*Functions of Image Planes

Image planes are a copper clad surface adjacent to signal layers in printed circuit boards. The main
functions of image planes include:

1). Reducing reflow noise and EMI (Electro Magnetic Interference).

Image planes provide paths with low impedance for signal reflow, especially when large current is
flowing in the power distribution system. What's more, ithey decrease the closed ring area formed
by signal and reflow so that EMI goes down.

2). Controlling crosstalk between signal lines in high-speed digital circuit.

Crosstalk is determined by the ratio D/H in which D refers to the distance between interference
source and interfered object and H refers to the height of image planes between signal layers. The
ratio D/H can be controlled by changing the value of H so that the crosstalk between signal lines will
be ultimately controlled.

3). Controlling impedance.

The characteristic impedance of printed wiring is related to the width of wires and the height
between wires and image planes. If there is no image plane, it's possible that impedance can't be
controlled, which leads to the failure of transmission line matching and signal reflection.

Besides, image planes are also capable of controlling the noise from reflection to outer boards. It has
to be acknowledged that image planes alone are not sufficient for the implementations of those
functions strict design rules must be supplemented to achieve expected targets. This fact can be put
as: in order to control noise in high-speed digital circuit, image planes are essential but they can't
work alone.
Bypassing:
The practice of adding a low-impedance path to shunt transient energy to ground at the source.
Required for proper decoupling.

Bypassing is a way to maintain the integrity of the power distribution to the various circuits, i.e., to
maintain the low impedance of a true voltage source (zero ohms), is to counteract the inductance of
the finite length conductors that distribute the power to the circuits. This can be done by applying a
sufficiency of capacitance between the supply pin of each device or stage and ground or common
(using the shortest paths possible).

Decoupling:
The task and practice of breaking coupling between portions of systems and circuits to ensure
proper operation.

Decoupling offers a high impedance path to any errant signals or noise between stages, while
offering a very low resistance path to the DC power: this is known as decoupling

Decoupling capacitors
Some electronic circuits are highly sensitive to voltage spikes, and rapid voltage changes can greatly
affect their performance. Decoupling capacitors are used in electronic circuits to prevent quick
voltage changes by acting as electrical energy reservoirs. In case of a sudden voltage drop, a
decoupling capacitor provides the electrical energy required to maintain a stable voltage supply. On
the other hand, if there is a sudden voltage spike, the capacitor stabilizes voltage by absorbing the
excess energy.

Apart from stabilizing voltage in electronic circuits, decoupling capacitors are also used to allow DC
components to pass while shorting AC components to ground. Capacitors that are used for
bypassing AC noise in electronic circuits are also commonly known as bypass capacitors. Bypass
capacitors absorb AC noise to produce a cleaner DC signal.

To remove AC noise, a bypass capacitor is placed in parallel with a resistor. A capacitor offers high
resistance to low frequency signals and less resistance to high frequency signals. As such, low
frequency DC components use the resistor path while high frequency AC components are shunted to
ground through the bypass capacitor. This yields a clean DC signal that is free from AC components.

Types of capacitors for decoupling applications

When selecting a capacitor for decoupling applications, it is critical to consider the electrical
requirements of the design. The key parameters to consider when selecting a bypass capacitor
include the lowest frequency of the AC signal and resistance value of the resistor. In most cases, the
lowest frequency is 50 Hz.

Although different types of capacitors are available for decoupling/bypassing applications, their
characteristics vary markedly depending on the dielectric material used and structure. The two
determine temperature stability, linearity, voltage rating, physical size and cost. The types of
capacitors that are commonly used for decoupling applications include ceramic, tantalum, and
aluminium electrolytic capacitors.
*There are a few basic design guidelines for ensuring that any printed circuit board, PCB design is
able to reduce problems from ESD to the minimum:

Remove circuit loops: Loops in a line can give rise to unwanted current arising from induction.
While this will degrade the performance from general unwanted pickup, it is also important for ESD
protection because unwanted current spikes (and hence voltages) can be induced into any loops.
Care should be taken to ensure that no loops exist.

Utilise ground plane layers in the printed circuit board: One way of reducing ground loops is to use
a ground plane within the printed circuit board. This will enable any signals to be grounded
effectively as well as reducing the possibility of ground loops.

