(Biological and Medical Physics, Biomedical Engineering) Volker Schmidt, Maria R. Belegratis (Auth.), Volker Schmidt, Maria Regina Belegratis (Eds.)-Laser Technology in Biomimetics_ Basics and Applica

Biological and Medical Physics, Biomedical Engineering
Volker Schmidt
Maria Regina Belegratis Editors
Laser
Technology in
Biomimetics
Basics and Applications
Biological and Medical Physics,
Biomedical Engineering
Editor-in-Chief
Elias Greenbaum, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA
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Volker Schmidt Maria Regina Belegratis
•
Editors
Laser Technology
in Biomimetics
Basics and Applications
123
Editors
Volker Schmidt
Maria Regina Belegratis
Institute for Surface Technologies
and Photonics
Joanneum Research Forschungsgesellschaft
mbH
Weiz
Austria
ISSN 1618-7210 ISSN 2197-5647 (electronic)

ISBN 978-3-642-41340-7 ISBN 978-3-642-41341-4 (eBook)
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Preface
This book deals with the exciting field of biomimetics in combination with laser
technology. Biomimetics, the translation from nature-inspired principles to tech-
nical applications, is strongly multidisciplinary. Since its invention, the laser has
proven many times its versatility. Therefore it is not astonishing that the wide
scientific interest entangled with biomimetics has discovered the laser as a fast and
reliable processing tool for its purpose. This field offers intrinsically a wide scope
of applications for laser-based methods regarding structuring and modification of
materials. Plus, the development for novel laser-based processing methods is
permanently under development.
This book attempts to give a survey over state-of-the-art laser technology and
materials that are used for diverse biomimetic applications. It covers the most
important laser lithographic methods and various biomimetics application sce-
narios ranging from coatings and biotechnology to construction, medical appli-
cations and photonics. The term biomimetics is hereby expanded to cover also the
field of biotechnology and biomedical applications. Due to the availability of a
large spectrum of different laser sources regarding their characteristics such as
laser power, wavelength, operation mode, the laser serves as tool and light source
for widespread applications.
The book introduces both a laser technology focused approach as well as an
application focused approach. It is dedicated to the advanced reader that is already
familiar with laser basics and laser technology and to scientists, who may discover
a possibility or inspiration to use a laser for their own specific works.
Chapter 1 is dedicated to a short introduction and motivation of the laser
application for biomimetics.
Chapter 2 represents a comprehensive review of direct laser writing methods,
especially focusing on laser-induced two-photon-based photochemical effects.
This method has evolved in recent years as a powerful technology for the reali-
zation of micron-, to sub-micrometer resolution structures and gains more and
more interest in the field of biomedicine. In this chapter, the basic principles of
direct laser writing, a short survey of available techniques, and finally technologies
for enhanced performance are described. The review is completed with some
examples of direct laser writing in the field of 3D cell culture and tissue
engineering.
v
vi Preface
Chapter 3 deals with direct 3D laser writing of bio-inspired materials related to

