Water Supply and Sewerage, 2017-2018 Pipes and pipe fittings Asst. Prof. Dr.

Shuokr Qarani Aziz

PIPES AND PIPE FITTINGS

Water supply is the process of general requirement for supply of water from public water
supply system to individual building and subsequent distribution of water to various parts of the
building. The water from public water supply system to individual buildings is supplied through
pipes. A large proportion of capital (money) is invested on pipes while designing water supply
distribution system. The following factors should be considered in selection of pipes.
 Strength of pipe
 Water carrying capacity
 Life and durability of pipe
 Expenditure on transportation
 Jointing process, maintenance and repairs

TYPES OF PIPES
Pipes and fittings must not contaminate the water, and must be suitable for the subjected
pressure, flow and temperature of the water they are carrying. They must also be: suitable for the
expected temperatures and pressures compatible with the water supply, to minimise the potential
for electrolytic corrosion, suitable for the ground conditions (if used underground) to minimise
the potential for corrosion of the exterior of the pipe and suitable for the local climate (if used
outdoors) such as freezing conditions or atmospheric salt or sulphur able to resist UV effects (if
used outdoors).
So, when selecting the materials for water supply pipes, consider water pressure, water
temperature, compatibility with water supply, durability, support, simplicity of installation, and
cost.
The pipes are available in several types and sizes. They may be classified into three groups
according to the material used in their manufacturing, Figure 4-1.
a) Metallic pipes: the pipes such as CI Pipes, Steel pipes and GI Pipes.
b) Cement Pipes: the pipes such as Cement Pipes, Asbestos cement (AC) pipes, cement concrete
pipes.
c) Plastic Pipes: the pipes such as Un-plasticized PVC (UPVC) pipes, Polythene Pipes (low
density) etc.

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Water Supply and Sewerage, 2017-2018 Pipes and pipe fittings Asst. Prof. Dr. Shuokr Qarani Aziz

Figure 4-1: Types of pipes

a) METALIC PIPES

1) CAST IRON (CI) PIPES

These pipes are mostly used in water supply. They are well suited for pressure and
can resist external load because of their thickness. The pipes are easy in man ufacturing,
layout and joining, Figure 4-2a. CI pipes are heavy in weight, therefore transportation is
costlier and they are not suitable for inaccessible places. Due to heavy weight these ar e
generally made in short length. This increases layout and jointing cost.
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Water Supply and Sewerage, 2017-2018 Pipes and pipe fittings Asst. Prof. Dr. Shuokr Qarani Aziz

Figure 4-2a: CI Pipes-strong and heavy

2) Ductile pipe

Ductile iron pipe is a direct development of earlier cast iron pipe. , ductile iron pipe (DIP)
is pressure pipe commonly used for potable water and sewage distribution internal cement
mortar lining usually serves to inhibit corrosion from the fluid being distributed, and
various types of external coating are used to inhibit corrosion from the environment .

The advantages of DI are greater impact resistance, greater strength than grey iron, lighter
and easier to lay out and Simplicity of joints, On the other hand the disadvantages of the DI
are similar rate of corrosion to grey iron and steel, prone to external and internal cor rosion
and Internal and external protection systems required.

3) Steel Pipes
These pipes are extensively used for water supply. It has high tensile and compressive
strength They are best suitable for long distance pipe lines of high pressure and provide
satisfactory performance during service. These pipes have excellent mechanical properties
and are ideally suited for welding. The pipes are made in length more th an twice the length
of CI pipes, wide range of diameters and wall thickness avaialable and welded joints give
continuity, which saves in transport, layout of pipe and joining cost. There is minimum
damage to the pipes in transportation. The pipes being light in weight are used for large
diameter pipe lines. Thedisadvantage of the steel pipes are prone to external corrosion,
Electrolysis prone and jointing requires skilled welders.

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Water Supply and Sewerage, 2017-2018 Pipes and pipe fittings Asst. Prof. Dr. Shuokr Qarani Aziz

4) Galvanized-Steel
Galvanization is the process of coating a metal with zinc, galvanized-steel pipes were once
commonly used in residential construction. Now they are primarily used for repair work
because they have been displaced by other easier to use pipe options. The method of cutting
is important, because it can be fitted with threaded fittings.
The disadvantages of galvanized pipes are that they contain lead, and corrod e quickly. The
average life span of a galvanized pipeline is 40 years, Figure 4-2b.

