4.

8 Advanced Discharge Measurement Techniques

Conventional methods of flow measurement by the use of open channel sections or calibrated
structures are not always feasible because of channel size, unstable stage-discharge relationships,
or other physical, hydraulic, or environmental considerations (such as aesthetic, navigation and
fisheries impacts) and costs. Three relatively new methods of flow measurement in open
channels that have gained importance in recent times are:
 Dilution methods,
 Electromagnetic method, and
 Ultrasonic method

The first two are discussed here.

4.8.1 Dilution Methods for Measuring Discharge

Measurements with the current meter are difficult or impossible in boulder-strewn mountain
torrents. Chemical dilution method might be useful in such situations but it is restricted to those
streams where mixing occurs readily. Dilution techniques using chemical or fluorescent tracers
can be used in small and medium-sized mountain stream which do not have suitable reaches for
making a discharge measurement by using velocity-area methods or by constructing structures.
The dilution method of flow measurement, also known as the chemical method, is based on the
principle of continuity applied to a tracer which is allowed to completely mix with the flow.
Tracer material (like salt, fluorescent dye, radioactive material, or any easily measurable material
not present in the stream and not likely to be lost by chemical combination with materials in the
stream) may be used. Complete mixing of the tracer in the flow and accurate determination of
initial and final concentrations are essential.

A tracer is an ion or compound which is introduced into the flow to follow its behavior. A
known quantity of a tracer is introduced in the flow at an upstream section. At a downstream
cross-section of the reach, the concentration of the tracer is measured at regular intervals of time.

The reach selected for measurement should be such that there is no loss or gain of water
and the reach length should be sufficient to achieve complete mixing. The tracer can be
introduced in two ways: (1) constant rate injection, and (2) gulp injection. In the constant rate
injection method, the duration of injection should be such that a steady regime of concentration
is achieved for an adequate duration (about 10 to 15 minutes) in the sampling section.

In the constant injection rate, a tracer of concentration c1 is injected at the upstream end
of the stream reach at rate q. No flow should join the stream in the reach. Water samples are
taken at a downstream point and after an equilibrium concentration c2 is reached, the discharge Q
can be calculated as:
 c1 q + c0 Q = c2 (q +Q) (4.23)

c 2  c1
Q q (4.24)
c0  c2

c1 = concentration of the chemical dye in the constant rate injection

c0 = background concentration of the stream water upstream of the injection (often c0 = 0)
c2 = concentration of the chemical dye downstream (plateau value)
q = constant inflow rate
Q = discharge in the stream upstream of the injection.

In the integration method, a quantity of tracer of volume V and concentration C is added

to the stream. At the sampling station, the passage of the entire tracer cloud renders a
relationship between concentration and time. Common salt (NaCl) is frequently used as a tracer
and it can be detected with an error of 1% up to a concentration of 10 ppm (parts per million). A
cocktail of tracers may also be used.

Ideally the tracer used should not be absorbed by the sediments channel bank material
and vegetation. It should not chemically react with any of these, should not be lost by
evaporation and should be non-toxic. The tracer should not be very expensive and it should be
easy to detect it in small quantities.

4.8.2 Electromagnetic Method

The electromagnetic gauge operates on a principle similar to that of an electric dynamo. If a
conductor of certain length moves through a magnetic field, a voltage is generated between the
ends of the conductor. In the electromagnetic gauge, the magnetic field around the river is
generated by a coil, which is installed either above or below the river. The river is conductor in
this case which moves through the magnetic field. The movement of river water cuts the vertical
component of the Earth’s magnetic field and an electromotive force (EMF) is induced in the
water that can be measured by two electrodes. This EMF is proportional to the average velocity
in the river. The voltages generated are sensed by electrodes on either bank. The higher is the
water velocity, the greater is the voltage generated. Velocity in the entire cross section is
integrated to produce a mean velocity.
 Section 1
C1
Concentration

Section 2
C2

C0 Background concentration

Time 
Fig. 4.16 The concept of dilution method of discharge measurement with constant rate injection.

