Journal of English Literature and Social Sciences (IJELS) Vol -3, Issue-6, Nov - Dec, 2018
https://dx.doi.org/10.22161/ijels.3.6.51 ISSN: 2456-7620
and discrimination (Centerformigrantadvocacy.com Sociological approach may be considered as an extension
Website). of the historical approach to literary criticism as both
Hence, in this study, the varied diasporic experiences considered literature as an expression of the man within a
of Filipinos are captured in the novel Viajero. This study given social situation. Such social situation is often
aimed to accomplish the following objectives : reduced to a question of economics, thus passing into th e
1. Describe the different types of diaspora experienced by “proletarian approach”. In so-doing, the socio-historical
Filipinos. approach tends to underscore the conflict between two
2. Discuss the reasons of Filipinos for leaving their classes in the spectrum of their class or social
country. stratification. In the essence, the sociological approach
3. Provide insights on what can be gleaned out of these stresses social relevance, social commitment and
experiences. contemporaneity of the thematic substance.

II. METHODOLOGY III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The novel “Viajero” by F. Sionil Jose is the primary In the novel Viajero the different forms of diaspora or
source material of the study. This study made use of exiles experienced by Filipinos are diaspora with a cause,
descriptive method in looking into portrayals of realities diaspora as escapist, diaspora-silent at home and diaspora
and characterizations of personalities in the novel. This of self. Diasporas according to Bhabha (1994) refer to
involved content analysis which is a systematic technique gatherings of exiles and émigrés and refuges; gathering
in analyzing message content and message handling. on the edge of foreign cultures; gathering at the frontiers;
Content analysis is a research tool used to determine the gatherings in the ghettos or cafes of city centers;
presence of certain words or concepts within texts or sets gathering in the half-life, half-light of foreign tongues or
of texts and researchers quantify and analyze the in the uncanny fluency of author’s language, gathering the
presence, meanings and relationships of such words and signs of approval and acceptance, degrees, discourses,
concepts, then make inferences about the messages within disciplines; gathering the memories of underdevelopment
the texts, the writers, the audience, and even the culture of other world lived restoratively; gathering the past in a
and time of which these are a part (Umsl.edu/- ritual of revival; gathering the present.
wilmarthp.com Website, 2004). Stephens (2015) In the novel Viajero, diaspora with a cause is a kind of
explained that content analysis examine what texts are exile where a person moves away from home and country
about, considering the content from a perspective, such as to represent the plight of the Filipinos to the Spanish
socio-historical, gender, culture, or thematic studies. government since the Philippines is a colony of Spain.
According to Bautista et al., (1993) in literary Vandeemer (1967) stated that after Miguel Lopez de
criticism, the use of content analysis aims to maintain the Legaspi‟s landing in Cebu in 1565, the Philippines
writer’s intensions, arguments, thematic substance, and became a part of the Spanish empire for over three
target audience. It aims als o to describe the nature of the hundred years. Multiple strategies were utilized by Spain
situation, as it exists in the novel studied and explore the in order to fully colonize and claim the Philippines as
causes of particular phenomena. It involves examining the their own.
novel studied on the assumption that a novel of socio - Once Spain claimed the Philippines as a colony, it
historical nature is a historical document in terms of began to use the islands as a stepping stone for trade
setting, characterization and subject matter. between Spain, Mexico, and the Far East, mainly China
In this regard in dissecting and analyzing the novel, (Skowronek 1998). The Philippines under the control of
sociological and historical approaches to literary criticism Spain suffered many abuses committed by the corrupt
were used. According to Kennedy et al., (2016) when Spanish officials. One chief source of abuse is the
using the sociological approach, a critic examines encomienda system. By this system, pieces of territory,
literature in the cultural, economic, and political context with their inhabitants and resources, were granted by the
in which it is written or received; he might look at the Spanish king to the colonizers as a reward for services to
society or context in which the text was written or might the Crown and the encomienderos ruled like the feudal
look at the society in which the text is read or seen or lords of Medieval Europe and exploited their territories to
heard; he might look at the culture of the society, the limit where they abused, overtaxed, cheated, and
including standards of behavior, etiquette, the relations practically enslaved the Filipinos (Goodlight, 2010).
between opposing groups, and critic might also look at In the novel, diaspora with a cause is best represented
the economy and politics of the society, including its by the two Philippine heroes in the likes of Rizal and
system of government, the rights of individuals, how Marcelo H. del Pilar both forerunners of the propaganda
wealth is distributed, and who holds the power. movement that awakened the Filipino people from the

