Authors, Archaeology, and Arguments - Evidence and Models For Early Roman Politics

Antichthon, 51 (2017) 1–20
doi:10.1017/ann.2017.3
Authors, Archaeology, and Arguments: Evidence and Models for

Early Roman Politics
ABSTRACT
Ancient history begins and ends with the ancient evidence. The evidence
represents not only the foundation of the discipline, but the material out of
which any argument must be built, and it is not possible to go further than
it allows. This is part of the reason why the nature and value of the
evidence for early Rome have long been, and remain, matters of consider-
able and sometimes contentious debate. The best evidence, simply because it
is contemporary, is arguably the archaeological, but the sorts of questions
that archaeological evidence can answer are often of little help when it
comes to matters such as the politics and political structures of early Rome,
which are the focus of this collection. For such matters, it is still necessary
to work with the literary evidence. However, since the historical value of the
literary evidence is so hotly contested, the uses to which that evidence is put
and the conclusions that are drawn from it inevitably vary considerably.
Despite more than a century of research, there is still nothing even remotely
resembling a consensus on how the literary sources should best be handled.
This paper explores some of the problems with the evidence for early Rome,
considers something of the limits and uses of that evidence, as well as
introduces the contributions that make up this collection of studies on
power and politics in early Rome.
The city of Rome was first ruled by reges.1 Liberty and the consulship were
established by L. Brutus. That is the succinct formulation of Tacitus, but
he was unique only in his brevity.2 The tradition of the expulsion of the
Tarquins and the creation of the Roman Republic was a very well
established one, as the coin depicted below illustrates. The image on the
reverse shows L. Brutus holding the new office of consul, while a bust of
Liberty – and, along with it, the understood absence of monarchic rule –
can be seen on the obverse. The coin therefore advertises the very same
events and ideas found in those two brief sentences of Tacitus. It also
serves, conveniently enough, to illustrate some of the themes and topics
with which this collection of papers is concerned – viz. the evolution of
politics and power in Rome –, as well as some of the methodological
1
‘Rex’ is usually translated as ‘king’; that word, however, comes with a considerable
amount of anachronistic baggage, and so has been avoided here.
2
Tac. Ann. 1.1: urbem Romam a principio reges habuere; libertatem et consulatum
L. Brutus instituit.
1
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© The Australasian Society for Classical Studies 2017
of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/ann.2017.3
2 Jeremy Armstrong, J.H. Richardson
RRC 433/1. Struck silver Denarius. 54 BC. Marcus Iunius Brutus

(moneyer). Rome (mint).
Gale Collection, ACANS 07GR433/1.
Australian Centre for Ancient Numismatic Studies, Macquarie University.
Used with permission.
problems with which anyone who works on the history of early Rome
must deal.
The Romans believed that their city was ruled by reges, and archaeo-
logical evidence is generally thought to have confirmed the presence of
reges at Rome, whatever the actual status and powers of those enigmatic
figures may have been.3 At the end of the sixth century BC – or so the
Romans believed – the rule of the reges was brought to an end and the
Republic was established. Rome was henceforth supposedly led by
consuls. Although the consuls were said to have had the same powers,
dress, and insignia as the reges, they were also said to have held office for
just one year (after which they returned to private life), and always to have
shared their powers equally with a colleague. The simple fact that power
was shared and held only briefly, it was believed, ensured that Rome was
not only free – something which the very expulsion of the last rex, who
was said to have been an abusive tyrant, had already helped to establish –
but would also remain so.4
3
The most famous piece of evidence is the cippus from beneath the Lapis Niger, on which
the word recei appears. The cippus was discovered by G. Boni in 1899, by chance, just
after the appearance of the first volume of E. Pais’ famous Storia di Roma (1898), and thus
disproved Pais’ argument that Rome’s reges never existed; on the discovery, see Sisani
(2004) 62-3. A small bucchero shard with the word ‘rex’ inscribed on it has also been
found in the Regia and is usually dated to the fourth phase of that building, according to
Brown’s reconstruction (see Cristofani [1990] 22-3). However, it is uncertain whether the
rex referred to in either of these inscriptions was the actual rex (i.e. the ‘king’) or another
magistrate or priest, such as, most obviously, the rex sacrorum.
4
Livy 2.1.7-8: libertatis autem originem inde magis quia annuum imperium consulare factum
est quam quod deminutum quicquam sit ex regia potestate numeres. omnia iura, omnia
Evidence and Models 3
The man who was believed to have been crucial in the expulsion of the
reges, the setting up of the new Republic, and one of the first to hold the
new office of consul was of course L. Iunius Brutus.5 He can be seen very
clearly on the reverse of that coin. He is the tallest of the figures, and
comes third in the procession. He is depicted wearing a toga, while in front
of him, and behind him, are lictors, easily recognisable by the fasces – the
bundles of rods with an axe that symbolised the powers of the consuls –
which they carry. On the left, at the head of the procession, is a herald
(accensus). The image is specifically of L. Iunius Brutus as Rome’s first
consul. This is the very first year of the republican period; that is, on the
traditional chronology, 509 BC.
The image therefore evokes the two themes of this collection of papers:
power and politics in early Rome. But, more significantly for the present
discussion, it also raises some of the many methodological problems that
not only make the study of early Rome so challenging, but also an ‘ideal
school of historical method’, as A. Momigliano put it many years ago.6
While the coin depicts something of the alleged events of 509 BC, it was
actually struck some four and a half centuries later, in 54 BC, and in
radically different circumstances. Rome in the first century BC was vastly
different from Rome in the late sixth, even if the image on the coin does
little to convey that.7 The coin was, moreover, issued by a man –
M. Iunius Brutus – who claimed to be descended from the great founder
of the Republic. While it was common practice for Roman nobles
to advertise the achievements of their ancestors, and indeed figures from
such ancient times had already been depicted on coinage by others (for
example, an image of the rex Ancus Marcius had been put on a coin issued
by a member of the Marcii, L. Marcius Philippus, as recently as 56 BC),8
there may be something more specific involved in this instance. It has been
argued that ‘the issue forms part of a pattern of consistent opposition to
Pompey’s real or supposed intentions of achieving sole rule.’9 On this
insignia primi consules tenuere; 4.3.9: consules in locum regum successisse nec aut iuris aut
maiestatis quicquam habere quod non in regibus ante fuerit; note 2.7.5-6 and 2.18.8 on
collegiality; cf. also Sall. Cat. 6.7; Cic. Rep. 2.56; Dion. Hal. Ant. Rom. 4.73.4, 4.74.2-3,
5.12.3, 5.19.1; Val. Max. 4.1.1; Flor. 1.9.2; Eutrop. 1.9.
5
Brutus is the mostly widely attested of the first two consuls; most sources say that his
colleague was L. Tarquinius Collatinus (see Broughton [1951] 1-3), but Polyb. 3.22.1
thought that his colleague was M. Horatius. Some sources claim that Valerius Publicola
was one of the first consuls: Cic. Flacc. 25; Val. Max. 2.4.5, 4.4.1; Plin. HN 36.112.
6
Momigliano (1963) 108.
7
On the coin and its date, see Crawford (1974) 455-6. The ‘little’ that the image on the coin
includes to show something of the differences between Rome in the late sixth century and
Rome in the first is the axe in the fasces that the lictors carry. The axes were said to have
been removed by P. Valerius Publicola: Cic. Rep. 2.55; Dion. Hal. Ant. Rom. 5.19.3;
Val. Max. 4.1.1; Plut. Publ. 10.5; etc.
8
RRC 425/1.
9
Crawford (1974) 455.
interpretation, the image on M. Brutus’ coin was designed to play a