Reduce line lengths: Any wire will act as an antenna. With the very short rise times exhibited by
ESD pulses, any antenna has the capability of receiving high voltage spikes. By reducing line lengths,
the level of radiated energy that is received will be reduced, and the resulting spikes from
electrostatic discharges will be lower.

Reduce parasitic inductance around protection circuits: Many electronics circuits will incorporate
ESD protection circuits. These can only be effective if the levels of parasitic inductance are low.
Parasitic inductance arising from the PCB design can be reduced by keeping line lengths in this area
particularly short, and also increasing the track width.

Avoid running sensitive tracks near the extremity of the PCB: As levels of pickup from static
discharges are likely to be greater closer to the extremities of the board, it is wise to keep any
sensitive lines away from these areas. Input and output lines will often need to reach the PCB edge
at some stage, but they can be routed away from the edge as soon as possible where applicable.

*The basic rules to decrease the conducted and radiated emissions through the power supply
are to:
• Reduce the speed of the system:
– Choose the lowest system clock frequency,
– Adapt the technology to the system constraints.
• Reduce all the magnetic loops of the Printed Circuit Board:
– Decrease the surface of the magnetic loops,
– Maintain the signal trace closed to the ground,
– Shorten the loops around the oscillator and crystal.
• Cancel H field:
– Opposite magnetic loops,
– Choose a package with a VCC and VSS pins close together,
– Choose a package with several VSS and VCC pins connected in opposite side.
• Reduce the parasitic inductance of all devices (PCB traces, package, capacitors,...):
– Increase the PCB connection widths,
– Use ground and power planes,
– Adapt the decoupling capacitors to the working frequency of IC’s,
– Shorten the capacitor connection length,
– Select the smaller package.
• Reduce the Equivalent Series Resistance (ESR):
– Put identical capacitors in parallel to reduce the ESR,
– Choose COG and NPO dielectric types.
*Integration testing(interface testing)
Examines the interaction of software elements (components) after system integration
Integration is the activity of combining individual software components into a larger subsystems
Further integration of subsystems is also part of the system integration process
Each component has already been tested for its internal functionality (component test). Integration
tests examine the external functions
Scope:
Integration tests examine the interaction of software components (subsystems) with each other:
interfaces with other components
interfaces among GUIs/ MMIs
Integration tests examine the interfaces with the system environment
Tests cases may be derived from interface specifications, architectural design or data models

*Verification within the general V-Model

Each development level is verified against the contents of the level above it
-to verify: to give proof of evidence
-to verify: means to check whether the requirements and definitions of the previous level
were implemented correctly

It is Proof of compliance with the stated requirements (def. after ISO 9000)
" Did we proceed correctly when building the system?"

requirements, definition, acceptance test, functional system design, system test, technical system
design, integration test, Development and Integration, component specification, component test
programming, Verification

System test(Verification)
Testing the integrated software system to prove compliance with the specified requirements
-software quality is looked at form the user's point of view
System tests refer to
functional requirements: suitability, accuracy, interoperability, compliance, security
"what the system does"
non-functional requirements: reliability, usability,
efficiency, portability, maintability
"how the system works"

*Validation within the general V-Model

Validation refers to the correctness of the each development level
to validate: to give proof of having value
to validate: means to check the appropriateness of the results of one development level

It is Proof of fitness for expected use

" Did we build the right system software system ?"

requirements, definition, acceptance test, functional system design, system test, technical system
design, integration test, Development and Integration, component specification, component test
programming, Verification, Validation
  5 Elements of Successful Design:

Conceptual
User View Model Designer's View
1.Learning 1.Cognition 1.Information
2.Fit 2.Ergonomics 2.Form
3.User 3.Utility 3.Function
4.Perception 4.Image 4.Senses
5.Cost/Commitment 5.Ownership 5.Services

Human-Machine Dialogue:

Packaging Functions:
Electrical connections, mechanical support, assembly operation, distribute power to all components
and chip ckts, protect from environmental & mechanical damage, shielding from EMI

Packaging Factors:
Cost, size, shape, weight, material, appearance and ergonomics, reliability, standard, physical
environment.

Design Process:
Identifying requirements/Market Survey; Formulating product specifications; Design specifications,
R&D and Production; Pilot production; Environmental testing; Documentation; Manufacturing;
Product approvals.