www.ijels.com Page | 1277

International Journal of English Literature and Social Sciences (IJELS) Vol -3, Issue-6, Nov - Dec, 2018
https://dx.doi.org/10.22161/ijels.3.6.51 ISSN: 2456-7620
abuses of Spanish colonizers. The Propaganda Movement Spanish imperialism. Fired by a sense of justice against
was a cultural organization formed in 1872 by Filipino the abuses of the clergy, Del Pilar attacked bigotry and
expatriates in Europe comprising of the Filipino elite hypocrisy and defended in court the impoverished victims
called "ilustrados", exiled liberals and students attending of racial discrimination (Biography. yourdictionary.com
Europe's universities gravitated to the movement Website, 2010). Del Pilar went to Spain in 1888 to flee
(Geni.com Website, 2018). As narrated in the novel, from clerical persecution. He refused the assimilationist
Buddy the leading protagonist, a Filipino American, who stand and planned to have an armed revolution with the
is pursuing his graduate studies in Spain happened to conviction that insurrection is the last remedy, especially
talked to Father Jack, a lanky young Jesuit American when the people have acquired the belief that peaceful
scholar saying that: means to secure the remedies for evils prove futile.
…Of the exiles in Spain, Rizal was the most important. Buddy in the novel was fascinated with another exile,
He was also acknowledged leader, the renaissance man - self -effacing and who is capable of heroism as well in the
a medical doctor, a poet, a novelist, a scholar, a painter, person of Marcelo H. Del Pilar. He learned that:
and sculptor. He dominated the exile community in Del Pilar was sent to Spain by the Manila Committee
Europe. His family in Calamba, Laguna had difficulties … to propagandize for reforms in Spain itself, the Spanish
with the Dominican friars who owned the hacienda where government having been changed into a more liberal one,
the Rizal’s lived. Rizal had encouraged them to organize, capable of compassion and willing to listen to the
to fight the friars and bring their case to Spain itself. He complaints of the Indios (p104).
had argued that if Filipinas was indeed a part of Spain, Marcelo H. Del Pilar lived the excruciating pain, the
then the Spanish courts should have a say on matters such vicious loneliness and disappointment as only del Pilar
as this (pp103-104). could feel; indeed, of all exiles in Europe at that time, he
The Spaniards were tyrants to the Filipinos whom they was the most tragic figure…Reading the letters of the
called the Indios. The Filipinos were used as slave to exiles, particularly del Pilar’s, he recognized their
work on the plantations and in the production of goods. anguish… (p105).
They were treated as less than the Europeans and were These exiles, Rizal and del Pilar, sacrifice their
abused (Philippinesprojectbymarandgabi.weebly.com respective lives to help the Filipino people gained their
Website). With the information learned through the personal and national freedom from Spain.
readings about Spain, Buddy’s formative ideas on history, The second form of exile is the diaspora of escapist. In
on exile and revolutionary nationalism became more the context of the study, this refers to a government
lucid. He learned that: official who fled the country due to the abuses committed
…The Spaniards as they themselves have indelibly by enriching himself in office, leading a corrupt
embossed in history, are cruel people and this cruelty is government whose administration is characterized as
what they had left, not Catholicism which has become a infamous due to corruption, extravagance and brutality. In
grievous lie though unknown as such by the multitudes the novel, this form of diaspora is represented by the
worshipping those wooden images. A lie, too, is the Marcos regime. Ferdinand Marcos was the president of
humbling piety because underneath the penances and the Philippines from 1966 to 1986 before fleeing to the
scented rosaries is the forgotten agony of those they had United States who declared martial law in 1972 and
bludgeoned with the cross. This then is the sum of it all, established an autocratic regime based on widespread
the distillation of centuries, this legacy of cruelty favoritism that eventually lead to economic stagnation
encrusted in the lands they had plundered, its grand and recurring reports of human rights violations
hypocrisy shaping the people, particularly their leaders (Biography.com Website, 2018).
(pp101-102). Buddy went to Hawaii for a six-month fellowship
…The Spaniards executed the Indios with it in public. where he was to look at remnants of the communities set
They strapped a man garbed in white, a hood over his up by the early Filipino Migratory workers. There he met
head, to a chair with a metal screw clamped on the neck. the Filipino senator, Benigno “Ninoy” Aquino Jr. who
Then, slowly, the screw was tightened, until the poor gave talk to Filipino students sponsored convocation.
man’s neck was broken or he was strangled. They left his Senator Aquino was the principal opponent of Philippine
corpse on the platform the whole day for everyone to see President Ferdinand Marcos who has been in jail since
(p245). Marcos declared martial law as he was convicted by a
As regards to Marcelo H. Del Pilar, he was a military tribunal in Manila of charges of subversion,
Philippine revolutionary propagandist and satirist who murder and illegal possession of firearms (Shaw,1977)
tried to marshal the nationalist sentiment of the but was allowed to go to the United States for medical
enlightened Filipino ilustrados, or bourgeoisie, against care.

