UNIT-1

Structure of metals and constitution of alloys

Introduction
Materials science, also commonly known as materials science and engineering, is an
interdisciplinary field which deals with the discovery and design of new materials.
This relatively new scientific field involves studying materials through the materials
paradigm (synthesis, structure, properties and performance). It incorporates
elements of physics and chemistry, and is at the forefront of nano science and
nanotechnology research. In recent years, materials science has become more widely
known as a specific field of science and engineering.
What is meant by Material science
Material Science can be broadly defined as correlation between microstructure and properties.
The Materials Science Tetrahedron :-
Microstructure depends on the processing route while performance is dictated by

properties .
Materials Science and Engineering (MSE)

Physics
Technology Chemistry

Engineering MSE Maths

Medicals Geology
Biology
Materials Science is an interdisciplinary area where many science and engineering streams merge
together

Importance of Materials
A material is defined as a substance (most often a solid, but other condensed phases can be
included) that is intended to be used for certain applications. There are a myriad of materials
around us—they can be found in anything from buildings to spacecrafts. Materials can generally
be divided into two classes: crystalline and non-crystalline. The traditional examples of materials
are metals, ceramics and polymers. New and advanced materials that are being developed include
semiconductors, nanomaterials, biomaterials etc.

The material of choice of a given era is often a defining point. Phrases such as Stone Age, Bronze
Age, Iron Age, and Steel Age are great examples. Originally deriving from the manufacture of
ceramics and its putative derivative metallurgy, materials science is one of the oldest forms of
engineering and applied science. Modern materials science evolved directly from metallurgy,
which itself evolved from mining and (likely) ceramics and the use of fire. A major breakthrough
in the understanding of materials occurred in the late 19th century, when the American scientist
Josiah Willard Gibbs demonstrated that the thermodynamic properties related to atomic structure
in various phases are related to the physical properties of a material. Important elements of modern
materials science are a product of the space race: the understanding and engineering of the metallic
alloys, and silica and carbon materials, used in the construction of space vehicles enabling the
exploration of space. Materials science has driven, and been driven by, the development of
revolutionary technologies such as plastics, semiconductors, and biomaterials.
Before the 1960s (and in some cases decades after), many materials science departments were
named metallurgy departments, reflecting the 19th and early 20th century emphasis on metals. The
field has since broadened to include every class of materials, including ceramics, polymers,
semiconductors, magnetic materials, medical implant materials, biological materials and
nanomaterials (materiomics).

Historical Perspective
Materials are so important in the development of civilization that we associate ages with them. In
the origin of human life on earth, the Stone Age, people used only natural materials like stone,
clay, skins, and wood. When people found copper and how to make it harder by alloying, the
Bronze Age started about 3000 BC. The use of iron and steel, stronger materials that gave
advantage in wars started at about 1200 BC. The next big step was the discovery of a cheap process
to make steel around 1850, which enabled the railroads and the building of the modern
infrastructure of the industrial world.

Why Study Materials Science and Engineering?

• To be able to select a material for a given use based on considerations of cost and performance.
• To understand the limits of materials and the change of their properties with use.
• To be able to create a new material that will have some desirable properties.
All engineering disciplines need to know about materials. Even the most immaterial like software
or system engineering depend on the development of new materials, which in turn alter the
economics, like software-hardware trade-offs. Increasing applications of system engineering are
in materials manufacturing (industrial engineering) and complex environmental systems.

Classification of Materials
Like many other things, materials are classified in groups, so that our brain can handle the
complexity. One could classify them according to structure, or properties, or use. The one that we
will use is according to the way the atoms are bound together:
Metals: The valence electrons are detached from atoms, and spread in an 'electron sea' that "glues"
the ions together. Metals are usually strong, conduct electricity and heat well and are opaque to
light (shiny if polished). Examples: aluminum, steel, brass, gold.
Semiconductors: The bonding is covalent (electrons are shared between atoms). Their electrical
properties depend extremely strongly on minute proportions of contaminants. They are opaque to
visible light but transparent to the infrared. Examples: Si, Ge, GaAs.

Ceramics: Atoms behave mostly like either positive or negative ions, and are bound by Coulomb
forces between them. They are usually combinations of metals or semiconductors with oxygen,
nitrogen or carbon (oxides, nitrides, and carbides).Examples: glass, porcelain, many minerals.