Figure 4-2b: Galvanized iron pipe

4) COPPER
Copper has long been used for all types of domestic water services and distribution
because it:
 is durable
 has good corrosion resistance
 is flexible and easy to bend
 is self-supporting
 has good flow characteristics
 requires few fittings
 can be recycled

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Water Supply and Sewerage, 2017-2018 Pipes and pipe fittings Asst. Prof. Dr. Shuokr Qarani Aziz

Copper may be annealed (i.e. heated, then cooled slowly) which improves its properties,
for example making it less brittle and stronger. Although copper in general has good corrosion
resistance, this depends on the environment. Acidic conditions, either from the soil (if buried) or
from the water, can cause corrosion, so local pH levels should be checked before using copper
pipes.
Copper is an essential trace element, high doses of copper (above 50 mg/kg body weight)
can be dangerous. The concentration of copper in tap water may increase if low pH water
remains in contact with copper pipes and fittings.

b) CEMENT PIPES
Main advantage of cement pipes in place of metallic pipes is their corrosion
resistance. These pipes can provide working pressures up to 1.25 MPa (12.5 kg/cm2), also they
are bulky, heavy and require careful transportation and handling. The layout process of
these pipes is costlier than steel pipes. Also these pipes are rigid so they require uniformly
leveled bed for laying.

ASBESTOS CEMENT (AC) PIPES

These pipes are light in weight and easy in transportation and layout. They have
smooth internal surface and are not affected by corrosion. The pipes are extensively used
for water supply systems. Holes can be drilled in these pipes. These pipes are not costlier.
No longer is used due to the health problems

C) PLASTIC PIPES
1) POLYBUTYLENE (PB)
Polybutylene is a plastic material that was introduced in the late 1970s and used
extensively for water supply pipes until the mid 1990s. Unfortunately, one kind of polybutylene
increased failure, resulting in a significant drop in use.
Polybutylene has excellent properties for use as water supply pipework, including:
 low cost
 flexibility
 simplicity of installation
 ability to be used for both hot and cold water services
 frost resistance
The advantage of these pipes is known to deteriorate due to contact with oxidants normally
found in public water supplies. The failure can occur in the plastic fittings or in the pipe itself.

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Water Supply and Sewerage, 2017-2018 Pipes and pipe fittings Asst. Prof. Dr. Shuokr Qarani Aziz

2) UNPLASTICISED POLYVINYLCHLORIDE (PVC-U OR UPVC)

PVC-U is the most widely used plastic piping for water supply pipes and drainage pipes,
Figure 4-3. It can be used in internal, exposed outdoor and underground situations as it:
 is durable
 is inexpensive
 has good flow characteristics
 has chemical resistance
 can resist UV
 is easy to handle
 is light in weight, resistant to chemical attack and large in length
Due to large in length the cost of handling is much whereas transportation and installation cost is less.
Smooth internal surface of pipes provide less friction which results in saving of energy
It is suitable for cold water services and can be used for limited hot water services as it has
a maximum temperature use of 60°C. Chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC or PVCc) is
produced by the chlorination of PVC. The result is a PVC pipe with a service temperature of
90°C that may be used for hot water supply pipes.
Advantage over PVC in that it offers less resistance to flow than conventional pipes
resulting in minimal flow loss. This is achieved by the manufacturing process that results
in a smooth inner wall .