www.ijels.com Page | 1278

International Journal of English Literature and Social Sciences (IJELS) Vol -3, Issue-6, Nov - Dec, 2018
https://dx.doi.org/10.22161/ijels.3.6.51 ISSN: 2456-7620
The imposition of martial law by Ferdinand Marcos originally formed to fight the Japanese but extended their
had forced into exile hundreds who opposed him. Aquino fight into a rebellion against the Philippine Government.
jailed by Marcos, was given permission to leave for the In the novel, before the assassination of Senator
United States for heart surgery and had decided to Aquino, he gave Buddy a list of names whom he can
remain there after surgery to mount a campaign against made contact with in his visit to the Philippines which
the Marcos regime…In fact he ((Aquino) said, every include the Mercados, the priest and the sacristan
Filipino exile who felt passionately about his native land including Prof. E. Hortenzo, a university Profess or. When
should go back if he could, to help rebuild that nation Buddy arrived in the Philippines the prevailing milieu
from the rubble of the Marcos dictatorship (pp184-185). was at the height of martial law of Marcos of which one
Buddy in one of his conversation with Senator Aquino reason cited for this declaration was the insurgency
was asked problem. When Marcos declared Martial Law in the
… Just as I have always been? I will be insecure Philippines, specific event that he cited to justify his
there, afraid even. So much crime in the streets, poverty, decision was the Communist insurgency
oppression, a dictatorship that is vicious, greedy beyond (Martiallawmuseum.ph Website), aside from poverty,
satiation…Ninoy answered that you are arguing precisely lack of education and neglect of government support to
for the reasons that you are needed there. Who was it who the marginalized communities. Buddy after his talk with
said, where there is oppression, and injustice, that is my Father Jess in Tondo, the toughes t slum area in Manila,
country. observed while on the cab that:
Marcos was forced to flee the country to Hawaii in …All over Tondo, the rot and stink of a bay that had
exile in the midst of mass demonstrations against his ru le become a cesspool seeped into the airconditioned cab…
as he was deserted by his former supporters, where they They skirted the seaside boulevard, past the same dreary
faced investigation on embezzlement charges amalgam of squatter, houses, children everywhere as if
(History.com Website, 1986). Buddy in his visit to they were spread upon Tondo-blessings upon the land?
Manila he witnessed the events unfolded on that fateful or curse that would drag the country deeper into the
day Marcos left the country. He learned that: nightmarish swamp of poverty (p195).
…Marcos had fled the country; it was final, absolute- He remembered what Father Jess told him that:
and from that mass of people, a joyous shout as he had …There is so much cussedness in this country, so
never heard before, more than a new year’s celebration. much hypocrisy and yes so much poverty. The future is
Strangers were embracing one another, shaking hands, very bleak indeed… (p193).
greeting the world effusively, and it came to him the The scenarios during Martial law in the Philippines
realization that he had finally seen one great event in under Marcos administration is marked with chaos and
history, it had unfolded before him in all its human glory disorder. He implemented national development projects
and he was grateful that he was there, and long that prioritized technocratic implementation, leaving
afterwards he would always remember this moment of many of the poor and working populations out of the
freedom, not for himself for he had always been free, but process, and thus, from the economic benefits (Bello et
for his people (p223). al., 1982) of which the displacement, poverty, and
Another form of exile is the diaspora silent at home. hunger out of this development debacle led to mass civil
This is a kind of exile where a person or group of persons protests which Marcos responded to in the form of state
have different ideologies and find discontentment, repression (Cachola, 2017). Filipinos resisted the human
frustration on government or lost trust in the government. right abuses of Marcos regime most especially the
In the novel, this is best exemplified by Leo Mercado, a abductions, tortures, and killings of dissidents, by police
member of the Huk or Hukbalahap movement and his or military personnel.
siblings Junior and Namnama who continued the Buddy also went to the university where Professor E.
revolutionary traditions, Father Jess, the parish priest of Hortenso was teaching but he was not able to see him as
Tondo and his sacristan Pepe Samson. Hukbalahap (Anti- he was picked up by the military. He asked the Dean
Japanese Army) movement also known as Huk was the where to find him but was only given the reply that:
culmination of events and internal Philippine conditions …It is not as bad as that (dead), although we don’t
that predated World War II by centuries and was rooted in know, of course, what Marcos will do. He was picked up
the country's pre-colonial period (History.army.mil last month here at the university by the military. It was
Website, 2002). According to Goodwin (2001), Huk not for the first time, he is in jail, but I really don’t know
movement was a Communist guerrilla movement formed where, I wish I could tell you where his family is, but I
by the peasant farmers of Central Luzon and were don’t know (p201).