Polymers: are bound by covalent forces and also by weak van der Waals forces, and usually based
on H, C and other non-metallic elements. They decompose at moderate temperatures (100
– 400 C), and are lightweight. Other properties vary greatly. Examples: plastics (nylon, teflon,
polyester) and rubber. Other categories are not based on bonding. A particular microstructure
identifies

Composites: Composites made of different materials in intimate contact (example: fiberglass,

concrete, wood) to achieve specific properties. Biomaterials can be any type of material that is
biocompatible and used, for instance, to replace human body parts.

Advanced Materials
Materials used in "High-Tec" applications, usually designed for maximum performance, and
normally expensive. Examples are titanium alloys for supersonic airplanes, magnetic alloys for
computer disks, special ceramics for the heat shield of the space shuttle, etc.

Modern Material's Needs

• Engine efficiency increases at high temperatures: requires high temperature withstanding
materials
 • Use of nuclear energy requires solving problem with residues, or advances in
nuclear waste processing.
• Hypersonic flight requires materials that are light, strong and resist high temperatures.
• Optical communications require optical fibers that absorb light negligibly.
• Civil construction – materials for unbreakable windows.
• Structures: materials that are strong like metals and resist corrosion like plastics.

STRUCTURE OF METALS & ITS ALLOYS:

BONDING IN SOLIDS:
When the atoms of the elements combines to form molecules a force of attraction is
developed between the atoms ,which holds them to gether this force is known as “Bond”.
Atoms are held together in solids by electrostatic forces of attraction.
An electric force of attraction occurs between positively and negatively charged
particles, and there are various ways in which such electric forces can be produced between
atoms in solids.

Causes of Bonding:
The atoms or molecules forms bonds with another,in order to achieve stable
configuration in the following 3 ways
 By loosing one or more electrons to another atom
 By gaining one or more electrons from another atom
 By sharing one or more electrons with another atom
Classification of Bonds :
 According to the nature of forces of attraction bonds are classified as
o Primary bonding
o Secondary bonding

 Primary bonds:

 Primary bonds are inter atomic bonds in which electro static force holds the
atoms together.

 They are more stable and relatively strong bonds.

 Examples- metallic, ionic and covalent bonds

 Secondary bonds:

 Secondary bonds are inter molecular bonds in which the weak forces holds the
molecules to gether
  These weak forces are known as vanderwall’s force.

 They are relatively weak.

 Examples- dispersion bond, dipole bond and hydrogen bond.

Secondary bond is weak and less stable when compared to primary bond

Types of Primary Bond:

1. Ionic Bond
2. Covalent Bond
3. Metallic bond

1. Ionic Bond:
1. It is also known as electro valent bond
2. It is formed between atoms of metals and nonmetals
3. An ionic bond is formed when one or more electrons, from the outer most shell of one
atom, are transformed to the outermost shell of another atom
4. The electro static attraction b/w the oppositely charged ions forms the ionic bond
5. Following are the two conditions are necessary for the bond formation :
1. The atom which loses the electron should have low ionization energy. It means that
a small amount of energy is requires to remove the electron from its outermost energy
level
2. The atom which gains the electron should have high electron affinity. It means that
the atom should be able to readily accept an electron from its outermost energy level
Ex: formation of ionic bond in sodium chloride (NaCl)

 The atomic no of Na is 11 and Cl is 17 .the atomic structure of both Na and Cl atoms

are shown in fig. Thus we see that the Na atom has 1electron in its outer most energy level and
Cl atom has 7 electrons in its outer most energy level
 The Na atom has tendency to lose its electron in its outermost energy level to have a stable
configuration. more over the Cl atom has a tendency to accept one electron (lost by Na
atom) in its outer most energy level to have a stable electronic configuration of argon
Properties of ionic solids:
1. Ionic solids are rigid, uni directional and crystal in nature
2. The ionic solids have very low electrical and thermal conductivities
3. The ionic solids have high hardness due to their crystalline structure
4. The ionic solids are not malleable and ductile
5. They have high melting and boiling temperature
6. They exist in the form of solids only
7. They are freely soluble in water but slightly soluble in organic solvents

Covalent bond:
 It exist due to the electrostatic force of attraction b/w atoms which share the electron
pairs to form a covalent bond
 It is formed b/w similar or dissimilar atoms
Ex: O2, CO2, C2H6, H2O, Sic

Fig: covalent bond formation of chorine molecule

In Cl molecule it consists of 7 electrons in its outer most shell. it need one more electron
to achieve stable configuration Argon it share another chlorine atom as shown in fig
Note :
 When the atoms share one pair of electron the bond formed is single bond, two or
three pair of electron, the bond formed is single or double or triple covalent bond