precise political role, and to send out a clear message about the
Republic, republican liberty, and the fate of would-be kings. M. Brutus
would, it is implied, live up to the celebrated achievements of his
ancestor.10
As M. Brutus’ coinage shows, even the events of the remote past could
play a part in the political struggles of much later times. While Roman
historians such as Livy could lament the loss of records from Rome’s
earliest history and comment on the difficulties involved in writing about
Rome’s distant past,11 such concerns were unlikely to trouble the Roman
statesman interested only in exploiting the traditions of the past for his
own immediate political purposes. Indeed, the uncertainty and flexibility
of the tradition of early Roman history meant that such purposes could
easily take precedence over any interest in historical veracity. It is not at all
surprising that Livy noted that funeral speeches and tituli contained
incorrect information about the achievements of earlier statesmen.12 The
traditions of the past were not only fluid, they were also important
‘symbolic capital’ for Rome’s nobility.13 As such, they always remained
relevant and useful, and this inevitably meant that they were always prone
to being distorted and modified.
Even apart from the question of manipulation at the hands of later
statesmen (a problem the scale of which is, perhaps not surprisingly, a
matter of some disagreement among scholars), there are other good
reasons to question the value of evidence like M. Brutus’ coin. Did consuls
in the late sixth century BC actually wear togas? Did they have lictors and
other attendants? If they did, did those lictors carry fasces? Was the
consulship already associated with liberty in the late sixth century? Indeed,
did the consulship even exist at that time? That is, does the image on the
coin reflect anything at all of the actual historical realities of Rome in the
late sixth century, or does it only show what some Romans in the mid-first
century may have believed about that earlier period? These questions
have been variously answered, both directly and indirectly, in modern
scholarship. More can easily be added. How did the monarchy come to an
end? Was it following a largely peaceful revolution, as the Romans
supposed, or were the events more violent in nature, as some have
contemplated and as archaeological evidence may possibly suggest?
Or was there even a revolution at all, or instead perhaps some longer
10
Cf. Cic. Phil. 2.25-6. As indeed he claimed he did, when he murdered Iulius Caesar (see
RRC 508/3, on the reverse of which a freedman’s cap is depicted between two daggers).
11
See Livy 6.1.2 on the loss of records; on the difficulties involved in writing about the past,
see Forsythe (1999) 22-39 for references to the relevant evidence in books 1-10 of
Livy’s work.
12
Livy 8.40.3-5; so too Cic. Brut. 62.
13
On the idea of family traditions as ‘symbolic capital’ see, e.g., Flaig (2003), esp. 49-68;
Hölkeskamp (2010) 107-24; Jones (2016).
process of evolution?14 As for M. Brutus, was he even descended from