Figure 4.17 shows a sketch of an electromagnetic gauging station where the coil is
placed in the bed and the magnetic field is generated in the x direction, the EMF is in the y
direction, and the streamflow is in the z direction. Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction
relates the length of a conductor moving in a magnetic field to the EMF generated. The
measures of induced probe voltage, coil current and depth are used to calculate flow as follows:

Flow = function of (probe voltage x depth x calibration constant/ magnetic field)

In practice, most river beds have significant electrical conductivity that will allow
electric currents to flow in the bed. From practical considerations, the induced field will be
spatially limited and electric currents flowing in the area outside the field will have the effect of
reducing the output potential. Both of the above factors have the effect of reducing the signal
and hence the voltage recorded. At an electromagnetic gauging station, it is necessary to
measure the conductivity of bed and water.
 Figure 4.17
7 Basic systeem of the eleectromagnettic method (S
Source: ISO 9213).

Earth's
E magnnetic field, battery
b effeccts of the prrobes in the water, and external eleectric
noise cau uses problem
ms in measurrements. To overcome thhese, the maagnetic fieldd produced bby the
coil is rev
versed at reg
gular intervaals. Measurem ments are taaken with thee field switchhed first onee way
and then the other.
A limitation of
o the electrromagnetic method
m is thhat it has to be calibratedd by referennce to
current meter
m gauginng or some other
o form off flow measuurement. Whhen the gaugge is construucted,
its perforrmance need ds to be veriified by com mparison witth the resultss of an alterrnative method of
flow gau uging. The electromagne
e etic river floow gauge esstimates thee mean velocity in the eentire
cross-secction but due to the assumptions an nd limitationns, the instrruments needd calibrationn and
adjustmeent.

Special site
s related consideratio
c ons
The follo t special consideratio
owing are the ons when seelecting the site for ann electromaggnetic
gauge:
a) Thee channel att the measurring section should be sstraight for at least threee times the river
widdth at the measuring
m seection, it sho
ould be sym mmetrical about the riveer centre linee and
preeferably of (n
nearly) trapeezoidal or recctangular shhape;
b) Thee upper limmit of channeel width useed is approxximately 30 m for sitess with below w-bed
meembrane. Th his restriction is based on construcction cost; thhe cost of constructionn will
inccrease signifiicantly with the size of thhe river;
c) Theere should be no majo or source ofo electricall interferencce near the site. Electrrified
raillways, electrrical power grid
g lines an nd radio transsmitters are the most likely sources;
d) Prooximity to heavily
h reinfforced concrrete and sheeet piling maay distort thhe magnetic field
andd should be avoided
a if poossible;
e) It is important to ensure that the membrane is particularly well protected against damage
by vessels moving in the river;
f) The conductivity of the watercourse being measured needs to be uniform throughout.

An electromagnetic gauge will only measure flows passing through the vertical magnetic
field generated by the coil. The velocity of any water passing outside the measuring reach will
register as negative, leading to errors in overall flow calculation. If full range flow calculation is
desired, careful selection of the site is required to ensure it is not by-passed. Training
embankments may be needed to contain the full range of flows to be measured.
Electromagnetic gauges are more suited to rivers where the flow range is relatively small
e.g., high base flows and not very high flows in monsoon. These gauges are particularly suited to
rivers in which considerable weed growth can occur; the gauge will also tolerate high levels of
suspended solids. Since this is a non-intrusive method of flow measurement, it is thus
particularly suited to measuring flows in channels with considerable fish movement.

Electromagnetic gauge are not suited to rivers where base flows can be very low relative
to the size of the channel. The uncertainties can be large when the depth of flow is very low. This
is because the offset, which is introduced in the calibration to allow for the difference between
bed level and the position of the coil, becomes highly significant relative to the depth of flow.
Thus, this method may not work well for many large Indian rivers or non-perennial rivers.