They are two types of covalent bands-

 Non Polar
- bonded atoms that share e-’s equally
- same atoms bonded
ex. Cl – Cl: Cl2
 Polar
- bonded atoms that do not share e-’s equally
- different atoms bonded
H
ex. H – N – H: NH3
Properties of ionic solids:
 These are bad conductors of electricity
 These compounds are low melting & boiling temp
 These are not soluble in water ,but are soluble in organic components such as benzene,
toluene etc
3. Metallic bond:
A bond formed by the attraction between electron cloud and positively charged ion (cation) of
same or different metals

Fig: Metallic bond formation

Properties of metallic solids:
 These are high electrical and thermal conductivities
 Metallic solids have crystalline structure but are soft in nature
 These solids are low melting and boiling temperature than ionic solids
 These are exist in the form of solids only
 These are neither soluble in water nor organic solvents

2. Secondary Bond

1.Dispersion bond:
  This bond as shown in a symmetrical molecule.

 The electrons are uniformly distributed around the nucleus.

 But due to mutual repulsion, electrons disperse in asymmetrical manner the

displacement of positive and negative charges, and forms a dipole (pair of two
opposite and equal charges).

 These dipoles oscillate and influence each other resulting in a weak attraction force
which forms the dispersion bond.

 Example- molecules of the inert gas are held by dispersion bond.

2. Dipole bond:

 Unequal sharing of electrons between the atoms results that the center of positive and
negative charges does not coincide and the electrical dipole (molecule with one end
positive and other end negative).

 These dipoles provide molecular attraction resulting in the formation of dipole bond.

 Dipole bonds are weaker than ionic bonds but stronger than dispersion bond.
Example- formation of hydrogen chloride (HCL).
In HCL, molecule region near the hydrogen nucleus is highly positive and opposite region
near the chlorine nucleus is negative.
Attractive between the regions results dipole bond.

4. Hydrogen bond:

 Hydrogen bond results between hydrogen atom and any other elctro-negative atoms
such as oxygen and nitrogen.
Example-
In water molecules two H2 ends of the molecule being slightly positive (i.e.
from proton) relative to the oxygen atom (electron).
Each water molecule form a dipole.
Hydrogen bond occurs as a result of electro-static attraction between these molecule
from a dipole.
 Van der Waals bonding
Van der Waals bonding between molecules or atoms arise due to weak attraction forces
between dipoles

The natural oscillation of atoms leading to momentary break down of charge symmetry
can generate temporary dipoles

Dipoles can induce dipoles and attraction between opposites ends of

the dipoles leads to weak bonding


An ion can also induce a dipole

Some molecules like HCl have permanent dipoles due to asymmetrical

arrangement of +ve and –ve charges

Van der Waals bonding is much weaker compared to primary bonds. Bond

.
energy lies in the range of 2 – 10 kJ/mol

Molecules in liquid and gas are held by weak Van der Waals forces
 The atomic layers in graphite are held
together by weak van der Waals bonds.
Therefore, the layers can move easily over each
other and this imparts the lubricating property

graphite .

BOND ENERGY OR BINDING ENERGY: It

is defined as the energy to break the bond or to separate the atom is known as “bond energy”
 It is expressed in kj/mole
BOND LENGTH:
 The bond length may be defined as equilibrium separation (r) b/w the centre-to-centre
of two bonding atoms.
 The force of attraction b/w the two bonding atoms, smaller will be the equilibrium
separation and hence smaller the bond length.
 The primary bond are more stronger than the secondary bond, then the bond length of
primary bond are smaller than those of secondary bonds
 The bond length of primary bond are in the range of 1-2 AO,for secondary bonds of 2-
5 AO

F
F

r
Fig: bond length
Crystallization of solids:
 crystal or crystalline solid is a solid material whose constituent atoms, molecules or
ions etc are arranged in an ordered pattern extending in all three dimensions. which are
acquired under the action of inter molecular forces.
 Crystals are also known as grains
 The boundary separating the two adjacent grains is called grain boundary
 The scientific study of crystals and crystal formation is known as “crystallography.”
 The process of crystal formation via mechanisms of crystal growth is called
“Crystallization or solidification.”
 All materials are crystalline in nature.
  Single Crystals: Crystals can be single crystals where the whole solid is one crystal.
Then it has a regular geometric structure with flat faces.

 Polycrystalline Materials:
o A solid can be composed of many crystalline grains, not aligned with each other.
It is called polycrystalline.
 The grains can be more or less aligned with respect to each other. Where they meet is
called a grain boundary.

