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Cartesian Tensors

Cartesian tensors are mathematical objects that transform in a specific way under rotations of the coordinate system. They include scalars, vectors, and higher rank tensors. Scalars remain unchanged, vectors transform according to the rotation matrix, and tensors transform according to the rotation matrix and its transpose. Examples of tensors include the gradient, divergence, and products of vectors. Cartesian tensors provide a coordinate-independent way of formulating equations in physics and engineering.

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100% found this document useful (1 vote)
685 views35 pages

Cartesian Tensors

Cartesian tensors are mathematical objects that transform in a specific way under rotations of the coordinate system. They include scalars, vectors, and higher rank tensors. Scalars remain unchanged, vectors transform according to the rotation matrix, and tensors transform according to the rotation matrix and its transpose. Examples of tensors include the gradient, divergence, and products of vectors. Cartesian tensors provide a coordinate-independent way of formulating equations in physics and engineering.

Uploaded by

ddn_laut
Copyright
© Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 35

Cartesian Tensors

Reference: H. Jeffreys Cartesian Tensors

Cartesian tensors 1/35


1 Coordinates and Vectors

z = x3
e3
y = x2
e2

e1

x = x1

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Coordinates
xi i = 1, 2, 3

x1 = x x2 = y x3 = z (1)

Unit vectors
ei i = 1, 2, 3

e1 = e x = i e2 = e y = j e3 = ez = k (2)

General vector (formal definition to follow) denoted by compo-


nents e.g. u = u i

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Notation
The boldface notation for vectors is referred to as dyadic nota-
tion
The subscript notation is tensor notation.
Summation convention
Einstein: repeated index means summation:
3
ui vi = ∑ ui vi
i=1
(3)
3
u ii = ∑ u ii
i=1

Cartesian tensors 4/35


2 Orthogonal Transformations of Coordinates

The behaviour of quantities under orthogonal transformations of


the coordinate system is the basis of Cartesian tensors.
We want to formulate equations in such a way that they are in-
dependent of the specific coordinate system.

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x3
x 3′ x 2′
x2
x 1′

x1

General linear transformation


x i′ = a ij x j
a ij = Transformation Matrix

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Position vector
Consider the position vector expressed in terms of coordinates
and unit vectors in two related coordinate systems
r = x i e i = x i ′e i ′ (4)

In view of the transformation from the unprimed to the primed


system:
r = a ij x j e i ′ = x j ( a ij e i ′ ) (5)

Therefore we can write:


e j = a ij e i ′ (6)

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so that we have the two companion transformations:
x i ′ = a ij x j e i = a ji e j ′ (7)

Kronecker Delta
δ ij = 1 if i = j
= 0 otherwise
In matrix form

1 0 0
δ ij = 0 1 0 (8)
0 0 1

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Substitution property
δ ij T jk... = T ik... (9)

In the summation over j the only term of the sum that makes any
contribution is that for which j = i .

2.1 Orthogonal transformation


So far, what we have described is valid for any linear transfor-
mation.
Now impose the condition that both the original and the primed
reference frames are orthonormal
e i ⋅ e j = δ ij and e i′ ⋅ e ′j = δ ij (10)

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Use transformation of the unit vectors:
e i ⋅ e j = a ki e k′ ⋅ a lj e l′

= a ki a lj e k′ ⋅ e l′
(11)
= a ki a lj δ kl
= a ki a kj
NB the last operation is an example of the substitution property
of the Kronecker Delta.
Since e i ⋅ e j = δ ij , then the orthonormal condition on a ij is

a ki a kj = δ ij (12)

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In matrix notation:
aT a = I (13)
We also have as a consequence of the properties of matrices, that
aa T = I (14)
In tensor notation:
( aa T ) ij = a ik a jk = δ ij (15)

Any of equations (12), (13), (14) or (15) defines an orthogonal


transformation.

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2.2 Reverse transformations
x i′ = a ij x j ⇒ a ik x i′ = a ik a ij x j = δ kj x j = x k

∴x k = a ik x i′ ⇒ x i = a ji x ′j
i.e. the reverse transformation is simply determined by the trans-
pose.
Similarly, following from
e j = a ij e i ′ (16)

we have
e i′ = a ij e j (17)

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Transformations for both coordinates and basis vec-
tors
The complementary set of transformations is then
x i ′ = a ij x j e i ′ = a ij e j (18)

2.3 Interpretation of the matrix a ij


Since
e i′ = a ij e j

then the a ij are the components of e i′ wrt the unit vectors in the
original system.e.g.
e 1 ′ = a 11 e 1 + a 12 e 2 + a 13 e 3 (19)