www.ijels.com Page | 1279

International Journal of English Literature and Social Sciences (IJELS) Vol -3, Issue-6, Nov - Dec, 2018
https://dx.doi.org/10.22161/ijels.3.6.51 ISSN: 2456-7620
Further, Father Jess told Buddy in their conversation These farmers wanted to seek audience to Cory to air
that: their grievances to the government s uch as the desire of
… This is why there is this call to revolution, this is peasants and farmers to acquire the land being tilled by
why this very day hundreds of our young men are in the them. However, instead of holding a dialogue, the group
mountains, in the recesses of this city, waging war. Here marched to Mendiola and as they tried to breach the line
in this barrio, when you go out, you do not know who of the police several Marines fired killing around twelve
among the people you meet are revolutionaries or of the marchers and injuring thirty -nine (Corazon aquino
sympathizers of the revolution. I am echoing an old life. com Website, 2009).
friend, a very young man who joined the revolution many The last form of exile is the diaspora of self. This can
years ago-he believed this revolution is not only be manifested by a person who left the country out of
inevitable but that it is also feasible and righteous (p199). poverty, need to uplift the living condition, to fulfill a
Buddy was also accompanied by Junior to witness a dream of having a better life, to trace one’s identity or
street protest in Manila. In his letter to his sister Jessie, roots and the overseas contract workers. This form of
Buddy said: exile is illustrated by the characters of Vladimir, Buddy,
…he had experienced his first demonstration-a march and the Filipina prostitutes, the illegal and legal Filipino
from the University of the Philippines all the way to workers abroad. According to the data from Philippine
Malacanang, the presidential palace, although they did Overseas Employment Administration (POEA) there were
not reach Malacanang for at Mendiola Bridge, barbed 9.5 million to 12.5 million Filipinos currently work or
wire and tanks stopped them… It seemed like fun, but it reside abroad which can be translated around 10 to 11
was serious business, for many had been killed precisely percent of the total Philippine population. Overseas
for joining these demonstrations…(p208). Filipino Workers (OFW) play a pivotal role in sustaining
Another pressing issue that gained support from the the Philippine economy (Pinoymoneytalk.com Website,
movement is the peasant farmers demand for the 2017). Though overseas Filipino workers have become
implementation of land reform program of the the pillar of the economy and referred to as the backbone
government- a system of land ownership, especially when of the new global force, the reality is they work abroad to
it involves giving of land to the people who actually farm escape crushing poverty and unemployment and lack of
it and taking it away from people who own large areas for opportunities at home (Paddock, 2006).
profit (Collinsdictionary.com Website). The government In the novel, Buddy met Vladimir, a Filipino cook who
seemed too slow in redistributing the land to the farmers. worked in a restaurant in Japan and whose father is a
The peasant farmers went to Malacañang to seek audience school teacher who had seen a lot of sufferings and whose
to new President Corazon “Cory” Aquino after Marcos mother is selling vegetables in the market. Vladimir
exile in Hawaii but she refused to meet them. related to Buddy that:
…A peasant gathering at Malacañang to force Cory to … I would like to continue earning good money so that
look at the agrarian problem which she had failed to do I can fulfill my obligations to my parents, to buy back the
although during the election campaign the previous year, land sold, to see to it that they will not be h ungry, that
she had promised that she would (p241). they will grow old happy in the thought that I have been a
Buddy learned from Junior that Cory did not meet the filial son (p175).
peasant leader which strengthened his belief that land These Filipinos who have gone abroad to work with
reform under Cory will never be implemented. Instead the hope and dream of having a better life experienced
these farmers gathered at Mendiola for a demonstration varied forms of abuses or maltreatment from their
unarmed. The farm leaders were asking: employers aside from the harsh conditions that they’ve
…Why did Cory not want to see them? She had passed been exposed to. Vladimir related to Buddy his personal
on to her agrarian reform minister the duty to look after experiences as an overseas worker. Prior to going to
the peasants’ demands, but the minister had not done Japan Vladimir worked as cooked in an ocean-going
anything. Where is land reform? Why has Cory betrayed vessel owned by a Filipino but flying under the Panama
the trust of the people? (242) flag. While their ship was in Singapore to load some
In the novel instead of Cory meeting the farmers, cargo for a week, Buddy was brought by his Chief cook
soldiers fired at them and many were hit by bullets and in Orchard Plaza to meet his Filipina girlfriend. Buddy
been killed. was surprised to what he saw.
…The first flurry of shots from the barricade struck the … Hundreds of Filipino women on the sidewalk,
phalanx of demonstrators. The bullets whistled above him everywhere talking and exchanging gossip, Orly, the
and where it struck human flesh, it came as a thud (p243). cook, was forty years old ,and his girlfriend was from

www.ijels.com Page | 1280

International Journal of English Literature and Social Sciences (IJELS) Vol -3, Issue-6, Nov - Dec, 2018
https://dx.doi.org/10.22161/ijels.3.6.51 ISSN: 2456-7620
Bontoc, a lovely enough girl, with broad hips and a take it often lost their minds. To be in Saudi Arabia is to
dimple (p165). be in the middle ages…(p168).
It was from the girl introduced to him as Orly’s All over the world, thousands of women continued to
girlfriend from Baguio where he learned the experiences be lured to Saudi Arabia with the promise of steady jobs
of women working in Singapore as domestics. only to instead be tortured and raped by their employers
…It was also from her that I learned for the first time where majority of the cases were those who have left their
of the life of women domestics in Singapore. There were home countries to work as maids in Saudi and been
also construction workers, and they live on the sites, abused have not been paid for their work (News.com.au
sleeping on the floor, atop piles of building materials. Website). Passports of these domestic workers once they
Tough life, but at least they were earning more money arrived were also taken by their employers. Hugh
(p166). Tomlinson of Kuwait Times wrote that in an alley behind
Filipino workers in Singapore most especially those the Philippines Embassy in Kuwait a group of women in
working as domestic helpers and construction workers conversation focuses on how soon they can return home,
were treated badly in terms of their living conditions and and they are among hundreds of housemaids who have
prone to abuse by their employers. According to Kenneth fled lives of modern-day slavery in Kuwait and taken
Roth, executive Director of Human Rights Watch based refuge from abusive employers in their national
in Singapore said that many domestic workers labor embassies.
without pay for months, settle debts to employment These women according to Richard Paddock of Los
agencies, work long hours seven days a week, or are Angeles Times were the runaway Filipino maids who
confined to their workplace. Women migrant domestic arrived there desperate, bruised, hungry and penniless
workers in Singapore suffer grave abuses including who sacrifice their own lives and endure years of
physical and sexual violence, food deprivation, and loneliness for the sake of supporting their families as they
confinement in the workplace and at least 147 migrant suffer beatings and sexual abuse from their employers. In
domestic workers have died from workplace accidents or countries such as Saudi Arabia and Kuwait, these maids
suicide since 1999, most by jumping or falling from are jailed for running away. Filipino women working
residential buildings (Hrw. org. news. com Website, overseas have been raped and sexually abused and
2005). There is also a growing complaint of unpaid harassed while some workers have been forced to work in
wages. slave-like conditions (Hays, 2008).
Then Vladimir related to Buddy that they also went to This is also true to Dubai. Many Filipinos are also
Hongkong as their next port of destination where Orly working there to earn a living and to send money to their
had another girlfriend waiting for him. Vladimir was families in the Philippines. Vladimir told Buddy that there
introduced to another girl from Bacolod, a sweet Ilonga, was a time he worked at a new hotel in Dubai. There he
where he learned that: observed that:
…Like our girls in Singapore, I heard the same …Filipino women all over Dubai, in the shops as
stories, most of the time of ill treatment, of masters of the salesclerks, in the hotels as waitresses
house who tried to rape them, and the generally bad and even as masseuses. The airport tax free shop in
conditions under which they worked (p166). Dhubai is manned completely by Filipinas, it is like
The lives of Filipino women domestics in Singapore shopping in Makati (p169).
and Hongkong were the same. They share the same Vladimir narrated to Buddy that Filipinos can be found
stories of ill-treatment, poor living conditions, and human anywhere in the world bringing with them their hopes and
right abuses. Domestic helpers in Hongkong were dreams of better life like those prostitutes he met in
subjected to the so-called live-in requirement- a Germany when their ship docked. In a famous
government policy requiring helpers to live with their prostitution district in Hamburg, Buddy and the radio
employers in their home which make them vulnerable to operator met two Filipino heavily make-up girls. They
abuse such as long working hours, lack of sleep and were very happy to see them to get some news about
proper resting space, and poor diet as a result of the live- home. Buddy was left with the girl from Pampanga and in
in arrangement (Phuketnews easy branches. com Website, the midst of the conversation as Filipinos…
2018). …away from home, stricken with homesickness,
The same fate happened to Filipinos working in the wanting to go back , but to what? The poverty, the filth
Middle East such as Saudi Arabia and Kuwait. Vladimir and the corruption of the homeland? No, it is better in
lamented to Buddy stating that: Hamburg, and certainly better, too in the hot steamy
… In Saudi and Kuwait, many of our women suffered galley of a Norwegian ship… (p170).
this fate; others were battered, and those who couldn’t