L. Brutus, as he claimed? The answer to that question was clearly contested
in antiquity,15 and that says much about the role the events of the past could
play in the politics of much later times. The past was always relevant, and
it was always being reconstituted and reinterpreted in the (terms of the)
present, as the doubtless anachronistic image on the coin shows.
When it comes to the writing of history at Rome, the situation is little
improved from the circumstances of the coin. It may be a commonplace
observation, but it is so for very good reasons: no one appears to have
written history at Rome until sometime in the late third century BC.
Several Greeks, it is true, had written about Rome, even as early as the
fifth century, but those early writers clearly possessed very little, if
any, real knowledge about the city and Rome was long of limited interest
to Greek historians.16 The first Roman to write a history of Rome was a
man called Q. Fabius Pictor, a senator active during the great war with
Hannibal.17 How did Pictor know about the events of Rome’s distant (and
even not so distant) past? What were his sources?18 How did he use those
sources to produce a narrative of Rome’s past? What sort of narrative did
he produce?19 Answers to these questions are plentiful, but they are all
necessarily hypotheses, since Pictor’s work has been lost. No one can read
it today, but even if someone could, it may not necessarily make all that
much difference: Pictor may not have revealed his sources or said anything
about his methods, as it was not required of the historians of antiquity to
say where they got their material or to explain how they handled it.20
14
See, e.g., the discussion in Cornell (1995) chapter 9.
15
Dion. Hal. Ant. Rom. 5.18; Plut. Brut. 1.6-8; Cass. Dio 44.12.
16
Early writers such as Hellanicus of Lesbos and Damastes of Sigeum had discussed Rome’s
origins (Dion. Hal. Ant. Rom. 1.72.2), but appear to have known little (cf., e.g., Gabba [1991]
12-13); Pliny the Elder said that Theophrastus was the first to write about Rome with any
diligence (HN 3.57), while Dionysius knew of no one before Hieronymus of Cardia who had
written on the history of early Rome (Ant. Rom. 1.6.1). Timaeus of Tauromenium may have
visited Lavinium (Dion. Hal. Ant. Rom. 1.67.4); it is not impossible that he went to Rome
too (see Polyb. 12.4b: Timaeus wrote about the Roman ritual of the October Horse).
17
See Bispham and Cornell (2013) 161-3.
18
For an optimistic assessment of the material that may have been available to Rome’s
historians, see Cornell (1995) 4-16; for a different approach, see Forsythe (2005) chapter 3.
19
Note Dion. Hal. Ant. Rom. 1.6.2 on Pictor and Alimentus: τούτων δὲ τῶν ἀνδρῶν ἑκά-
τερος, οἷς μὲν αὐτὸς ἔργοις παρεγένετο, διὰ τὴν ἐμπειρίαν ἀκριβῶς ἀνέγραψε, τὰ δὲ
ἀρχαῖα τὰ μετὰ τὴν κτίσιν τῆς πόλεως γενόμενα κεφαλαιωδῶς ἐπέδραμεν; also Polyb.
1.14.1-3, 1.15.12, on the partisan nature of Pictor’s work. It is not even known for certain
if his account was annalistic in structure. For a recent discussion, see Bispham and
Cornell (2013).
20
It is worth noting that some historians, such as Livy, do from time to time say where they got
their material; in Livy’s case, it is striking (by modern standards, at least) that he was by and
large happy just to follow what his predecessors had said. There is no evidence that he visited
archives, consulted priestly records, tracked down documents and inscriptions, or went to the
households of noble families for the purposes of research, that is, that he did any of the things
To make matters worse, lost too are the writings of just about all of
Rome’s subsequent historians, and of those there was a great crowd.21 The
earliest extant historiographical material comes – just like the coin – from
the mid-first century BC. Even if Pictor’s account of Rome’s earliest
history had been reliable and veracious (and it is impossible to know if it
was, although it is reasonable to ask how it possibly could have been),
what had happened to it in that intervening century and a half? That
question is not easily answered, but there is some evidence, and it is not
encouraging.
Think of M. Brutus, the issuer of the coin, and his use of the past and
the debate about his ancestry. Why should the historical writings of
Roman statesmen have been immune to the same sorts of pressures? It
would appear that they were not. Evidence for the debate about the
ancestry of M. Brutus was clearly found, and indeed is still to be found, in
the writings of historians.22 And Livy, who was certainly in a position to
judge, noted that the historian Licinius Macer was unreliable when he
wrote about his own family.23
The idea that Rome’s historians were actually able to modify their
material has often been denied, however, and sometimes vigorously so.
The beliefs of T. J. Cornell have been especially influential, and Cornell
has certainly stated his position very clearly:24
Roman annalists were not in a position to impose a fraudulent version of
Rome’s history on their contemporaries and on succeeding generations of
historians. The main outline of political and military events was a matter
of public knowledge in the later Republic; it was clearly set out in the works
of historians such as Fabius Pictor, Cato the Censor, and L. Calpurnius
Piso Frugi, men who had themselves made history and knew what they
were talking about... It is simply inconceivable that relatively late writers
such as Valerius Antias could have departed radically from the received
tradition and hoped to get away with it.
that Fabius Pictor is often supposed to have done. Pictor too may have drawn on earlier
writings; see Bispham and Cornell (2013) 174-5. Polybius, who was exceptional, certainly
visited archives, and he found inscriptions, most famously Rome’s treaties with Carthage; his
handling of that material suggests that it was newly discovered (and by him), and that is very
telling; see Polyb. 3.22-6.
21
Cf. Livy praef. 3: tanta scriptorum turba.
22
See n. 15 above; it was evidently a long-standing issue (Plutarch refers to the work of
Posidonius), although the murder of Caesar clearly gave it new life.
23
Livy 7.9.5. This is rejected by Smith (2011) 28-31. Smith’s argument is essentially that the
evidence does not support Livy’s view; but Macer’s work is lost, and Smith’s assessment
is only based on a few passages of Livy, where Livy happens to have mentioned Macer; in
contrast, Livy’s view will have been based on his reading of Macer’s work (although that
is effectively denied by Smith; in his discussion of 7.9.3-6, Smith says: ‘this is the passage
on which the whole argument for Licinius’ false insertion of his family into the history of
Rome is based’ [our emphasis], but that is hardly the case, nor is that even Livy’s precise
charge).
24
Cornell (2005) 49.
These comments were first published in 1986, and they have been taken up
and repeated by many. Indeed, they seem to make sense. Rome’s great
families were competing for prestige within a specific context, and so
certain rules arguably should have applied. If the details of Rome’s history
were mutable, and each gens was able to fabricate events, offices, and
honours wholesale, then those events, offices, and honours should,
presumably, have lost their importance. Why should, or would, anyone
have cared about clear fictions?
Equally, however, doubts about some of Cornell’s views were expres-
sed even in the very same book in which these comments appeared.25 And
even amongst proponents of Cornell’s stance, there is considerable
disagreement about what constitutes this supposedly stable ‘main outline
of political and military events’. It is worth adding as well that the current
environment of ‘post-truth politics’, ‘fake news’, and ‘alternative facts’ has
demonstrated all too clearly that there exists a number of contexts in
which ‘clear fictions’ can be considered useful political currency. Despite
natural assumptions to the contrary, a solid connection to ‘the truth’ does
not seem to be a necessary requirement in all political discourse. Veracity
can never be taken for granted, while dishonesty can be surprisingly
blatant, even when the details are readily verifiable (which they were not in
antiquity). Moreover, even if the ‘main outline of political and military
events’ really was ‘a matter of public knowledge’, which is far from
certain, why should the members of Rome’s nobility have been concerned
to weed out any inventions or lies, even more so if they did not impact on
them directly? How would they have tried to do this? And would any such
attempts have had any effect, even if they had been made? The environ-
ment of today is, again, suggestive, and it does nothing to engender any
confidence. And, besides, even if the main narrative of early Roman
history had somehow been ‘stable’ and had generally been accepted by
Rome’s nobility, that does not mean that it was necessarily reliable to
begin with. While it can be argued, as Cornell does, that Rome’s nobles
may have worked to keep each other honest and rein in the more excessive
claims, it is reasonable to assume that they would, in general, have only
propagated a view of the past that benefitted them as a whole.
As for Valerius Antias, the author singled out by Cornell, Livy was
certainly clear in his assessment of him: Antias was unreliable. What
caught Livy’s attention above all else were Antias’ tallies, of casualties in
battle, of war machines, and the like. Antias clearly exaggerated, and Livy
could prove this.26 To be able to maintain, therefore, that Antias could not
depart radically from the received tradition and hope to get away with it,
25
Raaflaub (2005) 24-6 (and Raaflaub’s addendum for the second edition, 26-31); von
Ungern-Sternberg (2005) 81-2.
26
Livy 26.49.3: si Valerium Antiatem, maiorum scorpionum sex milia, minorum tredecim
milia – adeo nullus mentiendi modus est; 30.19.11; 33.10.8: see n. 28 below; 36.19.11-12
(12: si Antiati Valerio credamus); 36.38.5-7 (7: ubi ut in numero scriptori parum fidei sit,
Cornell has to make a distinction, between unimportant or insignificant