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2.4 Example: 2D rotation
It is easiest here to determine the
y relationship between the unit ba-
y′ e ′ sis vectors:
y ey
x′
ex′ e x ′ = cos θ e x + sin θe y
(20)
e y ′ = – sin θ e x + cos θe y
θ
x In matrix form:
ex
ex′ ex
cos θ sin θ 0
e y ′ = – sin θ cos θ 0 e y (21)
ez ′ 0 0 1 e
z

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Then the transformation equation for the coordinates is:

x′ cos θ sin θ 0 x
y′ = – sin θ cos θ 0 y (22)
z′ 0 0 1 z

3 Scalars, Vectors & Tensors

We define these objects by the way in which they transform with


respect to orthogonal coordinate transformations.

3.1 Scalar (f):


f ( x ′i ) = f ( xi ) (23)

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Example of a scalar is f = r 2 = x i x i . Examples from fluid dy-
namics are the density and temperature.

3.2 Vector (u):


Prototype vector: x i
General transformation law:
x i′ = a ij x j ⇒ u i′ = a ij u j (24)

as the transformation law for a generic vector.

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3.3 Gradient operator
Suppose that f is a scalar. The gradient of f is defined by
∂f
( grad f ) i = ( ∇f ) i = (25)
∂ xi
Need to show this is a vector by its transformation properties.

∂f ∂ f ∂x j
= (26)
∂ x i′ ∂ x j∂ x ′
i
Since,
x j = a kj x k′ (27)

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then
∂x j
= a kj δ ki = a ij
∂ x i′
(28)
∂f ∂f
and = a ij
∂ x i′ ∂x j

Hence the gradient operator satisfies our definition of a vector.


Scalar Product
u ⋅ v = ui vi = u1 v1 + u2 v2 + u3 v3 (29)

is the scalar product of the vectors u i and v i .

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Exercise:
Show that u ⋅ v is a scalar.

3.4 Tensor
Prototype second rank tensor x i x j
General definition by transformation of components:
′ = a a T
T ij (30)
ik jl kl
Exercise:
Show that u i v j is a second rank tensor if u i and v j are vectors.

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Exercise:
∂u i
u i, j =
∂x j
is a second rank tensor. (Introduces the comma notation for par-
tial derivatives.) In dyadic form this is written as grad u or ∇u .

3.5 Divergence
Exercise:
Show that the quantity
∂v i
∇ ⋅ v = div v = (31)
∂ xi

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is a scalar.

4 Products and Contractions of Tensors

It is easy to form higher order tensors by multiplication of lower


rank tensors, e.g. T ijk = T ij u k is a third rank tensor if T ij is a
second rank tensor and u k is a vector (first rank tensor). It is
straightforward to show that T ijk has the relevant transformation
properties.
Similarly, if T ijk is a third rank tensor, then T ijj is a vector.
Again the relevant transformation properties are easy to prove.

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5 Differentiation following the motion
This involves a common operator occurring in fluid dynamics.
Suppose the coordinates of an element of fluid are given as a
function of time by
xi = xi ( t ) (32)

vi

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The velocities of elements of fluid at all spatial locations within
a given region constitute a vector field, i.e. v i = v i ( x j, t )
If we follow the trajectory of an element of fluid, then on a par-
ticular trajectory x i = x i ( t ) . The acceleration of an element is
then given by:
dv i
d ∂v i ∂v i dx j ∂v i ∂v i
fi = = v i ( x j ( t ), t ) = + = + vj (33)
dt dt ∂t ∂ x jdt ∂t ∂x j

Exercise: Show that f i is a vector.

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6 The permutation tensor ε ijk

ε ijk = 0 if any of i, j, k are equal


= 1 if i, j, k unequal and in cyclic order (34)
= – 1 if i, j, k unequal and not in cyclic order
e.g.
ε 112 = 0 ε 123 = 1 ε 321 = – 1 (35)

Is ε ijk a tensor?