www.ijels.com Page | 1281

International Journal of English Literature and Social Sciences (IJELS) Vol -3, Issue-6, Nov - Dec, 2018
https://dx.doi.org/10.22161/ijels.3.6.51 ISSN: 2456-7620
This clearly shows that though there is longing on the for his true self and his roots as he was an orphan who
part of the exiles to go back home but there are also some was adopted by an American captain and was brought to
factors which prevented them to endure such longing for the United States in 1945. He best compared himself to
homeland. It is very vivid in their memory that they that of Marcelo del Pilar when he read his letters of exiles
would rather live through hardship, loneliness, alienation where he recognized…
rather that stay in one’s country marred with so much …their anguish, the stringent pull of memory that
poverty, corruption, and depravity. Buddy himself felt for those fractured images of his early
Vladimir also happened to visit Germany where a childhood (p105).
social center was set up and managed by a civic minded Buddy’s observations to all the people whom he had
Filipina together with a German priest where Filipina contact with, the poverty and helplessness of the farmers
mail to order brides visited the center with their mestizo in the mountain who were devoid of government attention
children. He also told Buddy that: and support, corruptions everywhere led him to be
…Where else are the Filipinos working? In the frozen involved in the underground movement. In his
tundras of Alaska, in the pampas of Argentina, in the conversation with Pepe Samson, a learned and practical
mines of Africa, in the North and South Poles- Filipinos man, Buddy asked him:
are there, and if the Russians will open up Siberia to …have you ever thought about who you are, where
Filipino workers, there will be willing to suffer that arctic you are going-you know, that question about identity
cold. All over the world, all over the world! Mail -order which so many are asking? I ask because, if you must
brides in Scandinavia in Australia, where our poor know, this is one reason why I have returned (p 232).
women marry not for love but for money, men who are It is now clear to Buddy his reason for coming back to
drop-outs, outcasts in their own society. Illegals in Italy, his country. His getting involved to something that would
in Switzerland, and yet more maids in London. It is give meaning to his life. Pepe told Buddy:
difficult now for Filipinos to travel with their brown …What is identity to these people (villagers), Buddy?
passports- everywhere, they are suspect. In Sydney where This is their life, and you may ask, is it really worth
I went to meet my ship, I was searched like I was a living? But they will go on, because we have someth ing to
smuggler, all my clothes, pockets, all my things, my live for (p238).
airline ticket, my seaman’s papers. And why not? TNT’s His involvement to the day to day lives of the farmers,
that is what most Filipino travelers have become, “takbo sympathize with their hardship, and cry for injustice gave
ng takbo,” always running away from a land that denies point of realization to Buddy to go out in his comfort
them honor, always running, just as I am running now zone and help.
(p171). …In that moment, Salvador dela Raza realized what it
Indeed, exiles of Filipinos are evident throughout in was all about, that he had really shut himself off in some
search for better life and future. In various countries all permeable cocoon, some comfortable prison, and now he
over the world Filipinos are deployed every year must break free (p238).
depending on the kind of services offered based on their In the conversation of Buddy with her sister Jessie
skills. Their motivation and driving force to face the who visited her in the mountain, he explained to her…
adversities in life is the promise of a better life and better …what had happened in the Philippines these many
future. All of these for the sake of subsistence, for decent years, how the peasants had always been exploited and
meals to fill the hungry stomachs back home, for the the land despoiled. The Mountain had become a redoubt
support their own country could not provide for them. For of faith for those who believed there was salvation still
the most part, the Filipino diaspora is not just a trend that (p268).
has to be adapted as a desperate alternative to earn a In the end Buddy felt satisfaction in his newfound life.
living and to sustain a family, far from it the diaspora is There is fulfilment in him as he finally found peace in his
an ugly reality guised under the blinding promise of the abode, the country he longed to live, the place he called
American dream (Wandersummer.wordpress.com home. In a sense, that is the meaning of life.
Website, 2017). …All of us, we do a lot of wandering, but in the end we
But the case of Buddy is a different thing. He is an have to return to where we came from. In a sense, that is
American citizen but with a Filipino dream. Buddy what life is all about. An endless searching. Some find
reflected on what Vladimir shared to him and began what we are looking for, others are destined to drift in
questioning about himself. What about him? Though space, rootless. Didn’t you get what you wanted?
financially and materially secured aside from being Finally? And I-this! Aren’t we both lucky? (p273)
successful in his career, he could not find meaning in his The above scenarios showed that no matter how
life, no happiness, only emptiness and longing to search difficult are the situations faced by Filipino migrants, they