Figure 4-3: PVC Pipes

3) POLYETHYLENE (PE OR HDPE)

High density polyethylene (often called alkathene or polythene) has been used since the
early 1960s. It is suitable for both potable water and wastewater services but it can only be used
for cold water supply. It is the most commonly used plastic pipe for supplying the mains water
to a dwelling. Polyethylene is: durable, corrosion resistant, has good flow characteristics,
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Water Supply and Sewerage, 2017-2018 Pipes and pipe fittings Asst. Prof. Dr. Shuokr Qarani Aziz

lightweight and flexible, easy to install, has a good bending radius, cheap, and requires few
fittings

4) POLYPROPYLENE (PP)
There are three types of polypropylene:
a) P-H has good mechanical properties and excellent chemical resistance for use as industrial
and sewerage waste pipes systems
b) PP-R has good resistance to high internal pressure so it is suitable for domestic pressure
water supply systems and both hot and cold water services
c) PP-B is suitable for buried sewerage and wastewater drainage as it has good impact
strength, particularly at low temperatures, and excellent chemical resistance.
The use of polypropylene has been increasing since the late 1990s as it is:
 chemical and corrosion resistant
 heat resistant
 light weight
 easy to install
 frost (cold) resistant
In outdoor situations, it must be protected from UV exposure.

5) CROSS-LINKED POLYETHYLENE (PEX)

PEX tubing is made from a cross-linked, high density polyethylene polymer, which results in a
stronger material that polyethylene In the 21st century, PEX has become a viable alternative
to polyvinyl chloride (PVC), chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC) or copper tubing for
use as residential water pipes. PEX tubing ranges in size from imperial sizes of 1/4-inch to
4-inch, but 1/2-inch, 3/4-inch, and 1-inch are by far the most widely used.[1] Metric PEX is
normally available in 16 mm, 20 mm, 25 mm, 32 mm, 40 mm, 50 mm and 63 mm sizes.
PEX pipe properties include:
 more durability under extremes of temperature and chemical attack
 greater resistance to cold temperatures, cracking and brittleness on impact
 it can be used for hot water supply and hydronic heating systems, as well as potable water
supplies
 flexibility
 simplicity of installation
 it can be used for indoor and buried outdoor situations

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Water Supply and Sewerage, 2017-2018 Pipes and pipe fittings Asst. Prof. Dr. Shuokr Qarani Aziz

PEX is not recommended for outdoor above ground use – although it can withstand some
UV exposure, this should not exceed the manufacturer’s instructions.

Pipe Wall Thickness (adapted from Glover, 1996)

Glover (1996) provides a fairly complete list of pipes and their wall thickness.
The tables below are a sampling adapted from Glover. Additional listings of wall
thickness can be found on the web at sites such as J.B. Smith, Ductile Iron Pipe, Ohio
Department of Transportation: Steel,
aluminum, and plastic pipe; Concrete
and clay pipe.

Plastic Pipe: PVC & CPVC Schedule 40 Plastic Pipe: PVC & CPVC Schedule 80

Actual
Actual inside
Nominal size Wall thickness Nominal size inside Wall thickness
diameter
(inch) (inch) (inch) diameter (inch)
(inch)
(inch)
0.5 0.622 0.109 0.5 0.546 0.147
1 1.049 0.133 1 0.957 0.179
2 2.067 0.154 2 1.939 0.218
4 4.026 0.237 4 3.826 0.337
8 7.981 0.322 8 7.625 0.5
12 11.938 0.406 12 11.376 0.687

Steel Pipe: Schedule 40

Actual
Actual inside
Nominal size Wall thickness inside Wall thickness
diameter Nominal size (inch)
(inch) (inch) diameter (inch)
(inch)
(inch)
0.5 0.622 0.109 1 1.049 0.133
2 2.067 0.154 4 4.026 0.237
8 7.981 0.322 12 11.938 0.406
16 15 0.5 20 19.25 0.375
24 22.626 0.687 30 28.5 0.75
36 34.5 0.75 42 40.5 0.75

Copper Pipe: Type K Copper Pipe: Type L

Actual inside Actual inside
Nominal size Wall thickness Nominal size Wall thickness
diameter diameter
(inch) (inch) (inch) (inch)
(inch) (inch)
0.5 0.527 0.049 0.5 0.545 0.04
1 0.995 0.065 1 1.025 0.05
2 1.959 0.083 2 1.985 0.07
4 3.857 0.134 4 3.905 0.11
8 7.583 0.271 8 7.725 0.2
12 11.315 0.405 12 11.565 0.28

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Water Supply and Sewerage, 2017-2018 Pipes and pipe fittings Asst. Prof. Dr. Shuokr Qarani Aziz

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Water Supply and Sewerage, 2017-2018 Pipes and pipe fittings Asst. Prof. Dr. Shuokr Qarani Aziz

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Water Supply and Sewerage, 2017-2018 Pipes and pipe fittings Asst. Prof. Dr. Shuokr Qarani Aziz

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 Water Supply and Sewerage, 2017-2018 Pipes and pipe fittings Asst. Prof. Dr. Shuokr Qarani Aziz

PIPE FITTINGS
Pipe fitting is the occupation of installing or repairing piping or tubing systems that convey
liquid or gas. This work involves selecting and preparing pipe or tubing, joining it together by
various means, and the location and repair of leaks, Figures 4-5 to 4-6.