(that is, acceptable) and radical (that is, unacceptable) departures from the
received tradition, and to suppose that the inflation of numbers only
constitutes an unimportant and so acceptable departure (although Livy, it
seems, would not have agreed with that).27 But is it possible to maintain
that such a distinction was also made by Antias himself? Is it possible to
have confidence that, as he wrote his history, Antias knew that he could
claim that very large numbers of enemy soldiers had been killed in some
particular battle, even one as important and comparatively recent as the
battle of Cynoscephalae,28 but also that he knew that he could not, for
instance, modify his account of some event by inserting some figure or
giving someone a more important role, or even just devise some episode
outright?29 That may seem to be a different order of things from inflating
a few numbers, but did it to Antias? And, even if it did, is there any reason
to believe that he would have cared?30 What were his priorities? In the end,
it is only his judgement and his integrity that matter, and that applies to all
of Rome’s historians, who – in the absence of evidence – must necessarily
be supposed to have had more or less the same level of understanding and
honesty.31
There is a further problem that needs to be taken into account which is
immediately relevant in this context: the amount of material that Rome’s
historians produced dramatically increased over time. The first histories of
quia in augendo eo non alius intemperantior est); 38.23.8; 39.41.5-6 (6: si Antiati Valerio
credere libet); 45.43.8.
27
Cornell (2005) 58-9 and (1995) 17-18 frames things differently; the distinction he makes is
between ‘structural facts’ and ‘narrative superstructure’. The first was sacrosanct, the
latter open to manipulation and modification.
28
Livy 33.10.7-10: caesa eo die octo milia hostium, <quinque> capta; ex victoribus septin-
genti ferme ceciderunt. si Valerio qui credat omnium rerum immodice numerum augenti,
quadraginta milia hostium eo die sunt caesa, capta – ibi modestius mendacium est – quinque
milia septingenti, signa militaria ducenta undequinquaginta. Claudius quoque duo et
triginta milia hostium caesa scribit, capta quattuor milia et trecentos. nos non minimo
potissimum numero credidimus sed Polybium secuti sumus, non incertum auctorem cum
omnium Romanarum rerum tum praecipue in Graecia gestarum.
29
Note, however, Livy 32.6.5-8, 37.48, 42.11.1 (plurium annales, et quibus credidisse
malis,... tradunt), and 44.13.12-14 for evidence of problems in Antias’ work of a kind
different from merely exaggerated numbers. Cornell singles out Antias because he has
long been suspected of doing the sort of thing Livy implies Macer did, i.e., in Antias’
case, glorifying the Valerii; see, e.g., Ogilvie (1965) 14; Wiseman (1979) 113-17; Wiseman
(1998) 75-89; Richardson (2014).
30
Note the comments of Polybius about the need for historians to tell the truth (1.14); the
fact that Polybius even needed to state this is important evidence of what the usual
standards and approach were.
31
Honesty, it should be noted, is a word that is only applicable in specific circumstances.
An historian can only lie or be dishonest if he knows the truth (or at least what purports
to be the truth) and is prepared to depart from it. Inventing, padding out, embellishing,
and filling in gaps are just as likely to have been seen as plausible reconstruction. They are
unlikely to have been seen as lying (which, strictly speaking, they are not in any case).
And standards could be different. See, for instance, Wiseman (1979) and (1993).
Rome were short works, perhaps never (but rarely, if ever) more than ten
books in length. By the first century BC, however, that had changed sig-
nificantly, and not just because later historians had more to cover. In the
first century, Roman historians were able to write about the past at greater
length, indeed at far greater length than their second-century predecessors.
Cato the Elder’s Origines, which were likely composed in the second
quarter of the second century BC, filled just seven books, and two of those
appear to have been concerned only (or at least primarily) with the origins
of other cities in Italy.32 Cato dealt with the beginnings of Rome, and his
account evidently went as far as the middle of the second century BC.
L. Calpurnius Piso, writing in the late second century, took his narrative
at least as far as 146 BC, but possibly right down to his own day, and
likewise needed just seven, or perhaps eight, books.33 About a century
later, Livy needed 49 books to get as far as Cato had,34 52 to get to 146 BC,
and 61 to reach Piso’s censorship of 120 BC.
This obvious and dramatic expansion naturally raises the question of
where all the extra material had come from. How were historians in the
first century able to write at such greater length than their second-century
predecessors? What new material did they include? (Even that question
cannot easily be answered, since the works of the second century historians
have been lost.) Some scholars have looked at the possibility that new sources
of information may have become available; most notably, the supposed
publication of the Annales Maximi by P. Mucius Scaevola has been discussed
in this context, although Scaevola’s publication of the work now seems
unlikely.35 Scholars have also argued that individual historians were to blame.
Cn. Gellius in particular has been heavily criticised for his seemingly
egregious expansion of Rome’s past; he evidently covered the rape of the
Sabine women (which took place in the fourth year of Romulus’ reign, or so
he claimed) in his second book, and he had got only as far as the events of
389 BC by book 15, and the events of 216 BC by book 33 (Livy, in comparison,
had already reached the same events of 216 by book 23).36
Whether or not new sources were available to him, it is possible to
envisage Gellius expanding his narrative with the inclusion of lengthy
speeches, by rationalising myths (as he appears to have done with the story
of Cacus),37 embellishing his account with spurious detail, and perhaps
32
Nepos Cato 3.3.
33
146 BC: FRHist 9 F 41; own day: cf. Pobjoy (2013) 234, 236.
34
The last dateable fragments of the Origines refer to the trial of Ser. Sulpicius Galba
(FRHist 5 F 104-7), covered by Livy in book 49, according to Per. 49. But Cato died in
149 or early 148.
35
Rich (2013) 151-8. On the question of the publication of the Annales Maximi, see Frier
(1999).
36
FRHist 14 F 2-3, 8, 9. See Badian (1966) 11-12; Wiseman (1979) 20-6; Briscoe (2013)