In order to show this we have to demonstrate that ε ijk , when de-


fined the same way in each coordinate system has the correct
transformation properties.
Cartesian tensors 24/35
Define
′ = ε
ε ijk lmn a il a jm a kn
= ε 123 a i1 a j2 a k3 + ε 312 a i3 a j1 a k2 + ε 231 a i2 a j3 a k1
+ ε 213 a i2 a j1 a k3 + ε 321 a i3 a j2 a k1 + ε 132 a i1 a j3 a k2
= a i1 ( a j2 a k3 – a j3 a k2 ) – a i2 ( a j1 a k3 – a j3 a k1 )
+ a i3 ( a j1 a k2 – a j2 a k1 )

a i1 a i2 a i3
= a j1 a j2 a j3
a k1 a k2 a k3

Cartesian tensors 25/35


In view of the interpretation of the a ij , the rows of this determi-
nant represent the components of the primed unit vectors in the
unprimed system. Hence:
′ = e′ ⋅ (e′ × e′ )
ε ijk i j k
This is zero if any 2 of i, j, k are equal, is +1 for a cyclic permu-
tation of unequal indices and -1 for a non-cyclic permutation of
′ . Thus ε
unequal indices. This is just the definition of ε ijk ijk
transforms as a tensor.

Cartesian tensors 26/35


6.1 Uses of the permutation tensor
Cross product
Define
c i = ε ijk a j b k (36)

then
c 1 = ε 123 a 2 b 3 + ε 132 a 3 b 2 = a 2 b 3 – a 3 b 2
c 2 = ε 231 a 3 b 1 + ε 213 a 1 b 3 = a 3 b 1 – a 1 b 3 (37)
c 3 = ε 312 a 1 b 2 + ε 321 a 2 b 1 = a 1 b 2 – a 2 b 1

These are the components of c = a × b .

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6.2 Triple Product
In dyadic notation the triple product of three vectors is:
t = u ⋅ (v × w) (38)
In tensor notation this is
t = u i ε ijk v j w k = ε ijk u i v j w k (39)

6.3 Curl
∂u k
( curl u ) i = ε ijk (40)
∂x j

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e.g.
∂u 3 ∂u 2 ∂u 3 ∂u 2
( curl u ) 1 = ε 123 + ε 132 = – (41)
∂ x2 ∂ x3 ∂ x2 ∂ x3
etc.

6.4 The tensor ε iks ε mps


Define
T ikmp = ε iks ε mps (42)

Properties:
• If i = k or m = p then T ikmp = 0 .
Cartesian tensors 29/35
• If i = m we only get a contribution from the terms s ≠ i and
k ≠ i, s . Consequently k = p . Thus ε iks = ± 1 and
ε mps = ε iks = ± 1 and the product ε iks ε iks = ( ± 1 ) 2 = 1 .
• If i = p , similar argument tells us that we must have s ≠ i and
k = m ≠ i . Hence, ε iks = ± 1 , ε mps = −+ 1 ⇒ ε iks ε mps = – 1 .
So,
i = m, k = p ⇒ 1 unless i = k ⇒ 0
i = p, k = m ⇒ – 1 unless i = k ⇒ 0
These are the components of the tensor δ im δ kp – δ ip δ km .

∴ε iks ε mps = δ im δ kp – δ ip δ km (43)

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6.5 Application of ε iks ε mps

[ curl ( u × v ) ] i = ε ijk ( ε klm u l v m )
∂x j

= ε ijk ε klm ( ul vm )
∂x j (44)

 ∂u l ∂v m
= ( δ il δ jm – δ im δ jl )  vm + ul 
∂x j ∂x j 

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We then use the substitution property of δ ij to show that:

∂u i ∂u j ∂v m ∂v i
[ curl ( u × v ) ] i = vm – vi + ui – uj
∂ xm ∂x j ∂ xm ∂x j

∂u i ∂v i ∂v j ∂u j (45)
= vj – uj + ui – vi
∂x j ∂x j ∂x j ∂x j
= ( v ⋅ ∇u – u ⋅ ∇v + u∇ ⋅ v – v∇ ⋅ u ) i
The Laplacean
2 2 2
∂ φ ∂ φ ∂ φ ∂ 2φ
∇2φ = + + = ---------------- (46)
∂ x 12 ∂ x 22 ∂ x 32 ∂x i ∂x i

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7 Tensor Integrals
7.1 Green’s Theorem
v In dyadic form:
ni
∫ ( ∇ ⋅ v ) dV = ∫ ( v ⋅ n ) dS (47)
V V S
S In tensor form:
∂v i
∫ ∂ xi dV = ∫ v i n i dS = S
(48)
V S
= Flux of v through S

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Extend this to tensors:
∂T ij
∫ ∂ x j dV = ∫ T ij n j dS (49)
V S
= Flux of T ij through S

Cartesian tensors 34/35


7.2 Stoke’s Theorem
ti C In dyadic form:

S ∫ ( curl u ) ⋅ n dS = ∫ u ⋅ t ds (50)
S C
In tensor form:
∂u k
∫ ε ijk
∂x j
n i dS = ∫ u i t i ds (51)
S C

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