 Crystalline and Non-crystalline materials

 Crystalline Solids:-
 In crystalline substances the atoms are arranged in regular pattern then it’s called
crystalline solids.
 the distance b/w any two successive toms is equal
Example: Cu, Al, Fe etc

 Non-Crystalline Solids or Amorphous solids :

 The irregular arrangement of the atoms in a crystal is called Non-Crystalline
solids
 The atomic distance b/w any two successive atoms is not equal
Example: glass, rubber etc

Fig: Crystalline and Non-crystalline materials

Anisotropy & Isotropy:
 The properties of polycrystalline solids may be differ greatly in different directions and
such an unequality of properties in various crystallographic directions is called
Anisotropy.
  Amorphous substances such as glass will display the same properties in any directions
or planes are called isotropic.
Lattice: It denotes the position of atoms or molecules in the crystal.

Space lattice: It differs from a crystal structure in that a space lattice is an array of points
in three-dimensional space in which every point has surroundings identical to the every
other point in the array. Where as a crystal structure is an arrangement of atoms in crystal.
Or
The array of lattice points in three-dimensional space is called space lattice.

Unit cell : It is the smallest portion of the crystal which shows the arrangement and position
of atoms in a crystal structure
Where a, b,c,-intercepts along axes along x,y,z and
α, β, γ-interfacial angles
Primitive cell: It is defined as a unit cell which possesses lattice points at its corners only
Example: A simple cubic cell

Non-Primitive cell: The unit cell which contain more than one lattice point, are called
Non-primitive cell
Ex: body centered and face centered cubic structures contain more than one lattice point per
unit cell
 If no of lattice points per unit cell are two the unit cell is called doubly primitive cell.
 If no of lattice points per unit cell are three or four the unit cell is called triply
primitive cell or quadruply primitive cell

CRYSTAL STRUCTURE OF METALS

Most metals crystallize into 4 forms of crystal systems:
 Simple Cubic crystal structure (S.c.c)
 Face-centered cubic structure (F.C.C)
  Body-centered cubic structure (B.C.C)
 Hexagonal close-packed structure (H.C.C)

1. Simple cubic structure:

In this structure 8 corners of the cube are occupied by 8 atoms.
No of atoms in the unit cell of S.C.C:
The unit cell contains 8 atoms one at each corner of the cube, since
each corner atom is shared by 8 eight surrounding cubes the unit
cell of S.C.C contains
8 atoms at the corners 8X1/8 =1 atom

Polonium is the only element which shows this type of structure,

2. Body-centered cubic structure (B.C.C)

In B.C.C structure the unit cell contain 8 atoms and 1 atom
in the centre of the cell
No of atoms in the unit cell:
In B.C.C structure the unit cell contains 8 atoms at
each corner of the cube and one atom in the centre of the
cube
Since each corner is shared by 8 surrounding cubes and
the atom in the centre cannot be shared by another cube.

Fig: B.C.C
8 atoms at the corners x 1/8 =1 atom
1 centre atom =1 atom
2 atoms
 R
a

Examples- chromium, iron, molybdenum, potassium, sodium, tungsten, vanadium

P.f is 68% and it is not a closely packed structure.

Face-centered cubic structure:

In FCC structure, there are eight corner of the cube occupied by eight atoms, and
six atoms occupy the centre of six of the cube atoms
Examples- AL, copper, gold, lead, nickel, platinum, silver.

a
Effective no.of atoms: (n)
In FCC structure effective no.of corner atom is 8x1/8 = 1.
Each face centered atom is shared by two unit cells, there are six faces in a
unit cell of cubic structure.
Therefore, the effective face-centered atoms = 1/2x6=3
Thus, effective no.of atoms in FCC unit cell,
n = 1/8x8+1/2x6=1+3=4atoms

Hexagonal close-packed (HCP) structure:

Effective no. Of atoms: (n)

There are six corner atoms on both top and bottom layers and each corner atom accounts for
1/6 atom.
Thus contribution from the corner atoms is 2(1/6x6) =2.
Also, there are 3 atoms in the middle layer which are not shared by any other unit cell.
The atoms at the center of top and bottom layers one atom (1/2x2=1)
Thus, effective no. of atoms in HCP unit cell,
n =2(1/6x6) +3+ (1/2x2) =2+3+1=6
Examples- cadmium, zinc, magnesium, cobalt, zirconium, titanium, beryllium.
P.f is 74% and hence it is closely packed structure.