optical phenomena. This chapter introduces direct laser writing as a flexible
technology for the development of 3D microstructures for applications in pho-
tonics. The structural designs found in nature often exhibit useful physical phe-
nomena such as photonic bandgaps and circular polarisation stop bands. The
investigated biological nanostructures will certainly inspire novel biomimetic
materials for photonics applications.
Chapter 4 focuses on selective laser sintering, which is another mature and
versatile rapid prototyping method. After the introduction of major rapid proto-
typing technologies suitable for biomedical applications, a review on laser sin-
tering is made, which includes its working principle and technical benefits as well
as materials. A biomimetic application, namely tissue engineering scaffolds and
drug or biomolecule delivery vehicles is discussed, showing the great potential
also for many other biomimetic and biomedical applications.
Chapter 5 reviews matrix-assisted pulsed laser evaporation for biomimetic
applications in drug delivery systems, biosensors and advanced implant coatings.
This method emerged more than a decade ago and is dedicated to the transfer of
organic materials onto solid substrates, because it represents a minimal harmful
approach for transporting and depositing thin films of delicate, heat sensitive
molecules, such as organic biomaterials on largely extended active areas. Such
films are considered to play an important role in biology, pharmaceutics or sensing
applications.
Chapter 6 gives an overview over the process basics, its parameters and the
major influences on the quality of complex three-dimensional parts manufactured
by Laser additive manufacturing. Its preferred field of application is the one-step
manufacturing of complex geometries in low lot sizes, where conventional
machining would require a longer overall production time due to a high number of
processing steps. In addition, the chapter deals with design guidelines, current
applications of laser additive manufacturing and future developments.
Chapter 7 reviews important applications of pulsed laser deposition and recent
work in the field of biomimetic coatings. Furthermore, technical limitations and
possible solutions are outlined. The general characteristics of pulsed laser depo-
sition relevant to solid-state physics, e.g. the initial ablation processes, plume
formation and plume characteristics are discussed as well.
In Chap. 8, laser-assisted bio-printing based on the laser-induced forward
transfer is discussed as an emerging and complementary technology in the field of
tissue engineering envisaging biomimetics applications. The method allows to
print cells and liquid materials with a cell-level resolution, which is comparable to
the complex histology of living tissues. Experimental requirements are described
and typical multi-component printing, 3D printing approaches and in vivo bio-
printing are presented.
Chapter 9 Laser-based biomimetic tissue engineering relies on the controlled
and reproducible structuring of biomaterials at micro- and nanoscales by means of
laser radiation. Tissue Engineering is defined as the technology aiming to apply the
principles of engineering and life sciences towards the development of biological
Preface vii
substitutes that restore, maintain or improve tissue function or a whole organ. This
chapter reviews current approaches for laser-based fabrication of biomimetic tis-
sue engineering scaffolds. These include laser processing of natural biomaterials
synthesized to achieve certain compositions or properties similar to those of the
extracellular matrix as well as novel laser fabrication technologies to achieve
structural features on artificial materials mimicking the extracellular matrix mor-
phology on various levels. The chapter concludes with the wealth of arising
possibilities, demonstrating the excitement and significance of the laser-based
biomimetic materials processing for tissue engineering and regeneration.
Chapter 10 reviews material aspects with respect to laser processing of natural
materials. The laser is known as a versatile tool and its application is successfully
expanded to the processing of natural biomaterials. Various natural biomaterials,
such as collagen, agarose, hyaluronic acid and Matrigel, have been treated through
laser-induced polymerization, ablation or activation. The presented developments
expand and will continue to expand the potential applications of natural bioma-
terials in biomimetic approaches.
Last but not least, the book ends with Chap. 11 about future perspectives of
laser-based research in the wide field of biomimetic applications.
We thank all authors for their valuable contributions and Springer for the
pleasant cooperation. Finally, we thank Claus Ascheron from Springer, without
whose patience, encouragement and support, this book would not have been
possible.
Weiz, Austria Maria R. Belegratis

Volker Schmidt
Contents
1 Introduction and Scope of the Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 1

Volker Schmidt and Maria R. Belegratis
1.1 Biomimetics as Inspiration for Laser-Based Methods
and Applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Laser Sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.2 Laser Processing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.3 Biomimetic Processes Involving Laser Radiation . . . . 6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2 Direct Laser Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 13

Sascha Engelhardt
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2 Experimental Setup. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3 Two Photon Absorption. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.4 Chemical Processes for Direct Laser Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.4.1 Photopolymerization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.4.2 Photocrosslinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.4.3 Photoactivation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.5 Principles of Direct Laser Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.5.1 Voxel Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.5.2 Determining the Size of Voxels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.5.3 Spherical Aberration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.5.4 Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.5.5 Shrinkage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.5.6 Damaging Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.5.7 Mechanical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.6 Advanced Setups for Direct Laser Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.6.1 Process Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.6.2 Enhanced Resolution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.6.3 Large Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.7 Direct Laser Writing in 3D Cell Culture
and Tissue Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 46
2.7.1 Photocrosslinking of Proteins for Biomimetic
3D Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 51
ix
x Contents
2.7.2 Photopolymerisation of Synthetic Polymers

for Biomimetic 3D Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.7.3 Photoactivation of Hydrogels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.8 Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3 Biomimetic Photonic Materials by Direct Laser Writing . . . .... 67