www.ijels.com Page | 1282

International Journal of English Literature and Social Sciences (IJELS) Vol -3, Issue-6, Nov - Dec, 2018
https://dx.doi.org/10.22161/ijels.3.6.51 ISSN: 2456-7620
are resilient as their hopes in attaining better lives and Marcos regime unless there are changes in the
future give them strength and determination. At the end of Philippine social, economic and political structure.
their journey in life, there will come a time for them to The diaspora of self is pictured in varied ways in the
reflect that going back at home to one’s country is novel like characters leaving the country in search for
happiness and fulfillment. better opportunities, employment, and greener pasture
The diaspora of Filipinos in the above scenarios had legally or illegally which the government failed to
varied reasons for leaving the country. First and foremost provide them. The poverty they experienced in the
love of one’s country which prompt a person to go on country drive them to go on self -exile and dream of
exile to represent a country in an international arena to attaining better life. There are several reasons cited why
alleviate poverty, improve living condition, weed out Filipinos want to leave their country and these include
human rights abuses and corruption like the case of Rizal having higher income and salary, the high unemployment
and Marcelo del Pilar, two Philippine heroes. In Rizal’s rate in the Philippines, unstable economic condition,
letters to his relatives and for his country before he left pressure from the family and peer influence, enhance
Hongkong for Manila on June 20, 1892 he clearly spoke career and professional marketability globally,
of his love for his family and the Philippines, that his discrimination experienced when applying jobs locally,
death was a way to liberate them from their miseries, and opportunity to travel and experience abroad, government
his country will be liberated from the oppressors that have supports on OFWs, lack of public support for local
stayed in his country for much too long (Kaspil123. entrepreneurs, it’s their personal dream since childhood
Wordpress.com Website). and it’s the trend now (Natividad, 2012). Despite the
The other reason for being exiled is that of leaving the many documented reports of abuses committed to
homeland because of the uprising that happened against a Filipino migrants, these do not discourage them to leave
dictator ruler who plundered the wealth of the country, the country to have a totally different life even to the
commit abuses and atrocities to its citizens like the point of using their entire savings or loan money as they
Marcos regime. Ferdinand E. Marcos, an autocratic have already made up their minds of having and hoping a
leader who imposed martial law in his homeland from better life and future. Another form of diaspora of self is
1972 to 1981 ruled the Philippines for 20 years until he the search for identity or sense of belongingness. No
was ousted in 1986, (Gross, 1989). Known for running a matter how successful a person is in a foreign land as he
corrupt, undemocratic regime, Ferdinand Marcos was the lives there throughout his life, it is hidden deep inside his
president of the Philippines from 1966 to 1986 before heart that longings to be with his countrymen, to be in his
fleeing to the United States who went into exile where birthplace, to be at home in his native land.
they took with them a reported $15 million These experiences of Filipino exiles depicted in the
(Biography.com. Website, 2018). Diaspora silent at home novels will provide a glimpse on the kind of life
does not necessarily mean leaving from one’s country but expatriates had which will serve as basis of government
can also mean being a non- conformist in the norms or for enhancing policies and laws protecting migrant
practices in society due to differed ideologies. Their workers. Further, lived experiences of Filipino exiles will
sympathy is accorded to the marginalized sectors and help design trainings, seminars, orientation of migrant
those who are oppressed as government often neglect workers for them to be prepared in working in another
them. The reason for their exile is that they believed that country. These can also help improve the services offered
government had many lapses and wrongdoings and they to them by government agencies. Government may also
serve as watchdog of the government against their abuses give prospective migrant workers skills training for them
and espouse rallies, street demonstrations or revolution in to be equipped with necessary working skills. Through
the extreme cases like the Huk movement in the novel these lived experiences concerned government agencies
and the communist insurgents. can review benefits given to migrant workers and can
According to Dugdale (2006) the communist provide them with vital information regarding legal help
insurgency in the 1990s has its roots in the Huk and support most especially the distressed workers. These
rebellion and as the remains of the Huk helped form the will also serve as an eye opener for all migrant workers
military wing of the communist, the NPA in the 1960’s. that working abroad needs preparation not only physical
Kessler (1989) on the other explained that peasant revolt but also mental, emotional and intellectual aspect.
is historically endemic to the Philippines despite the
differing nature of the insurrections; it is the relationship IV. CONCLUSION
between the peasants, the elite and the military that Literature reflects realities in society. The events of day to
remains the main cause of the unrest. The insurgency day lives of people are captured in literature. Peoples’
problem continues to linger on even at the end of experiences mirrored in literature give lessons and