CRYSTALLIZATION OF METALS
 Crystallization or solidification is the process of transition from the liquid state. When
the molten metal is cooled, the whole mass does not solidify instantaneously.
It comprises two steps
1. Nucleation (the formation of stable nuclei in the melt)
2. Grain or crystal growth (the growth of nuclei into crystal and the formation of the grain
structure.)

GRAIN
Solidified metal containing many crystals is called polycrystalline metals. The crystals
in polycrystalline metals are of irregular shape and are called grains.

GRAIN BOUNDARIES
A grain boundary is the interface between two grains, or crystallites, in a polycrystalline
material
 Or
A grain boundary may be defined as the region b/w two adjacent grains
The grain size expressed in terms of number of grains per unit area or volume
Factors affecting grain size
 Size of grain depends on rate of nucleation and rate of crystal growth
 The combination of high rate of nucleation (N) with a slow rate of crystal growth (G)
yields fine grains this combination can be achieved due to rapid cooling
 At faster rate of cooling a large no of grains are nucleated and there is less time for them
to grow
 A high value of (G) and low value of (N) coarse grains are formed this combination
can be achieves in slow rate of cooling
 Besides the rate of cooling and rate of nucleation the grain size also depends on the
temperature of liquid metal, the chemical composition and the impurities present there
in
 When the grain size is small the structure of the metal is known as “fine grained
structure”
 When the grain size is large the structure of the metal is known as “coarse grained
structure”


Effect of grain size on properties:

 The grain size of the metal strongly effects its mechanical properties
 Metals and alloys are stronger if the grain size is reduced there fore every effort is
made to produce structure with fine grains
 Metals with fine grain structure possess high strength and hardness also they
possesses high fatigue strength and toughness (i.e, resistance to impact).
 Metals with coarse grain structure possesses less tough and less hard but exhibit
better creep resistance
 Coarse grain structure gives high ductility good machinability and formability but
decrease the hardenability
GRAIN SIZE DETERMINATION
Three basic methods has recomondded by ASTM (AMERICAN STANDARD
TESTING AND MATERIALS)
1. Comparison method
2. Heyn method or intercept method
3. Planimetric method or Jeffries method

1. Comparison method:-
In this method the grain size is measured by comparison under a magnification of 100X(after
etching )with standard grain size AS

Where N = no of grains per inch square at a magnification of 100 X

n=ASTM grain size number

2. Heyn method or intercept method :

Grain size may be estimated by using an intercept method, described below:
 Straight lines, all of the same length are drawn through several photomicrographs
that shoe the grain structure.
  The grains intersected by each line segment are counted.

 The line length is then divided by an average of no.of grains intersected, taken
over all the line segments.

 The average grain diameter is found by dividing this result by the linear
magnifications of the photomicrographs.
To each assigned a number, the smaller the grains.
A specimen must be properly of 100x.
Grain size is expressed as the grain size no of the chart that most nearly matches
the grains in the micrograph.
Thus, a relatively simple and convenient visual determination of grain size
number is possible.
Grain size number is used extensively in the specification of steels.

IMPORTANT TERMS
System: A part of the universe under study is called system.
Phase: Phase is a homogeneous, physically distinct and mechanically separable
part of the system under study.
Component: Pure metal of which the alloy is composed.
Solubility limit: Maximum concentration of solute that can dissolve in solvent
Variable: A particular phase exists under various conditions of temperature,
pressure and concentration. These parameters are called as the variables of the
phase.
Component: The elements present in the system are called as components.
Example- Cu-Al system contains compounds CuAl and CuAl2 and therefore, all
compositions can be expressed by the molecular species of Cu and Al and hence
it is two component system i.e. binary system.

Alloy:
Alloy is mixture of two or more elements having metallic properties. The element
present in the largest proportions is a metal and others can be metals or non-metals.
The element which is present in the largest amount is called as the base metal or parent
metal or solvent and other elements are called as alloying elements or solute.

Constitution:
 The constitution of an alloy is described by
• the phases present
• the weight fraction of each phase
• the composition of each phase
  The equilibrium constitution is when the alloy has no further tendency to change at a
given temperature and pressure

ALLOYING ELEMENTS
The elements deliberately added to the steel in order to modify its properties are called alloying
elements.

Classification of alloying elements:

1. Based on their relation with carbon, alloying elements may classified as:

o Graphitizing elements – silicon, nickel, copper and aluminium.