253-5 for criticism.
37
FRHist 14 F 17.
even by inventing events and whole episodes outright. He may also have
included greater amounts of antiquarian material than his predecessors
had done. In the first century BC, Cicero commented that the writings of
the antiquarian Varro, which were certainly extensive, had ‘revealed the
age of our native city, the chronology of its history, the laws of its religion
and its priesthood, its civil and its military institutions, the topography of
its districts and its sites, the terminology, classification and moral and
rational basis of all our religious and secular institutions.’38 The inclusion
of material of this kind may have helped Gellius to write at the length he
did,39 although it is unlikely that this alone can explain the size of his
work. Antiquarian material, after all, is not usually argued to make up
much of Livy’s account, and Livy certainly wrote at considerable length,
even if he could not match Gellius. The fundamental problem, therefore,
remains. Rome’s first historians, who are often presumed to have had
access to material from the regal period and the early Republic, covered
the early history of their city in an extremely succinct and economical
manner, while the origin(s) of the vast quantities of additional material
that was included in the works of later historians remain(s) unknown.
All these problems – and a good many more – have long been dis-
cussed, and many different solutions to them have been put forward over
the years. These solutions have, in turn, significantly affected the methods
and reconstructions of historians working on early Rome. Something of
the range of different approaches and arguments comes through in R. T.
Ridley’s contribution to this collection, in which the history of the scho-
larly debate about Lars Porsenna of Clusium is traced. Ridley’s discussion
shows as well that that debate has not always been evolutionary in nature:
while some approaches have fallen out of favour, and some new methods
have been developed, a good number have simply endured, sometimes for
better and sometimes for worse. The different approaches and arguments
that can be found throughout this collection will similarly reveal some-
thing of the range of views that exist (and, as will be clear, not all accord
with the ones put forward in this introductory discussion). What these
many differences show is both the extent of the problems and the
robustness of the debate. Under such circumstances, the presence of
incompatible views is not something to be questioned or quashed, as
somehow undermining the coherence of the collection, but is instead
something to be emphasised at the outset.
The study of Rome’s earliest history has been put on an entirely new
footing in recent years, thanks to the results of archaeological work that
38
tu aetatem patriae, tu discriptiones temporum, tu sacrorum iura, tu sacerdotum, tu
domesticam, tu bellicam disciplinam, tu sedem regionum, locorum, tu omnium divinarum
humanarumque rerum nomina, genera, officia, causas aperuisti... Cic. Acad. post. 1.9.
Trans. Rackham.
39
Cf., for instance, FRHist 14 F 12 on the alphabet, F 14 on the invention of mining and
smelting gold and medicine too, or F 15 on the invention of weights and measures.
has been, and is still being, carried out in and around the city of Rome, as
well as further afield. It may therefore perhaps come as a surprise that the
impact of this work is hardly to be felt in this collection of papers
(although see C. J. Smith’s closing remarks for some thoughts about the
more general significance of various archaeological discoveries). Part of
the explanation for this is that many of the papers focus on periods for
which the archaeological record is still emerging: the fifth and fourth
centuries in particular, and later still. Although recent work at Gabii
and other central Italian sites is beginning to reshape the way in which
the early and middle republican periods are understood,40 the bulk of the
archaeological evidence discovered so far is still predominantly from the
archaic period. Another part of the explanation for the lack of direct
engagement with the archaeological evidence is also the focus of the col-
lection, which is politics, a subject to which those recent discoveries are
able to contribute very little directly. While fortifications can hint at social
and political limits, pottery finds can suggest economic interaction, and
monumental temples can say something about the mobilisation and con-
trol of labour and the use of resources, the study of early Rome’s political
history must still rely almost exclusively on the literary evidence.
This does not mean, however, that archaeological work is simply
irrelevant to the present discussion. The most immediate significance of
recent work in this field is the way in which it has stimulated the debate
about whether or not and, if so, how the literary evidence can be used in
conjunction with archaeological evidence, and the effect this debate has
had on the way in which both archaeological and literary evidence are
used in their own right. In all of this, the extremely controversial work of
A. Carandini is central. Although both polarising and provocative,
Carandini’s impact on the study of early Rome and early Roman
archaeology has been profound. While many of his interpretations
have rightly been questioned, if not simply rejected out of hand, his
longstanding influence on, and authority over, the archaeological work
conducted in and around the city of Rome have meant that many debates
have had to begin with his assertions and have had to engage with his
unique approach. Carandini’s position is ultimately that the literary and
archaeological evidence can simply be used together, even for Rome’s
earliest history. Thus, it is supposed, the literary evidence contains accu-
rate information, even about the very beginnings of Rome – a supposition
which is, in turn, supposedly supported by the archaeological evidence.
Although this approach is rarely taken to such extremes, in the Anglo-
phone world at any rate, it has nonetheless played a role in fostering an
extraordinary amount of optimism (and, it must be said, largely uncritical
optimism) in the value of the literary evidence, at least in some quarters.41
40
See, for instance, Becker, Mogetta, and Terrenato (2009).
41
Ampolo (2013); the title of his paper alone is telling: ‘Il problema delle origini di
Roma rivisitato: concordismo, ipertradizionalismo acritico, contesti.’ See also,
To pick the most obvious and straightforward example: according to