Mark D. Turner, Gerd E. Schröder-Turk and Min Gu
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 67
3.2 Three-Dimensional Direct Laser Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 70
3.3 Chiral Structures in Self-Assembly and Circular
Dichroism in Biology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.4 Direct Laser Writing of 3D Biomimetic Microstructures . . . . . 73
3.5 Conclusion and Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4 Selective Laser Sintering and Its Biomedical Applications . . .... 83

Bin Duan and Min Wang
4.1 Introduction to Rapid Prototyping Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.1.1 Stereolithography Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.1.2 Two-Photon Polymerization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.1.3 Fused Deposition Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.1.4 3D Plotting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.1.5 3D Printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.1.6 Selective Laser Sintering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.2 Selective Laser Sintering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.2.1 Principle of Selective Laser Sintering
and Modification of Commercial SLS Machines . . . . 88
4.2.2 Materials for SLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.2.3 SLS Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.2.4 Optimization of SLS Parameters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.2.5 Applications of SLS in the General
Manufacturing Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.3 Biomedical Applications of SLS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.3.1 Physical Models for Surgical Planning . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.3.2 Medical Device Prototypes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.3.3 Medical Implants and Prostheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.3.4 Tissue Engineering Scaffolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.3.5 Drug or Biomolecule Delivery Systems. . . . . . . . . . . 101
4.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Contents xi
5 Biomimetic Assemblies by Matrix-Assisted Pulsed

Laser Evaporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 111
Felix Sima and Ion N. Mihailescu
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 111
5.2 Biomimetic Design-Mimicking Aspects
of a Natural Organism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 114
5.3 Scaffold Fabrication and Deposition Methods . . . . . . ...... 115
5.4 Basics of MAPLE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 119
5.4.1 Experimental Conditions and Mechanisms
of MAPLE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
5.4.2 Reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
5.5 MAPLE: From the Origin to Biomimetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
5.5.1 Application to Organics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
5.5.2 Application to Organic–Inorganic Composites . . . . . . 130
5.5.3 Application to Inorganics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
5.6 Conclusion and Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
6 Laser Additive Manufacturing of Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 143

Claus Emmelmann, Jannis Kranz, Dirk Herzog and Eric Wycisk
6.1 Process Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
6.2 Process Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
6.2.1 Building Chamber Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
6.2.2 Layer Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
6.2.3 Scanspeed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
6.2.4 Laser Beam Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
6.2.5 Exposure and Scan Strategy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
6.2.6 Hatching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
6.2.7 Available Metals and Alloys for LAM . . . . . . . . . . . 149
6.3 Part Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
6.3.1 Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
6.3.2 Strength. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
6.3.3 Hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
6.3.4 Residual Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
6.3.5 Accuracy Grade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
6.3.6 Subsurface Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
6.4 Designs for LAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
6.5 Future Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
6.6 Biomimetic Application Areas of LAM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
6.7 Summary and Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
xii Contents
7 Biomimetic Coatings by Pulsed Laser Deposition. . . . ......... 163

Carmen Ristoscu and Ion N. Mihailescu
7.1 Methods and Biomaterials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
7.1.1 PLD Definition and Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
7.1.2 Inorganic Biomaterials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
7.2 PLD Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
7.2.1 Laser Sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
7.2.2 Targets and Set-Ups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
7.2.3 Plasma Plume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
7.2.4 Thin Films Growth and Characterization . . . . . . . . . . 176
7.3 Biomimetic Inorganic Biomaterial Thin Films . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
7.3.1 Ca Phosphates (CaPs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
7.3.2 Multistructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
7.3.3 Composite Nanostructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
7.4 Conclusions and Outlook. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
8 Laser Assisted Bio-printing (LAB) of Cells and Bio-materials

Based on Laser Induced Forward Transfer (LIFT) . . . . . . . . ... 193
Bertrand Guillotin, Sylvain Catros and Fabien Guillemot
8.1 Laser Assisted Bio-printing for Biomimetic
Tissue Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 193
8.2 Technical Implementation of LAB for Cell
and Biomaterial Printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
8.2.1 Droplet Ejection Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
8.2.2 Printing Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
8.2.3 LAB Parameters for Cell Printing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
8.3 Applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
8.3.1 LAB Engineered Stem Cell Niche . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
8.3.2 Modelling Capillary Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
8.3.3 Laser Assisted Bio-printed of Tissue
Engineering Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
8.3.4 In Vivo Printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
8.4 Conclusions and Perspectives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
9 Laser-Based Biomimetic Tissue Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