These elements may cause the breakdown of cementile and lead to the presence
of graphite in the alloy. This result is a decrease in the strength and hardness.
o Carbide forming elements – manganese, chromium, molybdenum, tungsten, etc.

These elements may form stable, hard carbides, and if they are in appropriate
form (fine carbide particles) increases the strength and hardness
o Neutral elements – cobalt

These elements neither form carbides nor causes graphitization.

2. Based on their effect on critical points, alloying elements may be classified as:

o Austenite stabilizers – nickel, copper, manganese, cobalt

They arise A4 point and lower A3 point. Thus they increase the range of stability
.of austenite.
o Ferrite stabilizers – chromium, molybdenum, vanadium

They lowers A4 point and rise A3 point. Thus they increase the range of stability
of ferrite.
Necessity of alloying:
Alloying elements are added to achieve the properties suitable for service conditions. The
reasons for alloying may be one or more of the following.
 To improve the hardness and wear resistance.

 To improve corrosion resistance.

 To improve magnetic and electrical properties.

 To improve strength and toughness.

 To improve machinability, weldability, hardenability.

 To retain properties at elevated temperature.

SOLID SOLUTION
A solid solution is formed when two metals are completely soluble in solid state and also
completely soluble in liquid state.
In other words, when homogeneous mixture of two or more kinds of atoms (metals) occur in
the solid state, they are known as a solid solutions.
 Types of solid solution:
o Substitutional solid solution

o Interstitial solid solution

 Substitutional solid solution:

o it means the atoms of B element i.e solute are substituted at the atomic sizes of
A element i.e solvent.

o Depending up on the distribution of B atoms in A, Substitutional solid solutions

are classified into two types

 Regular or ordered

 Random or disordered

In regular solid solution, the substitution of B atoms in A by a definite order.

While there is no definite order or regularity in random solid solution.
o Au-Cu solid solution shows ordered structure upto 4000C and disordered
structure at high temperature.

o Complete regularity through the structure is possible only when two metals are
mixed in some proportion like 1:1, 3:1 etc.

o Substitutional solid solution formation is favored if the atomic sizes of two

metals are nearly equal.

o Ordered substitutional solid solution alloys in general are hard and require more
energy for plastic deformation than disordered substitutional solid solution
alloys.
  Interstitutional solid solution:

o In inter solid solutions; the atoms of B occupy the interstitial sites of A.

o This type of solid solution formation is favored when the atomic size of B is
very much small as compared to the atomic size of A.

o The elements which can form interstitial solid solution with iron are carbon,
boron, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen.

 Properties of solid solution

o Soft

o Ductile

o Malleable

 Advantages of solid solution

o Easily cold rolled

o Pressed or worked

HUME-ROTHERY’S RULES OF SOLID SOLUBILITY

In formation of solid solutions, the solubility limit of solute in the solvent is governed
by certain factors. These factors are known as hume-rothery rules of solid solubility.
They are as below:
 Atomic size factor:

o If the atomic sizes of solute and solvent differ by less than 15%, it is said to
have a favorable size factor for solid solution formation.

o If the atomic size difference exceeds 15%, solid solubility is limited.

  Chemical affinity factor:

o The greater the chemical affinity of two metals, the more restricted is their solid
solubility and greater is the tendency of formation of a compound.

 Relative valency factor:

o A metal of higher valency can dissolve only a small amount of a lower valency
metal.

o While the lower valency metal may have good solubility for the higher valency
metal.

 Crystal structure factor:

o Metals having same crystal structure will have greater solubility.

o Differences in crystal structure limit the solid solubility.

For continuous solid solubility, atomic size difference should preferably be less than
8% with other factors favorable.

INTERMEDIATE ALLOY PHASES AND ELECTRON COMPOUNDS

 When an alloying element (solute) is added to a given metal (solvent) in such an amount
that the limit of solid solubility exceed, a second phase appears with the solid solution.

 This second phase may be another solid solution or an intermediate phase.

 These intermediate phases differ in composition as well as crystal structure from the
parent metals and hence their properties also different.

 These phases may have narrow or wide ranges of homogeneity and may or may not
have simple chemical formula.

 Some intermediate phases have a fixed composition and they are called intermetallic
compounds

 In general intermetallic compounds are hard, brittle and have high melting points.

 The intermediate phases in which the ratio of number of free electrons to the number
of atoms is constant are called electron compounds and they exhibit similar
characteristics.

 Intermediate phases exhibit order-disorder transformation.

Example- β brass in Cu-Zn alloy system is disorder between 453 and 4700C and order
at a lower temperature.