www.ijels.com Page | 1283

International Journal of English Literature and Social Sciences (IJELS) Vol -3, Issue-6, Nov - Dec, 2018
https://dx.doi.org/10.22161/ijels.3.6.51 ISSN: 2456-7620
insights to readers like the novel of F. Sionel Jose’s [3] Quora.com Website. Significance of Literature.
Viajero. Different forms of diaspora or exiles in the novel Retrieved from: https: // www. quora. Com /What-is
are vividly pictured through experiences of Filipinos the- significance- of- literature-in-our- life.
working abroad. These forms include diaspora with a [4] Buzzzle. com Website. 2010. Importance of
cause, diaspora as escapists, diaspora silent at home and Literature. Retrieved from: https:// www. buzzle.
diaspora of self. Diaspora with a cause is a form of exile Com/ aticles/ importance- of- literature. html.
where the person who leaves the country is with a noble [5] Kennedy, X.J. 1993. Literature, An Introduction to
intent. One does sacrifice for the benefit of many like Fiction, Poetry and Drama. Boston: Little, Brown and
representing the country to air grievances; abuses Company
committed and espouse change for the good of the [6] Reeve, Clara. 1975. The Teaching of Literature. New
country. Diaspora as escapists is another form of exile York: American Book Company
where the person involved fled out of the country because [7] Shodhganga.inflibnet. Website. An Introduction to
of the wrongdoings committed to its constituents while Diaspora Studies. Retrieved from: http://
diaspora silent at home is a form of exile where a person shodhganga. inflibnet. ac.in/ bitstream/ 10603/
becomes discontented, frustrated due to injustices 152777/6/06_chapter%201.pdf
experienced and loss of trust to the government due to [8] Rushdie, Salman. 1991. Imaginary Homelands.
corruption, and unfairness as well as being neglected in London: Granta Books and Penguine India.
terms of support and care. Diaspora of self is a [9] Zang, Benzi. “Identity in Diaspora and Diaspora in
manifestation of a person who leaves the country full of Writing: the poetics of cultural transrelation.” Journal
dreams and hopes of attaining better life and future but of International Studies. Vol. 21, No-1, 2000
experienced varied forms of hardships and abuses. That [10] Delmendo, Sharon. 2005. The Star-entangled Banner:
longingness to be back home is in the hearts of exiles and One Hundred Years of America in the Philippines.
once fulfillment of dreams is attained, coming back is a University of the Philippines Press, Diliman, Quezon
blissful respite. Many Filipinos opted to go on exiles to City.
escape poverty, filth and corruption in the country. For [11] Galdon, Joseph A. 1972. “Introduction” Philippine
them they can endure loneliness, harsh environment, poor Fiction: Essays from Philippine Studies. Quezon
living condition in another country for as long as they can City: Ateneo de Manila University Press.
send money for the subsistence of their family who are [12] Khan,Umair. 2015. Human Migration Definition
left behind. The lived experiences of Filipino diasporas Reasons and Examples/ Why People Migrate.
can serve as a reference of all migrant workers on the Retrieved from:
kind of life they had for them to be prepared in terms of http://www.studylecturenotes.com/basics -of-
their physical, mental, emotional intellectual aspect in sociology/human-migration-definition-reasons-and-
pursuing their dreams of better life and future and for examples-%7C-why-people-mig rate.
government agencies to enrich, expand policies and laws [13] Wood, Andrew. 2007. Philippines: The Migration
protecting human rights of overseas workers and to Problem. Retrieved from: http://www.jurist.
provide them with all the support and legal assistance.. org/dateline /2007/07/ philippines -migration-
problem.php
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS [14] Asis, Maruja M.B. 2006. The Philippines Culture of
The author acknowledges the support provided by the Migration. Retrieved
Batangas State University for the completion of this from:https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/philippi
manuscript and Dr. Francisco M. Heralde III for the nes-culture-migration.
editorial assistance. [15] Centerformigrantadvocacy. com Website. Philippine
Migration. Retrived from: https://
REFERENCES centerformigrantadvocacy.com/ philippine-migration
[1] Kleckner, Joe. 2017. 32 P.T. Barnum Quotes on [16] Jose, Sionil F. 1993. Viajero. Solidaridad Publishing
Succeeding life. Retrieved from: https:// addicted House. Ermita, Manila, Philippines
2success. Com/ qoutes/ 32-p-t-barnum- qoutes- on [17] Umsl.edu/-wilmarthp.com Website, 2004. Content
succeeding- in -life. Analysis. Retrieved from: http: // www. umls. edu/ -
[2] Theodysseyonline.com Website. Retrieved from: wilmarthp/ mrpc- web- resources/ content- analysis.
https:// www.theodyssey. com/ 7- reasons- why- [18] Stephens, John. 2015. International Research in
literature- is -so- important. Children’s Literature. Vol. 8 Issue I. Edinburgh
University Press.