Emmanuel Stratakis, Anthi Ranella and Costas Fotakis
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
9.2 Laser Processing of Biomaterials for Biomimetic
Tissue Engineering Scaffolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
9.2.1 Overview of the Biomaterials Used for Laser-Based
Tissue Engineering Applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Contents xiii
9.2.2 Laser-Based Methodologies for Biomimetic

Tissue Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
9.2.3 Laser Processing of Artificial Biomaterials . . . . . . . . 220
9.2.4 Laser Processing of Natural Biomaterials . . . . . . . . . 227
9.3 Conclusions and Outlook. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
10 Laser Processing of Natural Biomaterials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 237

Wande Zhang, Peter H. Chung, Aping Zhang and Shaochen Chen
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
10.2 Natural Biomaterials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
10.2.1 Collagen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
10.2.2 Agarose. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
10.2.3 Hyaluronic Acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
10.2.4 MatrigelTM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
10.3 Laser Processing Methodologies for Biomaterials . . . . . . . . . . 241
10.3.1 Laser Processing System Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
10.3.2 Laser-Induced Cross-Linking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
10.3.3 Laser Ablation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
10.3.4 Laser Activation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
10.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
11 Future Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

11.1 Future Perspectives of Biomimetics and Laser Technology . . . 260
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Contributors
Maria R. Belegratis Institute for Surface Technologies and Photonics, Joanneum

Research Forschungsgesellschaft mbH, Franz-Pichlerstraße 30, 8160 Weiz,
Austria, e-mail: [email protected]
Sylvain Catros Bioingénierie Tissulaire, INSERM U1026, 146, rue Léo Saignat,
Bordeaux 33076, France
Shaochen Chen Department of NanoEngineering, University of California, 245B
SME Building, MC-0448, San Diego, CA 92093, USA, e-mail: [email protected]
Peter H. Chung Department of NanoEngineering, University of California,
Atkinson Hall, Room 2314, Gilman Drive #0448, San Diego, CA 92093-9500,
USA, e-mail: [email protected]
Bin Duan Faculty of Engineering, Department of Mechanical Engineering, The
University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Pokfulam, Hong Kong
Claus Emmelmann iLAS Laser- und Anlagensystemtechnik, Technische
Universität Hamburg-Harburg, Denickestr. 17 (L), 21073 Hamburg, Germany
Sascha Engelhardt Institute for Laser Technology, RWTH Aachen University,
Steinbachstraße 15, 52074 Aachen, Germany, e-mail: sascha.engelhardt@ilt.
fraunhofer.de
Costas Fotakis Institute of Electronic Structure and Laser, Foundation for
Research & Technology-Hellas, 1527, Heraklion 71110, Greece, e-mail:
[email protected]
Min Gu Faculty of Engineering and Industrial Sciences, Centre for Micro-
Photonics and CUDOS, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, VIC
3122, Australia
Fabien Guillemot Bioingénierie Tissulaire, INSERM U1026, 146, rue Léo
Saignat, Bordeaux 33076, France
Bertrand Guillotin Bioingénierie Tissulaire, INSERM U1026, 146, rue Léo
Saignat, Bordeaux 33076, France
xv
xvi Contributors
Dirk Herzog LZN Laser Zentrum Nord GmbH, Am Schleusengraben 14, 21029
Hamburg, Germany, e-mail: [email protected]
Jannis Kranz iLAS Laser- und Anlagensystemtechnik, Technische Universität
Hamburg-Harburg, Denickestr. 17 (L), 21073 Hamburg, Germany, e-mail:
[email protected]
Ion N. Mihailescu Lasers Department, National Institute for Lasers, Plasma
and Radiation Physics, 409 Atomistilor Street, 77125 Măgurele, Ilfov, Romania,
e-mail: [email protected]
Anthi Ranella Institute of Electronic Structure and Laser, Foundation for
[email protected]
Carmen Ristoscu Lasers Department, National Institute for Lasers, Plasma and
Radiations Physics, 409 Atomistilor street, MG-54, 077125 Magurele, Romania,
Volker Schmidt Institute for Surface Technologies and Photonics, Joanneum
Research Forschungsgesellschaft mbH, Franz-Pichler straße 30, Weiz 8160,
Austria, e-mail: [email protected]
Gerd E. Schröder-Turk Theoretische Physik, Friedrich-Alexander Universität
Erlangen-Nürnberg, Staudstr. 7B, Erlangen, Germany
Felix Sima Lasers Department, National Institute for Lasers, Plasma and Radi-
ation Physics, 409 Atomistilor Street, 77125 Magurele, Ilfov, Romania, e-mail:
[email protected]
Emmanuel Stratakis Institute of Electronic Structure and Laser, Foundation for
[email protected]
Mark D. Turner Faculty of Engineering and Industrial Sciences, Centre for
Micro-Photonics and CUDOS, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn,
VIC 3122, Australia
Min Wang Faculty of Engineering, Department of Mechanical Engineering, The
University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Pokfulam, Hong Kong, e-mail:
[email protected]
Eric Wycisk LZN Laser Zentrum Nord GmbH, Am Schleusengraben 14, 21029
Hamburg, Germany, e-mail: [email protected]
Wande Zhang Department of BioEngineering, University of California, 9500
Gilman Drive, San Diego, CA 92093, USA, e-mail: [email protected]
Aping Zhang Photonics Research Centre, Department of Electrical Engineering,
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, People’s
Republic of China, e-mail: [email protected]
Acronyms
2D Two-dimensional
2PP Two-photon polymerization
3D Three-dimensional
3DP 3D printing
ADSC Adipose-tissue derived stem cells
AFM Atomic force microscopy
AFO Ankle-foot orthose
ALP Alkaline phosphatase
AOM Acousto-optical modulator
b-TCP B-tricalcium phosphate
BAEC Bovine aortic endothelial cell
BG Bioglass
BMP Bone morphogenic protein
BSA Bovine serum albumin
CAD Computer-aided design
CAM Computer-assisted manufacturing
Ca-P Calcium phosphate
CCD Charge-coupled device
CGH Computer generated hologram
CHAp Carbonated hydroxyapatite
CICP Collagen type I production
C-PLD Combinatorial pulsed laser deposition
CT Computer tomography
DDD Drug delivery device
DETC 7-Diethylamino-3-thenoylcoumarin
DIC Differential interference contrast
DiLL Dip-in laser lithography
DLP Digital light processor
DLW Direct laser writing
DM Dichroic mirror
DMD Dynamic micromirror device; Digital micromirror device
DMSO Dimethyl sulfoxide
xvii
xviii Acronyms
DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid

DOE Diffractive optical element
DOE Design of experiment
EBL Electron beam lithography
ECFC Endothelial colony-forming cells
ECM Extra cellular matrix
EDS Electron dispersion spectroscopy; Energy-dispersive
X-ray spectroscopy
eGFP Enhanced green fluorescent protein
EHS Engelbreth-Holm-Swarm
eV Electron Volt
Excimer Excited dimer
FDA Food and Drug Administration
FDM Fused deposition modeling
FEM Finite element method
FET Field effect transistor
FITC Fluoresceine isothiocyanate
FN Fibronectin
fs Femtosecond
FTIR Fourier transformed infrared spectrometry
GIXRD Grazing incidence X-ray diffraction
GM Göppert-Mayer
GMHA Glycidyl methacrylate hyaluronic acid
GNR Gold nanorod
GRGDS Glycine-arginine-glycine-aspartic-acid-serine oligopeptides
GVD Group velocity dispersion
HA Hyaluronic acid
HA Hydroxyapatite
HDPE High density polyethylene
HMSC Human mesenchymal stem cell
HOP Human bone-marrow derived osteo-progenitors
HUVEC Human umbilical vein endothelial cells
HUVSMC Human umbilical vein smooth muscle cells
IR Infrared
ITX Isopropylthioxanthone
K Kelvin
kHz Kilohertz
LAB Laser assisted bioprinting
LAM Laser additive manufacturing
LASER Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation
Acronyms xix
LAT Laser ablation texturing