Figure 4-4: Pipes and pipe fittings

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Water Supply and Sewerage, 2017-2018 Pipes and pipe fittings Asst. Prof. Dr. Shuokr Qarani Aziz

Figure 4-5: Pipe fittings

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Water Supply and Sewerage, 2017-2018 Pipes and pipe fittings Asst. Prof. Dr. Shuokr Qarani Aziz

VALVES

A valve is a device that regulates, directs or controls the flow of a fluid (gases or liquids)
by opening, closing, or partially obstructing various passageways. Valves are technically pipe
fittings, but are usually discussed as a separate category. In an open valve, fluid flows in a
direction from higher pressure to lower pressure.

Valves are majorly used in water controlling for irrigation as well as industrial, military,
commercial, residential, and transport sectors. Such as drip irrigation and sprinkler irrigation, oil
and gas, power generation, mining, sewage and chemical manufacturing.

In daily life, most noticeable are plumbing valves, such as taps for tap water. Other
familiar examples include gas control valves on cookers, small valves fitted to washing machines
and dishwashers, and safety devices fitted to hot water systems.

Valves may be operated manually, either by a handle, lever, pedal or wheel. Valves may
also be automatic, driven by changes in pressure, temperature, or flow. These changes may act
upon a diaphragm or a piston which in turn activates the valve, examples of this type of valve
found commonly are safety valves fitted to hot water systems or boilers. As previously stated,
valves are used for the following purposes:

- To start and stop flow of fluids

- To regulate, regulate and control fluid flow or pressure

- To prevent back-flow

- To relieve excess pressure / vacuum

Figure 4-6: Valve

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Water Supply and Sewerage, 2017-2018 Pipes and pipe fittings Asst. Prof. Dr. Shuokr Qarani Aziz

TYPES OF VALVES
1. THE GATE VALVE

This is the most common type of valve in use in industry and is used to start or stop the
flow of fluids. It gives a positive shut-off when closed and is often used as a 'Block Valve' for
isolating systems. The gate valve MUST be either FULLY CLOSED or FULLY OPEN and
NEVER USED TO CONTROL FLOW, as the fluid velocity will erode the valve internals - gate
and body seats .. etc., Figure 4-8.

Figure 4-7: Gate valve, rising stem

A gate valve may be of the 'RISING STEM' type as in Figure: 4-8 or a 'NON-RISING
STEM', in which the stem threads are 'Left-hand' threads set into the gate itself as in Figure
4-9.
The valve consists of a body which houses the valve mechanism-the stem (or
spindle), the disc(s) (or gate), and the disc and body seats. Gate valves can be operated by a
hand-wheel, an electric motor, or by an air powered diaphragm, or motor, or a piston
actuator.

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Water Supply and Sewerage, 2017-2018 Pipes and pipe fittings Asst. Prof. Dr. Shuokr Qarani Aziz

Figure 4-8: Gate valve, non-rising stem

2. THE GLOBE VALVE

The Globe valve is used where control of fluid flow or pressure is required and it can be
operated in any position between open and closed, Figure 4-10. A Globe valve may be
constructed with a single or double port and plug arrangement. The double port type is generally
used in a CONTROL VALVE where accurate control of fluid is required. Due to the double
valve plug arrangement, the internal pressure acts on each plug in opposition to each other,
giving an internal pressure balance across the plugs.

Figure 4-9: Globe valve

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Water Supply and Sewerage, 2017-2018 Pipes and pipe fittings Asst. Prof. Dr. Shuokr Qarani Aziz

3. THE NEEDLE VALVE

This is simply a variation of the Globe valve and, as its name implies consists of a narrow,
tapered plug and port arrangement. The needle valve is, in itself, small in size and is used for
very fine and normally manual, control of fluid flow, Figure 4-11.