The accuracy of the electromagnetic method depends on the signal processing equipment
detecting and measuring small potentials sensed at the voltage probes. The electromagnetic
gauging station requires on-site calibration by current meter or other means and a relation
established between discharge and output.

4.9 Measurement of Discharge under Difficult Conditions

Harsh climatic condition (below freezing or very high temperatures), aridity high sediment
transport etc. pose spacing problems in river gauging. Weather conditions such as ice or frost can
impede the operation of the stage-sensing device or recorder thus introducing errors in the
observed data. Stilling well and inlet pipes need to be constructed in such a manner in these areas
that the system will remain in operation during periods of freezing temperatures.

Weed growth in a watercourse can change the hydraulic flow conditions in the measuring
reach, and hence the stage-discharge relationship. Seasonal vegetation development may make it
necessary to correct computed discharge data to follow the variation in the stage-discharge
relationship. This can be achieved by carrying out sufficient measurements to compute the
deviation. In some cases, the weed growth patterns may change in such a regular and repeatable
pattern that a seasonal stage-discharge relation may be defined.
 In the rivers that carry large volume of sediments, care has to be taken to prevent or
remedy significant siltation and choking of the inlet tube and/ or the stilling well itself. The risk
of siltation is very much dependent on local conditions. The stage-discharge relations of stations
operated in alluvial channels are subject to shifting-control conditions and typically more
frequent measurements are required to define a family of shift curves.

4.9.1 Special Problems in Streamflow Measurements in Arid and Semi-arid Regions

Special problems associated with the measurement of streamflow in arid and semi-arid regions
arise from the interaction of many climatic and geological factors. The degree of difficulty varies
from one region to another, depending on the combination of these factors. The main problems
associated with these regions are:

1. These regions mostly have inadequate infrastructure which makes movement and
communication difficult, time-consuming, unreliable, and expensive.
2. The harsh environment, dust, high soil erosion by strong winds, and the sediment carried
by rivers create problems for the conventional equipment. The end result is frequent
malfunctioning of equipment and loss of records.
3. The short duration and rapidity of onset of floods, coupled with (1), imply that the team
intending to measure such flows may miss them unless they are present at the site. The
duration of the peak flow may be so short that it is almost impossible to carry out
measurements.
4. Soft erodible beds make sounding operations difficult when scouring may occur beneath
the sounding weight as it touches the river bed.
5. The channel may shift laterally, isolating gauge and recorder well from the flow.
6. The bed level may vary due to scour and fill, particularly during the passage of a flood.
Such bed variations are difficult to measure and lead to errors in the application of cross-
sectional area rendering the resultant discharge value erroneous.

A detailed and careful planning of logistics, local knowledge, and experience are the key
factors in successfully tackling the river gauging problems of such regions. A combination of
conventional wisdom with new and appropriate technology by employing automation, telemetry,
and remote sensing is necessary to overcome such difficulties. Many equipment with minor
improvements could work well under arid and semi-arid conditions. Data logging systems, with
retrieval and telemetry have proved reliable under harsh environments.

4.9.2 Measurement of Streamflow under Ice Cover

If the Manning’s formula is used to compute discharge of a river, ‘n’ represents friction between
water and channel boundaries. In winters in cold regions, a sheet of ice forms on the channel
surface which imparts additional resistance to flow. The ice cover increases total friction by an
amount representing the difference between air and ice resistance. If the value of ‘n’ is derived
by considering the wetted perimeter as including the air and ice contacts as well as those of bed
and banks, and if the frictional resistance of the water-ice contact is greater than the frictional
resistance of the water-air contact, then ‘n’ will have a correspondingly greater value for
conditions of ice cover than for those of open channel.

A sizeable number of streamflow-gaging stations in the cold regions are affected by ice
during the winter. The procedure used by the U.S. Geological Survey for measuring discharge
under an ice cover involves averaging streamflow velocity at 0.2D and 0.8D, where D is the
effective depth of flow (measured vertically from the streambed to the underside of the ice
cover). Another approach is to use a coefficient to adjust point velocities at either 0.5D or 0.6D
to give the correct depth-averaged mean. A previous study to determine the streamflow
adjustment coefficients had found that there was considerable variability from station to station.
Hence, it is important that the coefficients for individual stations be determined.