Livy, when Romulus founded Rome, he built a wall around the Palatine
hill.42 Carandini famously found evidence during a series of excavations in
the late 1980s for what he interpreted to be a wall at the foot of the Palatine
hill, a wall which he dated to round about the mid-eighth century BC, which is
near enough to the time Romulus supposedly founded Rome (in some
accounts, at least). The literary and archaeological evidence would therefore
seem to agree, and the story of Romulus’ foundation of Rome is thus proved
to be historical, as is Romulus himself. Although simplified, that is, in the
essentials, Carandini’s approach.43 And once such an approach is adopted, all
those questions about how Rome’s historians, who were writing more than
half a millennium after the supposed foundation of Rome, could have known
anything at all about Rome’s origins may seem to be less important, simply
because the archaeological evidence is taken to prove that they did know
about Rome’s origins. How they knew quickly becomes a secondary concern.
It hardly needs to be said that nothing is ever that simple. First, the
approach of using the literary evidence to interpret the archaeological
evidence, while at the same time effectively using the archaeological evidence
to verify the literary evidence, is entirely circular. This simple reason alone
explains why so many of Carandini’s interpretations have found little accep-
tance. The debate about the historical value of the literary evidence remains as
crucial, and as problematic, as ever. Second, as noted earlier, the archaeo-
logical evidence is different in nature from the literary evidence; it answers
different sorts of questions; and it also suggests a very different set of
circumstances from what is found in the literary evidence. When it comes to
the beginnings of Rome, the archaeological evidence shows that the site of the
city was inhabited by humans from at least the late Bronze Age (so the late
second millennium BC).44 There is, furthermore, no archaeological evidence
for any ‘foundation’ moment, and consequently there is no archaeological
evidence for any foundation date. In later times, colonies and ‘planned
communities’ may have had foundation dates, but settlements like Rome did
not, because they were not founded; they evolved and emerged over a long
period of time.45 The literary evidence, however, takes it for granted that
Rome was founded, and naturally offers a foundation date. This does not
e.g., Bietti Sestieri (2000); Poucet (2000) 160-81, 229-35; Wiseman (2001), (2004-2006),
and (2013); Hall (2014) 119-43.
42
Livy 1.7.3: Palatium primum… muniit; also Dion. Hal. Ant. Rom. 1.87.3, 1.88.2 and
2.37.1.
43
For an easily accessible overview of his work, see Carandini (2011).
44
Brock and Terrenato (2016), with numerous references to further work.
45
The closest it is possible to get to a ‘foundation’ for a site like Rome is to try to trace the
emergence of a distinct civic identity, which is often associated with the appearance of
particular types of construction; this approach has most recently been taken by Hopkins
(see Hopkins [2016]). However, there is still no proper ‘foundation’ per se; what is
involved is simply an attempt to identify a particular (and doubtless arbitrary) moment in
the wider evolution or development of an existing settlement.
mean that the Romans really did know when their city was founded.
The foundation of Rome is related in the literary evidence, and in Roman
historical writing in particular, because that is what was expected; it was
simply taken for granted that cities were founded and a date was therefore
needed.
While the story that Rome was founded in 753 BC is generally treated as
canonical, it was in fact just one of many, and a number of well-informed
Romans said that Rome had been founded at an entirely different time.
Naevius, Ennius, and Sallust, for instance, put the foundation of Rome
many centuries earlier, although their dates are no more based on evidence
than those closer to 753.46 The same applies to the identity of the founder.
Not everyone said that it was Romulus who founded the city.47 And the
location of Romulus’ first walls was not fixed either. Different authors said
different things about this too, and no one version is any more historical
than any other; no version is based on contemporary evidence.48 So the view
that Romulus founded Rome in the mid-eighth century and built walls
around the Palatine hill at that time is based upon a highly selective
handling of the evidence. This inevitably means that its apparent agreement
with the archaeological evidence is not even a coincidence. If the archaeo-
logical evidence were different, some other combination could likely be put
together and made to fit,49 and the value of the argument would be no
different. It too would be a modern fantasy.
Carandini’s is obviously not the only way to approach the archaeo-
logical evidence, and indeed it represents but one, and one very extreme,
point of view. More nuanced approaches, in which – in contrast – the
literary evidence is often barely used, if it is even used at all, have been
more effective (again, see Smith’s contribution in this volume for one
example). Some have preferred to focus on the truly prehistoric periods of
Rome’s development, where there is no literary narrative to contend with,
such as the late Bronze Age, which has been analysed using coring and
other techniques.50 Others have explored aspects of Rome’s archaeological
landscape not directly discussed by the sources, such as the community’s
rural hinterland.51 A few have attempted to trace the development of
46
Serv. Auc. Aen. 1.273: Naevius et Ennius Aeneae ex filia nepotem Romulum conditorem
urbis tradunt; Sall. Cat. 6.1: urbem Romam, sicuti ego accepi, condidere atque habuere
initio Troiani, qui Aenea duce profugi sedibus incertis vagabantur, cumque eis Aborigines,
genus hominum agreste, sine legibus, sine imperio, liberum atque solutum.
47
See Wiseman (1995) 160-8 for 61 different versions of the foundation myth of Rome.
48
See, for instance, Dion. Hal. Ant. Rom. 2.1.4-2.1; Strabo 5.3.7; Plut. Rom. 11.1-2;
cf. Wiseman (2013) 242, also for further evidence and variations.
49
Feeney (2007) 91-2: ‘If the ancient tradition had fixed on 1000 as the “real” date, then
these scholars would all be focusing on the exiguous human remains at Rome from
around 1000 as “corroboration.”’
50
See, most notably, Ammerman and Filippi (2004). See Brock and Terrenato (2016) for
further discussion.
51
See Fulminante (2014) and Terrenato (2001).
archaic Rome using only the archaeological evidence, and have then
compared their reconstruction with the Romans’ accounts of events. Some
of the results have been insightful. As J. Hopkins’ recent work on
monumental building in archaic Rome has demonstrated, the archaeo-
logical record can shed new light on long-studied periods. The art and
architecture of the archaic city suggest that Rome was far more connected
with the wider Mediterranean world than the literary sources would
suggest. While Livy and Dionysius paint a picture of a Rome caught up in
internal struggles, the buildings that were being erected by the community
indicate a city which was part of a much wider cultural and economic
dialogue.52 Rome also seems to have had a strong industrial base, most
notably in pottery production, which utilised clay extracted from the
Velabrum; this seems to be evidence for an economic foundation that is
very different from the agrarian model espoused in ancient literature.53
And, perhaps most importantly for the present discussion, years which the
literary sources depict as momentous – most notably 509 BC, in which year
the reges were said to have been expelled – seem to have had little impact
on the physical city itself.54 While building practices did change over time,
much of the impetus behind these shifts seems to have come more from
outside the community than from within it. So, while for the detailed
nuances of Roman politics, and the social and political dynamics which
underpin them, it will likely always remain necessary to turn to the literary
sources, the archaeological record can provide valuable data and a vital
counterpoint to the claims of those sources.
It is in this context of combining different types of evidence that
Momigliano made his comment about early Rome being the ideal school
of historical method. ‘As early Rome,’ he said, ‘is the ideal place to
combine archaeological exploration and source criticism, the study of
archaic Rome remains an ideal school of historical method.’ One other
type of evidence for early Rome that Momigliano discussed, and one to
which he assigned special importance, was the evidence of religious rites
and rituals (‘customs’ is the specific word he used, and it is arguably a
slightly loaded one).55 The justification for this is simple: Roman religion
was, it is maintained, inherently conservative, and consequently did not
ever really change. As a result, it is often thought that ancient religious
rituals were performed in the first century BC largely as they had been in
the sixth or seventh century BC (or even earlier still). The modern
historian therefore need only study the evidence for those rituals (which
52
Hopkins (2016) 1-19.
53
Winter, Iliopoulos, and Ammerman (2009).
54
Hopkins (2016) 126-52.
55
Momigliano (1963) 98: ‘There is furthermore a type of literary evidence which is in a class
of its own – the evidence of religious ceremonies for the development of the city of
Rome.’ See p. 99 for the heading ‘Evidence from Religious Customs’ (our emphasis).
usually comes from the first century BC) to get some understanding of