LBL Layer-by-layer
LCP Left circularly polarized
LED Light emitting diode
LHD Left handed
LIFT Laser-induced forward transfer
LIL Laser interference lithography
LP Laser printing
LTE Local thermal equilibrium
MAA Methacrylic acid
MALDI Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization
MAPLE Matrix-assisted pulsed laser evaporation
MAPTMS Methacryloxypropyl trimethoxysilane
MBE Molecular beam epitaxy
MDM Multi nozzle deposition manufacturing
MHz Megahertz
MIS Metal-insulator-semiconductor
MMP Matrix metalloproteinase
MRI Magnetic resonance imaging
MSC Mesenchymal stem cell
MTS 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-5-(3-carboxymethoxyphenyl)-2-
(4-sulfophenyl)-2H-tetrazolium
NA Numerical aperture
NIR Near infrared spectral range
Nm Nanometer
OCN Osteocalcin
OCP Octacalcium phosphate
OES Optical emission spectroscopy
OPA Optical parametric amplifier
OPG Osteoprotegerin
PBS Phosphate buffered saline
PBT Polybutylene-terephtelate
PC Photonic crystal
PCL Poly(e-caprolactone); Polycaprolactone
PDLLA Poly(D, L-lactic acid)
PEEK Polyetheretherketone
PEG Polyethylene glycol
PEGDA Polyethylene glycol diacrylate
PEOT Polyethyleneoxide-terephtalate
PG Progesterone
xx Acronyms
PGA Poly(glycolide)
PHBV Poly(hydroxybutyrate-co-hydroxyvalerate)
PHSRN Proline-Histidine-Serine-Arginine-Aspargine
PI Photo initiator
PLA Polylactic acid
PLCL Poly(lactide–co-caprolactone)
PLD Pulsed laser deposition
PLGA Poly(D, L-lactide-co-glycolide); Poly(lactic acid-co-glycolic acid)
PLLA Poly(L-lactic acid)
PMMA Poly(methyl methacrylate)
PVA Poly(vinyl alcohol)
PVP Polyvinylpyrrolidone
R&D Research and development
RCP Right circularly polarized
RGD Arginine-glycine-aspartic acid
RGDS Arginine-glycine-aspartic acid-serine
rhBMP-2 Recombinant human bone morphogenetic protein-2
RHD Right handed
RP Rapid prototyping
SAED Selected area electron diffraction
SAM Self-assembled monolayer
SBF Simulated body fluid
SEM Scanning electron microscope
SFF Solid free form
SG Sol–gel
SIMP Solid-isotropic-material-with-penalization
siRNA Small interfering ribonucleic acid
SIS Small intestinal submucosa
SLA Stereolithography apparatus, stereolithography
SLM Spatial light modulator; Selective laser melting
SLS Selective laser sintering
SPA Single photon absorption
SS Stainless steel
SSLS Surface selective laser sintering
STED Stimulated emission depletion
STL Stereolithography
TCP Tricalcium phosphate
TPP Two photon polymerization
TRIS Tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane
UHMWPE Ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene
Acronyms xxi
UV Ultraviolet
VIS Visible spectral range
VN Vitronectin
XRD X-ray diffraction
XTEM Cross-sectional transmission electron microscopy
YAG Yttrium aluminium garnet
YVO4 Yttrium orthovanadate
Chapter 1
Introduction and Scope of the Book
Volker Schmidt and Maria R. Belegratis
Abstract This chapter introduces the scope of the book. It is intended to guide the
reader through the book, to find specific information by shortly summarizing infor-
mation from the following chapters and to build a cross reference to the various
applied methods and the corresponding applications. The laser as a powerful light
source can be found in nearly any technical application, ranging from consumer
electronics (CD, DVD, blu-ray player, scanner), metrology (including environmen-
tal monitoring), scientific research (laser development to novel fields in quantum
physics, photonics and medicine), arts, industry, information technology to lithog-
raphy and material processing. It is obvious that the laser meets many requirements
from technical challenges inspired by natural evolutionary solutions. Not all of them
can be treated in a single book, but a cross section of the powerful combination of
both, laser technology and biomimetic thinking, form a powerful approach to novel
technical application scenarios as presented in the next chapters, which are consid-
ered as guideline and orientation for the reader depending on a laser or application
based approach.
1.1 Biomimetics as Inspiration for Laser-Based Methods

and Applications
The term “biomimetics” commonly defines the understanding of natural structures

and functions of biological systems and the corresponding translation of the observed
working principles as models for the development of technical systems with enhanced
V. Schmidt · M. R. Belegratis (B)