Figure 4-10: Needle valve

4. THE ANGLE VALVE

Another variation of the Globe valve which is often used for compressor recycle systems.
It is also often used for dirty fluids. In this valve, the fluid flow enters from below the plug and
passes through an angle of 90° to the outlet. An angle valve may be manually or automatically
controlled, Figure 4-12.

Figure 4-11: Angle valve

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Water Supply and Sewerage, 2017-2018 Pipes and pipe fittings Asst. Prof. Dr. Shuokr Qarani Aziz

5. THE PLUG OR BALL VALVE

These valves give a more streamline flow in their operation. The valve port is about the
same size as the internal pipe diameter. They are operated simply by turning a handle through
90°. They can give a fairly tight shut-off and some degree of control, Figure 4-13.

Figure 4-12: The plug valve and bull valve

6. THE BUTTERFLY VALVE

The Butterfly valve is designed to give full flow with some control capability. Normally,
this type of valve does not give positive shut-off but, present-day technology, using new
Polymers and higher temperature ratings, has enabled the construction of butterfly valves having
a 'Bubble-tight' shut-off, Figure 4-14.

Figure 4-13: The butterfly valve

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Water Supply and Sewerage, 2017-2018 Pipes and pipe fittings Asst. Prof. Dr. Shuokr Qarani Aziz

7. CHECK or NON-RETURN VALVES (NRV's)

These valves will allow fluid flow in ONE DIRECTION ONLY. Their purpose is to
prevent backflow-for example-in pump discharge lines and where back-flow is undesirable.
When flow stops, the weight of the piston, ball or flapper closes the valve. If the pressure
downstream of the valve, is higher than the upstream side, the valve will close more firmly and
back-flow cannot occur, Figure 4-15.

Figure 4-14: Check or non-return valves

8. SAFETY RELIEF VALVES

Safety valves are installed on equipment to prevent over-pressure (or excess vacuum),
which could cause damage, rupture or collapse of the equipment. Where the type installed is to
prevent excess vacuum, they are normally referred to as 'Vacuum Breakers', Figure 4-16.
A safety valve will have a lifting set pressure higher (about 1.5 times) than the operating pressure
of the system but well below the design maximum pressure allowed.

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Water Supply and Sewerage, 2017-2018 Pipes and pipe fittings Asst. Prof. Dr. Shuokr Qarani Aziz

The following diagram is of a conventional safety relief valve. All safety valves have the same
purpose of protecting equipment from over-pressure. Different makers have their own designs.

Figure 4-15: Safety relief valve

WATER HAMMER
Water hammer is caused by:
- Sudden closing of valves.
- Sudden stoppage of pump.
When water flowing through a pipe is suddenly stopped by closing a valve, large pressure
must be absorbed by the pipeline in order to stop the flow of water.
The mass and velocity of the water generate a large pressure .The pipe line may burst due
to water hammer (due to the increase of the internal pressure).Water hammer produces noise and
vibration in the pipe line. When a valve is suddenly closed, compression wave will be generated.
Maximum water hammer pressure is given by the expression:
𝐚𝐕𝐨
𝐇𝐦𝐚𝐱 =
𝐠
Where
Hmax = maximum pressure rise in the closed conduct above the normal pressure in meters
a = velocity of pressure wave travel in m/s

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Water Supply and Sewerage, 2017-2018 Pipes and pipe fittings Asst. Prof. Dr. Shuokr Qarani Aziz

g = acceleration due to gravity 9.81 m/sec2

𝑉𝑜 = normal velocity of flow in the pipe line before sudden closure in m/sec
Value of a can be determined by following exression
1425
𝑎=
√1 + 𝑘 ∗ 𝑑
𝐸∗𝑡
Where
K = bulk modulus of water 2.07 x108 (kg/m2)
d = internal diameter of pipe (m).
t = thickness of pipe (m)
E = modulus elasticity of pipe material (kg/m2)

Table 4-1: Value of E for different pipe materials may be taken as

Material E (kg/m2) Material E ( kg/m2)