www.ijels.com Page | 1284

International Journal of English Literature and Social Sciences (IJELS) Vol -3, Issue-6, Nov - Dec, 2018
https://dx.doi.org/10.22161/ijels.3.6.51 ISSN: 2456-7620
[19] Bautista, Ma. Lourdes and Stella P. Go.1993. [33] Martial law museum.ph Website. The Night of the
Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods. declaration. Retrieved from: https//
Manila: De La Salle University Press. martiallawmuseum.ph/ magaral/442
[20] Kennedy, J. and Dana Gioia.2016. Literature: An [34] Bello, Walden, David Kinley and others. 1982.
Introduction to Fiction, Poetry, and Drama. Pearson Development Debacle: The World Bank in the
[21] Bhabha, Homi. 1994. Location of Culture. London: Philippines. San Francisco: Institute for Food and
Routledge, 1994. Development Policy.
[22] Vandermeer, Canute 1967 Population Patterns on the [35] Cachola, Ellen-Rae,2017. The haunting of martial
Island of Cebu, the Philippines 1500 to 1900. Annals Law: Records from Marcos Regime. Retrieved from:
of the Association of American Geographers 57: 315- https://library.law.hawaii.edu/2017/09/07/the-
337. haunting-of-martial-law-records-from-the-marcos-
[23] Skowronek, Russell K. 1998 The Spanish regime/.
Philippines: Archaeological Perspectives on Colonial [36] Collinsdictionary.com Website www. collins
Economics and Society. International Journal of dictionary. com/dictionary/ english/land-reform.
Historical Archaeology 2: 45-71. [37] Corazonaquinolife.com Website, 2009
[24] Goodlight, Athena 2010. Spanish Era in the http://corazonaquinolife. blogspot.com/
Philippines. Retrieved from: 2009/07/corys-agrarian-reform.html.
https://learning.knoji.com/the-spanish-era-in-the- [38] Pinoymoneytalk.com Website, 2017.
philippines/ https://www.pinoymoneytalk.com/ofw-population-
[25] Geni.com Website, 2018. Members of the country-age-sex-work-type.
Propaganda Movement. Retrieved from: [39] Paddock, Richard C. Los Angeles Times, April 20,
https://www.geni.com/projects/Members -of-the- 2006
Propaganda-Movement/13919 [40] Hrw.org.news. com Website, 2005.Singapore:
[26] Philippinesprojectbymarandgabi.weebly.com Domestic Workers Suffer Grave Abuses. Retrieved
Website. Spanish Colonization. Retrieved from: from: https://www.hrw.org/news/singapore-
https:// philippines project by marandgabi. domestic-workers-suffer-grave-abuses.
weebly.com/spanish-colonization.html [41] Phuketnews easy branches. com Website, 2018
[27] Biography. yourdictionary.com Website, 2010. Hongkong’s Domestic Workers Share Stories of ill-
Marcelo H. del Pilar Facts. Retrieved from: treatment, poor living Conditions, and Rights abuses.
http://biography.yourdictionary.com/marcelo-hilario- Retrieved from:
del-pilar. https://phuketnews.easybranches.com/story/hong-
[28] Biography.com Website, 2018. Ferdinand Marcos kong-s-domestic-workers-share-stories-of-ill-
Biography. Retrieved from: treatment-poor-living-conditions-and-rights-abuses-
https://www.biography.com/people/ferdinand- 202057.
marcos-9398625. [42] News.com.au Website. Employers from hell:
[29] Shaw, Terri, 1977. Marcos Opponents Sentenced to Domestic workers tortured by their ‘masters’
Death. Retrieved from: Retrieved from:
https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/19 https://www.news.com.au/world/middle-
77/11/26/marcos-opponents-sentenced-to- east/employers-from-hell-domestic-workers-tortured-
death/8131f09b-57e0-4bf1-9931- by-their-masters/news-
b255cb4f8951/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.2d3e6cdc story/55b5173abfe5171b2973c478ce2704d3.
a8f4. [43] Hays, Jeffrey. 2008. Abuse and Problems Suffered by
[30] History.com Website, 1986. Marcos Flees the Overseas Filipino Workers. Retrieved from:
Philippines. Retrieved from: http://factsanddetails.com/southeast-
https://www.history.com/this -day-in-history/marcos- asia/Philippines/sub5_6g/entry-3921.html.
flees-the-philippines. [44] Wandersummer.wordpress.com Website, 2017. Book
[31] History.army.mil Website, 2002. The evolution of the Review: Embarking on a Sojourn through F. Sionil
Hukbalahap Movement. Retrieved from: Joses’s Viajero Retrieved from:
https://history. army.mil/books/ coldwar/huk/ https://wandersummer.wordpress.com/2017/01/18/bo
ch1.htm ok-review-embarking-on-a-sojourn-through-f-sionil-
[32] Jeff Goodwin, No Other Way Out, Cambridge joses-viajero/.
University Press, 2001, p.119, ISBN 0-521-62948-
9, ISBN

www.ijels.com Page | 1285

International Journal of English Literature and Social Sciences (IJELS) Vol -3, Issue-6, Nov - Dec, 2018
https://dx.doi.org/10.22161/ijels.3.6.51 ISSN: 2456-7620
[45] Kaspil123.Wordpress.com Website. Rizal: A Product
of His Own Era.
https://kaspil123.wordpress.com/binan/.
[46] Gross, Jane. 1989. Ferdinand Marcos, Ousted Leader
of Philippines, Dies at 72 in Exile. Retrieved from:
https://www.nytimes.com/obituaries/ferdinand-
marcos-ousted-leader-of-philippines-dies-at-72-in-
exile.htm.
[47] Biography. com. Website, 2018. Ferdinand Marcos
Biography. Retrieved from:
https://www.biography.com/people/ferdinand-
marcos-9398625.
[48] Dugdale-Pointon, TPD 2006. Insurgency in the
Philippines, http://www.historyof war.org/
articles/wars-philippine.html.
[49] Kessler, Richard J. 1989. Rebellion and Repression
in the Philippines.
[50] Natividad, Fritz. 2012. 11 Reasons why Filipinos
Want to Work Abroad. Retrieved from:
https://businesstips.ph/reasons -why-filipinos-want-
to-work-abroad/

www.ijels.com Page | 1286