Table of Contents

ABSTRACT................................................................................................................................................ 2
1.0 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 3
2.0 OBJECTIVES ................................................................................................................................. 5
3.0 THEORY ....................................................................................................................................... 6
4.0 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE .................................................................................................... 11
4.1 Apparatus and Equipment .................................................................................................... 11
4.2 Procedure of The Experiment ............................................................................................... 12
5.0 RESULTS..................................................................................................................................... 13
6.0 DISCUSSION............................................................................................................................... 14
7.0 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................. 15
8.0 REFERENCES .............................................................................................................................. 16

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ABSTRACT

In Applied mechanics, bending (also known as flexure) characterizes the behavior of a

slender structural element subjected to an external load applied perpendicularly to a
longitudinal axis of the element. The bending is normally a process by which the material such
as metal, alloy and etc can be deformed by deforming the material and changing its shape from
the original shape. The material is applied to the type specimen to calculate how much the
specimen can deflect. The material is stressed beyond the yield strength but below the ultimate
tensile strength. The surface area of the material does not change much when the load is
applied. Bending usually refers to deformation about one axis. Bending is a flexible process by
which many different shapes can be produced.

Bending in beam test is carried out to determine the elastic modulus (E) of beam
specimen by method of deflection. Through the test, we can get the parameter such as
deflection. This parameter is used to calculate the bending moment and elastic modulus of the
specimen. We use the different specimen to differentiate which materials that have high elastic
modulus. The materials we use are mild steel, aluminium and brass. We applied the load on
the both end of the specimen and record the deflection of the specimen. We start with 2kN of
load and adding 2kN of load each until the total load exceeds 16kN. The elastic modulus that
we have calculated would be compare with the theoretical value. The experiments done to learn
about theory and use or apply in real life by visualize the experiment.

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1.0 INTRODUCTION

Bending is a flexible process by which many have some different shapes can be
produced. Standard die sets are used to produce a wide variety of shapes. The material is placed
on the die and positioned in place with stops and gages. It is held in place with hold-downs.
The upper part of the press, the ram with the appropriately shaped punch descends and usually
forms the v-shaped bend.

When the real life or the experiment the bending characterizes the behaviour of a
slender structural element subjected to an external load applied perpendicularly to
a longitudinal axis of the element. In this experiment, the deflection of the beam when load is
applied to the specimen at to measured point along the specimen and from that the elastic
modulus can be calculated by given data. Bending is done using Press Brakes and
Programmable back gages, and multiple die sets available currently can make for a very
economical process.

Figure 1.1: Standard Bending Moment

The figure show that the standard bending moment in experiment. The calculation to
calculate bending moment that usually done is using the Euler-Bernoulli bending. After a
solution for the displacement of the beam has been obtained, the bending moment and shear
force in the beam can be calculated using the relations.

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 Usually the specimen is subject to pure bending. This means that the shear force is zero,
and that no torsional or axial loads are present. The material is isotropic and homogeneous. The
material obeys Hooke's law that it is linearly elastic and will not deform plastically .The beam
is initially straight with a cross section that is constant throughout the beam length.

In the Euler-Bernoulli theory of slender beams, a major assumption is that 'plane

sections remain plane'. In other words, any deformation due to shear across the section is not
accounted for no shear deformation. And this linear distribution is only applicable if the
maximum stress is less than the yield stress of the material. For stresses that exceed yield refer
to article plastic. At yield, the maximum stress experienced in the section at the furthest points
from the neutral axis of the beam is defined as the flexural strength.

The Euler-Bernoulli equation for the bending of slender, isotropic, homogeneous beams
of constant cross-section under an applied transverse load is

where E is the Young's modulus, I is the area moment of inertia of the cross-section,
and W(x) is the deflection of the neutral axis of the beam.

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2.0 OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this experiment, students should be able to;

 To determine the elastic modulus (E) of beam specimen by method of deflection of

Mild Steel, Aluminium and Brass.

 To validate the data between experimental and theoretical values

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3.0 THEORY

Bending is a major concept used in the design of many machine and structural
components, such as beams and girders. In Applied Mechanics, bending which is also known
as flexure, characterizes the behaviour of a slender structural element subjected to an
external load applied perpendicularly to a longitudinal axis of the element.

The structural element is assumed to be such that at least one of its dimensions is a
small fraction, typically 1/10 or less, of the other two. When the length is considerably longer
than the width and the thickness, the element is called a beam. For example,
a closet rod sagging under the weight of clothes on clothes hangers is an example of a beam
experiencing bending. On the other hand, a shell is a structure of any geometric form where
the length and the width are of the same order of magnitude but the thickness of the structure
(known as the 'wall') is considerably smaller. A large diameter, but thin-walled, short tube
supported at its ends and loaded laterally is an example of a shell experiencing bending.

In the absence of a qualifier, the term bending is ambiguous because bending can occur
locally in all objects. To make the usage of the term more precise, engineers refer to the bending
of rods, the bending of beams, the bending of plates, the bending of shells, and so on.

Figure 3.1: Bending of an I-beam

When a beam experiences a bending moment, it will change its shape and internal
stresses will be developed. The figure below illustrates the shape change of elements of a beam
in bending. Note that the material is in compression on the inside of the curve and tension on
the outside of the curve, and that transverse planes in the material remain parallel to the radius
during bending.

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 Figure 3.2: Shape change of elements of a beam

Figure 3.3: Four-Point Bending

The pure bending shown in the figure can be produced by applying four forces to the
beam, two of opposite direction at each end. This configuration is known as ‘four-point
bending’ and produces a uniform bending moment over the center section of the beam as
illustrated in (b) opposite.