Rome in much, much earlier times.
Roman conservatism aside, that argument naturally requires that a ritual
that served some particular purpose relevant to Roman society in the seventh
or sixth century BC continued to be performed, essentially unchanged, by the
vastly different societies, and in the vastly different circumstances, of the
fourth, third, second, and first centuries BC. But why should any society
continue faithfully to perform fossilised versions of ancient rituals centuries
after the circumstances that had led to the emergence of those rituals had
ceased to be relevant or even to exist? And at what point does an emerging
and developing ritual cease to develop and become instantly fossilised? Any
living religion changes and adapts to meet the needs and circumstances of the
society that invents and maintains it (religion, after all, is just a tool, and
humans are tool-using animals). While there is no inherent difficulty with the
basic idea that a ritual could continue to be practised in some form or another
long after its original purpose had been lost, it does not follow that that ritual
did not subsequently have any purpose (beyond, that is, whatever purpose the
preservation of a fossil may be supposed to have had). Rituals should not be
thought of as fossils to be carefully preserved, but instead as tools which are
repurposed to meet new needs. As such, any ritual will have been responsive
to its evolving use, and will have changed accordingly. It comes as no
surprise, therefore, the evidence for change in Roman religion is plentiful,
and that alone undermines, if not invalidates, the approach espoused by
Momigliano (and many others).56
As with the archaeological evidence, however, the baby should not be
thrown out with the bathwater. Religion and ritual still form a vital
category of evidence which, even if not as stable as Momigliano and others
would believe, can still offer important elements of continuity, albeit of a
different nature. A ritual like the Roman triumph provides a good
example. Although the so-called fasti triumphales (that is, the list of the
triumphs that were celebrated during Rome’s long history) are a highly
problematic source, they and other evidence do nonetheless suggest that
the Roman triumph had existed in some form for some time (exactly how
long is debated), and that it seems to have maintained a position of some
importance within Rome’s social, political, and religious systems down to
the principate, not least because of its purported antiquity. It is clear,
however (as indeed it seems to have been to the authors of our sources),
that the meaning and purpose of the triumph evolved over time, and
continued to do so even within what may be termed ‘historical’ times.
Dionysius lamented that, by the late Republic, the triumph had become a
‘display of wealth rather than a celebration of valour’, a view which is
echoed by Livy and others.57 Although the triumph’s function and
56
For arguments and evidence against this approach, see Wiseman (2008), esp. 18-22, 52-83.
57
Dion. Hal. Ant. Rom. 2.34.3; Livy 39.6.3-7.5; Plin. HN 33.148; Plut. Marc. 21; etc.
meaning may have changed over time, that does not mean that the entire
ritual had altered beyond recognition. Indeed, the triumph is often thought
to have featured quite a few archaic vestiges and associations, perhaps
most notably in the dress and accoutrements of the triumphator (such as
the red minium, the toga picta, and the tunica palmata). How authentically
archaic these features were is a matter of debate, but the archaic
atmosphere they added to the ritual was evidently important to the
Romans. Exploring the triumph – and other such rituals – can therefore
offer a window into aspects of Roman society, although not directly into
archaic society, as Momigliano believed. As with a number of other
rituals, such as the Lupercalia, the triumph appears to have been an early
institution, which Romans of the late Republic could deploy for very
contemporary purposes. The ways in which this was done can be
illuminating.
Despite these problems, Momigliano’s point about the value of the study
of early Rome remains valid. There exists no significant foundation of
reliable evidence, and there is no scholarly consensus on the historical value
of the evidence which does survive, on the uses to which that evidence can
be put, or the sorts of questions that it can answer. Anyone who wishes to
study the period, therefore, must first draw their own conclusions about the
value of the evidence and the specific questions that it is able to address, and
they must first decide upon their own methodology. Given the differences in
the nature of the various types of evidence that is available, as well as the
extent of the debate about the value of it all, the range of possible
approaches is considerable. And, as noted earlier, when it comes to a topic
like politics and power, the literary evidence in particular inevitably remains
central to any discussion. While not every paper in this collection addresses
the problems with that evidence directly (the focus is power and politics,
after all, and not methodology), each contributor’s assessment should be
discernible from their own handling of it.
This collection begins, appropriately enough, with M. Trundle’s dis-
cussion of the emergence of historical consciousness at Rome, the contexts
in which that took place, and the factors that may have influenced it. Next
comes R. T. Ridley’s paper, which explores the themes and developments
in scholarship on Lars Porsenna, the king of Clusium, from the Renais-
sance to the present day. The questions pursued in both these papers help
to illustrate and expand upon some of the problems with the literary
sources and their handling that have been raised in this introduction. For
those new to the study of early Rome it may come as a surprise that
neither of these papers attempts to answer a discrete question about ‘what
really happened’. Instead, both papers are focused on the historiography
on the period, both ancient and modern, and how that shapes our
understanding. The debate and interpretation are just as important as the
evidence itself.
The four papers which follow all focus on matters connected with the
priests and magistrates of the early Roman state, and the development of
the state and the republican constitution: first, F. Glinister discusses the
rex sacrorum, a priesthood which, Glinister argues, actually emerged
during the regal period, and not afterwards, as the Romans themselves
believed; next, J. H. Richardson explores the sudden appearance of the
Roman nobility with the advent of the Republic, and the problems of the
early consular fasti; third, F. K. Drogula looks at the tribunes of the plebs
which, he argues, were the primary civic magistrates of the early Republic
(and not the consuls, as the tradition may seem to imply); fourth is
J. Armstrong’s paper on the development of imperium and the shifting
nature of military command in early Rome. All four of these papers
attempt to make sense of the literary evidence, but do so using a range of
different approaches and methodologies. All four, to varying degrees,
challenge the basic account of events that is found in the writings of the
Romans themselves, and several seek to replace that account with some-
thing else. Some, like Richardson, are deeply sceptical about the historicity
of the evidence, while others, like Glinister, are much more optimistic. All,
however, are unified in attempting to find a coherent and logical way to
account for the evidence and, where possible, in using that evidence to say
something about early Roman society.
This group of papers is followed by G. Bradley’s discussion of
migration and social mobility and the influence these aspects of archaic
society had on early Rome and Rome’s early institutions. One of those
institutions was the gens, and C. Bartlett traces something of its decline in
his study of intestate inheritance. In both papers, the question of the
nature and importance of the gens is addressed, although the approach
taken in each is very different. Bradley adopts a broader paradigm, drawn
in part from sociology and anthropology, in an attempt to make sense of
the often contradictory evidence for mobility within early Roman and
central Italian society. Bartlett, in contrast, looks at the later legal tradi-
tion for the Roman gens and searches this evidence for clues to the gens’
overall development in Roman society. Both of these papers therefore go
beyond the problematic evidence for early Rome and seek to find more
secure parallels elsewhere to buttress their arguments.
As Rome’s influence and territory expanded, the Romans inevitably
had to develop ways and means of dealing with neighbouring peoples,
friends and allies on the one hand, and enemies on the other. O. Stewart’s
paper looks at the Roman practice of granting different forms of citi-
zenship (that is, citizenship with, or without, the vote) to nearby states,
and considers what may have led the Romans to give the vote to some
but withhold it from others. M. Helm pursues related themes in his paper
on Rome’s relationship with her allies in the fourth century BC. Both
contributions tackle questions which verge on the ‘historical’ period.
Although the advent of history writing at Rome was still a century away,
the late fourth century is a period for which, it is usually maintained, more
evidence was available to Rome’s first historians. As a result, this is a
period for which significant parts of the evidence are generally viewed as
more trustworthy, although the evidence still needs to be handed with