On the basis of bias and root-mean-squared error, the first-visit complete-profile method
with velocity measured at 0.5D was recommended by Walker (1994) for implementation. In this
method, a complete set of vertical profiles for the first measurement of the winter season is used
to establish the adjustment coefficient for an individual site. Thereafter, the same adjustment
coefficient is used for subsequent measurements at that particular station and it was found to
result in nearly unbiased discharge measurements across the streamflow-gaging network.

4.10 Closure
The main objective of river gauging is to get as close as possible to the existing realities of the
field. The choice of measuring methods and the means of implementing them is a function of the
configuration of site, available resources, both human and material, and the degree of accuracy
expected. In difficult conditions, such as equipment breakdowns or dangerous situations,
estimations of speed, photographs taken, observing floodwater marks on permanent structures,
etc., are actions that can mitigate the absence of a true measurement and establish coherent limits
on further evaluation of a site. The selection and adaptation of gauging sites, competence of
personnel, equipment to be used for a job should all serve to advance a project toward optimum
measurement precision. The most important elements for good measurements are motivated,
well trained and properly equipped personnel. Not only the must the measuring equipment itself
be in good condition, but also the annex equipment must be in good working order.

REFERENCES
Boiten, W. (2008). Hydrometry, CRC Press, London.
Herschy, R.W. (2009). Streamflow Measurement, Routledge, London.
ISO 4369:1979. Measurement of liquid flow in open channels - Moving boat method.
International Organization for Standardization, Geneva.
ISO 6418:1985. Liquid flow measurement in open channels - Ultrasonic (Acoustic) velocity
meters. International Organization for Standardization, Geneva.
ISO 772:2011. Liquid flow measurement in open channels - Vocabulary and symbols.
International Organization for Standardization, Geneva.
ISO 748:2007. Liquid flow measurement in open channels - Velocity-area-method. International
Organization for Standardization, Geneva.
ISO 9213:2004. Measurement of total discharge in open channels -- Electromagnetic method
using a full-channel-width coil. International Organization for Standardization, Geneva.
Subramanya, K., Engineering Hydrology, Tata McGraw Hill Education Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
Walker, John F. (1994). Methods for Measuring Discharge under Ice Cover. Journal of
Hydraulic Engineering, ASCE, 120(11), 1327-1336.
WMO (2008). Guide to Hydrological Practices. Volume I: Hydrology – From Measurement to
Hydrological Information. WMO No. 168. World Meteorological Organization, Geneva.

Annexure A

4.A International Standard ISO 1100

The standard ISO 1100 gives guidelines for the establishment and operation of a gauging station
for the measurement of stage and/or discharge of a river or canal, reservoir, etc. Requirements
have been specified for measurement of stage and discharge in natural channels as well as for
stations with artificial structures. Some recommendations are given for measurements under
difficult conditions, e.g., under ice conditions. This section gives a summary of key
recommendations contained in ISO 1100.

4.A.1 General requirements of a gauging station

Before commencing work to establish and operate a gauging station, the following requirements
should be identified:
a) The range of levels and flows required to be measured;
b) The customer’s requirements for type and timeliness of data;
c) The allowable uncertainty in the results;
d) Other potential users of the data;
e) Life expectancy of the station and available budget.

In addition, other constraints should be identified including the following:

a) local environmental issues;
b) accessibility of the site under all conditions of flow and availability of electricity;
 c) stability of the watercourse embankments and bed;
d) information on any proposed hydraulic modifications planned for the future;
e) safety of the instruments and law and order issues;
f) influence of submergence of the gauging site due to downstream impounding structures;
g) aquatic weed growth in the watercourse.

Knowledge of the above requirements will ensure the provision of appropriate

measurement and recording facilities as well as an appropriate maintenance philosophy.