In the Euler-Bernoulli theory of slender beams, a major assumption is that 'plane

sections remain plane'. In other words, any deformation due to shear across the section is not
accounted for (no shear deformation). Also, this linear distribution is only applicable if the
maximum stress is less than the yield stress of the material. For stresses that exceed yield, refer
to article plastic. At yield, the maximum stress experienced in the section (at the furthest points
from the neutral axis of the beam) is defined as the flexural strength.

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 The Euler-Bernoulli equation for the quasi static bending of slender, isotropic,
homogeneous beams of constant cross-section under an applied transverse load, q(x) is ;

𝑑4 𝑤(𝑥)
EI = q(x)
𝑑𝑥 4

where E is the Young's modulus, I is the area moment of inertia of the cross-section,
and w(x) is the deflection of the neutral axis of the beam.

After a solution for the displacement of the beam has been obtained, the bending
moment, M and shear force, Q in the beam can be calculated using the relations

Simple beam bending is often analysed with the Euler-Bernoulli beam equation. The
conditions for using simple bending theory are:

1. The beam is subject to pure bending. This means that the shear force is zero, and that no
torsional or axial loads are present.
2. The material is isotropic and homogeneous.
3. The material obeys Hooke's law (it is linearly elastic and will not deform plastically).
4. The beam is initially straight with a cross section that is constant throughout the beam length.
5. The beam has an axis of symmetry in the plane of bending.
6. The proportions of the beam are such that it would fail by bending rather than by crushing,
wrinkling or sideways buckling.
7. Cross-sections of the beam remain plane during bending.

Figure 3.4: Bending moments in beam

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The classic formula for determining the bending stress in a beam under simple bending is;

Where;

 is the bending stress

 M - the moment about the neutral axis
 y - the perpendicular distance to the neutral axis
 Ix - the second moment of area about the neutral axis x.

In this Applied Mechanics Lab, we are interest in the determination of the deflection of
the bending of beams. Of interest is the determination of the maximum deflection of a beam
under a given loading, since the design specifications of a beam will generally include a
maximum allowable value for its deflection. Also, of interest is that the knowledge of the
deflections is required to analyze indeterminate beams.

A prismatic beam subjected to pure bending is bent into an arc of circle and that, within
the elastic range, the curvature of the neutral surface can be expressed as;

1 𝑀
= 𝐸𝐼
𝜌
where M is the bending moment, E the modulus of elasticity, and I the moment of inertia of the
cross section about its neutral axis. Denoting by x the distance of the section from the left end
of the beam, we write;

1 𝑀(𝑥)
=
𝜌 𝐸𝐼

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 To determine the slope and deflection of the beam at any given point, we first derive
the following second-order linear differential equation, which governs the elastic curve
characterizing the shape of the deformed beam;

𝑑2 𝑦 𝑀(𝑥)
=
𝑑𝑥 2 𝐸𝐼

If the bending moment can be represented for all values of x by a single function M(x),
as in the case of the beams and loadings, the slope ϴ = 𝑑𝑦⁄𝑑𝑥 and the deflection y at any point
of the beam may be obtained through two successive integrations. The two constants of
integration introduced in the process will be determined from the boundary conditions
indicated in the figure. However, if different analytical functions are required to represent the
bending moment in various portions of the beam, different differential equations will also be
required, leading to different functions defining the elastic curve in the various portions of the
beam.

Figure 3.5: Deflection of a beam deflected symmetrically and principle of superposition

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4.0 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

4.1 Apparatus and Equipment

Mild steel beam Aluminum beam Brass beam

Dial caliper Gauge

Weight Plier

Screw driver
Weight-hanger

Vernier caliper

Steel rule

Figure 4.1.1 Apparatus Used

Figure 4.1.2 Cantilever Beam Set-up

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4.2 Procedure of The Experiment

1. The dimensions of the mild steel beam were measured and recorded.
2. The length was measured from the wall to the end of the mild steel beam and the reading
was recorded and marked.
3. The center position of the beam was measured and marked.
4. The length between the supports was measured and marked on the beam with pencil.
5. The beam was placed on top of the supports according to those markings made with
pencil.
6. Dial gauge’s head was placed at the center of the beam.
7. Two weight-hangers was mounted 15cm from each support.
8. Set the dial gauge to zero.
9. The weight was added by 2N until it reached 16N.
10. The deflection of the beam was recorded from the dial gauge each time the load was
added.
11. Step 1 until 10 were repeated by using aluminium and brass beam.
12. The data collected were used to plot deflection of beam vs load graph.

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5.0 RESULTS

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6.0 DISCUSSION

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7.0 CONCLUSION

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8.0 REFERENCES

1. R. C. Hibbeler, Mechanics of Material Eight Edition in SI Unit, United

States of America: Prentice Hall, 2010.

2. Ferdinand P. Beer, E. Russell Johnston Jr., and John T. DeWolf, Mechanics

of Materials, New York, McGraw-Hill, 2002.

3. G. J., and Barry, Mechanics of Materials, ed. 8, CL Engineering, 2012.

4. Micheal F. Asby, and K. J., Materials and Design, ed. 3, Butterworth,

2013.

5. Richard A., and Schmidt R. J., Advanced Mechanics of Materials, Wiley,

2002.

6. G. Dahlberg, "Materials Testing Machines Investigation of error sources

and determination of measurement uncertainty," MTS Systems
Corporation, Eden Prairie, USA.

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