significant caution, as the approach and conclusions in both papers
make clear.
Finally, C. J. Smith returns to the question of evidence, and offers a
number of suggestions about the nature and future of the field of early
Roman studies. While he acknowledges the significant problems with the
literary sources, Smith argues that within the totality of the available
evidence – most notably including the archaeological evidence – a viable,
if somewhat hazy, image of early Rome is recoverable. And indeed, given
the ever-increasing knowledge of the archaeology of Rome, that image
looks set to become clearer in the future.
University of Auckland JEREMY ARMSTRONG

[email protected]
Massey University J. H. RICHARDSON

[email protected]
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Antichthon, 51 (2017) 1–20

Authors, Archaeology, and Arguments: Evidence and Models for

RRC 433/1. Struck silver Denarius. 54 BC. Marcus Iunius Brutus

interpretation, the image on M. Brutus’ coin was designed to play a

process of evolution?14 As for M. Brutus, was he even descended from

Cornell has to make a distinction, between unimportant or insigniﬁcant

To pick the most obvious and straightforward example: according to

more trustworthy, although the evidence still needs to be handed with

University of Auckland JEREMY ARMSTRONG

Massey University J. H. RICHARDSON

Carandini, A. (2011), Rome: Day One, translated by S. Sartarelli.

Rich, J. W. (2013), ‘Annales Maximi’, in T. J. Cornell et al. (eds), The

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