Water level (Stage) only gauging stations

The site selected for determination of stage should be selected according to the purpose for
which the readings are required. Accessibility of the site and the availability of an observer if the
gauge is to be non-recording are important criteria as is the availability of an appropriate power
supply and data communication capabilities if the gauge is to be recording.
Gauges on lakes and reservoirs are normally located near the outlet, but should be located
sufficiently far away from the zone where an increase in velocity causes a drawdown in water
level. Gauges on large bodies of water should also be located so as to reduce the effect of strong
winds which may cause misleading data.

Preliminary survey
A detailed examination of a large scale map of the area is required in the first instance; supported
by an aerial survey if necessary. This may be necessary if the area is not easily accessible by
other means. Aerial surveys and or satellite imagery can be used as a basis to select potential
sites. Enquiries should be made to determine if any plans exist for the modification of the river
reach which would modify the stream bed regime and impact the proposed gauging station.

Selection criteria
A list of potential sites shall be established with their advantages and disadvantages identified.
The establishment of the gauge zero shall be chosen so as to avoid negative readings. Thus it
shall be set well below the level of the control feature. This zero point shall be correlated with a
national datum through a station benchmark.

Stage measurement and recording

The reading of stage may be required as a single instantaneous measurement, as a short series of
instantaneous measurements or as continuous record of the fluctuations of stage. A vertical staff
gauge comprises a scale marked on or securely attached to a suitable and stable vertical surface.
Where the range of measurement required exceeds the capacity of a single vertical gauge, other
gauges should be installed on the line of a cross-section normal to the direction of flow. The
scales on such a series of stepped staff gauges should overlap by not less than 15 cm. A ramp or
inclined gauge consists of a scale marked on or securely attached to a suitable and stable inclined
surface, which conforms closely to the contour of the river bank.

Wire or tape weight gauge

A wire or tape weight gauge consists of a weight which is manually lowered until the weight
touches the surface of the water. The wire or tape may be wound on a drum attached to a
winding mechanism or it may be a hand reel. The wire or tape gauge can be equipped with
electrical contacts to improve measurements, when there is a large vertical distance between the
measuring point and the water surface.

Stage recording
Customer requirements shall dictate the method of recording stage. It may be that a single record
of stage taken daily and read manually will suffice. It is more common to provide a continuous
record of stage utilising water level sensors, such as floats, pressure transducers, and echo
sounders, interfaced with a digital recorder (logger or telemetry) or analogue recorder (chart).
When a recorder is used, visits by the observer should be made from time to time to ensure
satisfactory performance of the sensor and recorder.

Stage-discharge gauging stations

When records of water level are to be used as a basis for computation of discharge, the relation
between water level and flow must be determined. In a stable channel with an appropriate control
feature which is stable and sensitive, a single relation may exist between water level and
discharge. In this case, the relation can be determined by taking discharge measurements
throughout the range of levels and flows required to be measured.

Control section or control reach

A control section or control reach of a channel is a natural or artificial section or reach whose
physical characteristics can be measured and used to determine the relationship between stage
and discharge. In a control section any change in the stage downstream of the control does not
affect the stage upstream of the control. Whatever the discharge in the control section, a critical
stage can be determined.

Discharge measurements
Discharge measurements using the above techniques shall be related to a stage reading taken at
the beginning and end of the discharge measurement and during the measurement if the stage is
changing rapidly or inconsistently. When sufficient numbers of discharge measurements have
been taken, a stage discharge relationship can be computed (see ISO 1100-2). Subsequent to the
formulation of this stage-discharge relationship, only occasional discharge measurements need
be taken at flows in the normal range to confirm the robustness of the relationship unless the site
is subject to shifting control conditions.
 Discharge measurements made using the velocity-area methods can be performed using
rotating element current meters, electromagnetic current meters, acoustic Doppler velocimeters,
or acoustic Doppler current profilers. A variation of velocity area methods is the slope-area
method, which is typically used to compute flood discharge indirectly (see ISO 1070).