Soft polyethylene 1.2 x 107 Prestresed concrete 3.5 x 109

Hard polyethylene 9 x 107 Cast iron 7.5 x 109

P.V.C 3 x 108 Wrought iron 1.8 x 1010

Concrete 2.8 x 109 Steel 2.1 x 1010

Asbestos cement 3 x 109 Ductile iron 1.7 x 1010

R.C.C 3.1 x 109

For the design pipes extra pressure due to water hammer is assumed about 8.5 kg/cm2 for
pipes of 7.5 cm to 25 cm in diameter. The pressure is gradually reduced to 4.9 kg/cm2 for pipes
above 120 cm in diameter. Allowance for water hammer for verias sizes of pipe may be taken as
follows:
Table 4-2: Limits of extra pressures for different diameters of pipes
1050 to
Diameter of pipe (mm) 80 to 250 300 400 500 600 750 900
1500
Extra pressure for water
8.5 7.75 7.0 6.30 5.75 5.6 4.90 4.90
hammer in kg/cm2
Note: the pressure resulting from water hammer must be added to the normal internal pressure.

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Water Supply and Sewerage, 2017-2018 Pipes and pipe fittings Asst. Prof. Dr. Shuokr Qarani Aziz

Then the maximum surge pressure as previously calculated may be avoided. To

accomplish this, the flow must not be shut off any faster than it would take a pressure wave to be
initiated at the beginning of valve closing and returning again to the valve. This is called the
critical time and is defined as the longest elapsed time before final flow stoppage that will still
permit this maximum pressure to occur. This is expressed mathematically as

Where
Tcr = critical time
L = distance within the pipeline that the pressure wave moves before it is reflected back by a
boundary condition, m
a = velocity of pressure wave for the particular pipeline, m/s
Example:
For a 4 inch Schedule 80 PVC pipe (I.D 3.823 inch = 9.7𝑐𝑚 wall thickness 0.337 inch
0.856 cm) carrying water, the combined modulus of elasticity is calculated at right. Water if
flowing at 946 /min (v= 1.98 m/s) at a line pressure of 2812.28 g/cm2. If a valve in the line is
closed suddenly, calculate the resultant pressure.

Solution:
𝑑 = 3.826" =9.72 cm t=0.337" = 0.86 𝑐𝑚
Value of (a) can be determined by following expression
From the table, for PVC modulus of elasticiy E = 3 x 108 kg/m2
k = bulk modulus of water is 2.07 x108 (kg/m2)
1425
𝑎=
√1 + 𝑘 ∗ 𝑑
𝐸∗𝑡

1425 1425 1425 1425

𝑎= = = = = 480.9 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
8 √1 + 7.78 2.963
√1 + 𝑘 ∗ 𝑑 √1 + 2.07𝑥10
8
∗ 9.7
𝐸∗𝑡 3 x 10 ∗ 0.86
𝐚𝐕𝐨
𝐇𝐦𝐚𝐱 =
𝐠

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Water Supply and Sewerage, 2017-2018 Pipes and pipe fittings Asst. Prof. Dr. Shuokr Qarani Aziz

𝑚 𝑚
480.9 𝑠𝑒𝑐 ∗ 1.98 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑔
Hmax = 𝑚 = 97.062 𝑚 = 9706.2𝑐𝑚 = 9706.2 ∗ 𝜌𝑤 = 9706.2𝑐𝑚 ∗ 1
9.81 𝑐𝑚3
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
𝑔 𝑘𝑔
= 9706.2 2
= 9.706
𝑐𝑚 𝑐𝑚2
Extra pressure head

A 4" schedule 80 PVC pipe is rated for 320 psi at room temperature and is , therefore, acceptable
for this application
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
Total pressure =9.706 𝑐𝑚2 + 2.81 𝑐𝑚2 = 12.516 𝑐𝑚2

1 𝑘𝑔/𝑐𝑚2 = 14.223344 𝑝𝑠𝑖

12.516 ∗ 14.223344 = 178.02 𝑝𝑠𝑖 < 320 𝑝𝑠𝑖 𝑜𝑘
Note: insure that all other system components are rated for this pressure

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