Institute for Surface Technologies and Photonics, Joanneum Research Forschungsgesellschaft
mbH, Franz-Pichlerstraße 30, 8160 Weiz, Austria
V. Schmidt
V. Schmidt and M. R. Belegratis (eds.), Laser Technology in Biomimetics, 1

Biological and Medical Physics, Biomedical Engineering,
DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-41341-4_1, © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013
2 V. Schmidt and M. R. Belegratis
properties. On one hand, nature takes advantage of structural features for tailoring and
enhancing intrinsic material properties. These structures have been optimized during
a long term of evolution. Prominent examples are e.g. structural colors [1], or the
wetting behavior of a textured surface [2]. These examples are interesting for many
technical applications in design, construction, architecture, robotics, energy manage-
ment and surface engineering. Here, medical applications are biological lightweight
construction and medical implants with biocompatible coatings.
On the other hand, direct processing of natural materials and substituting it by
artificial biomaterials that mimic natural tissue are further aspects of learning from
nature. By studying mechanisms of cell behavior as well as cell tissue interaction
and designing adequate cell environments new aspects are introduced into tissue
engineering.
1.1.1 Laser Sources
Without the invention of the laser and the unique properties of laser radiation many
processes and innovations would not have been possible. Laser technology has expe-
rienced a strong development since its first demonstration in the 1960s. Today many
different laser types and technical applications for laser radiation are state-of-the-
art and new ones are about to be discovered. This short introduction summarizes
the main features and concepts of laser processing and surveys the most important
application scenarios of the laser as a versatile processing tool, which is presented
in the context of biomimetics in the subsequent chapters of this book.
Nature provides many examples how evolution solved environmental issue for the
purpose of survival of an organism. Hence, there are many technical problems that
can look for inspiration within the framework of biomimetics. The application of
laser technology in material science is comparably multifaceted. First of all there
are many different laser sources available that are potentially matching a certain
application. Secondly, the laser processing is in principle not limited to a certain class
of materials. Basically most of known materials show modifications when processed
by laser radiation. Consequently applications that are both, inspired by nature and
involving laser technology are quite overlapping and a systematic approach to this
topic can be quite different.
The selection of an appropriate laser for an envisaged application is mainly deter-
mined by the technical specifications of the laser such as wavelength, operational
mode, power etc. The wavelength for material processing is demanded by the optical
properties of the target material. The wavelength of the laser subsequently deter-
mines properties of the optical setup regarding the beam delivery with all included
optomechanical components. The operational mode (continuous wave-cw or pulsed)
directly influences the interaction regime with the target material and which paths of
energy deposition can be triggered by the incident laser power.
Industrial applications are more demanding than scientific applications in terms
of acquisition and operational costs, reliability of the laser sources, maintenance
1 Introduction and Scope of the Book 3
requirements, handling, ease of operation, technical complexity, and automation.

These factors have great impact on the market value and prize of the final products.
Some laser sources have gained specific importance and have made the way from
pure research in laboratories to industrial fabrication and applications in material
processing (cf. also Table 1.1). The laser types involved in the biomimetic appli-
cations and processes described in this book are shortly summarized in the next
paragraphs.
1.1.1.1 CO2 Lasers
The CO2 laser is a gas laser and is one of the most important lasers in industrial
applications regarding high power material processing such as machining, welding,
cutting, drilling, and engraving. Although most metals reflect very well its radiation,
the processing of metallic workpieces with such lasers is very common. CO2 laser
systems are available as pulsed or cw operating systems. Beam power up to 100 kW
in cw operation is possible at rather high energy conversion factor (up to 30 %). The
CO2 laser represents currently the highest available cw power at reasonable costs and
emits radiation at mid-infrared wavelength (10.6 µm). Low power systems are used
in research and medicine. Medical applications are motivated by the good absorption
of the laser wavelength in water and water containing tissue. The wavelength of the
laser requires special optics (ZnSe as lens or window material, Cu as mirror) and
cannot be passed through glass fibers, which is sometimes a drawback with respect
to beam delivery.
With respect to biomimetics and the presented manufacturing methods, CO2 lasers
are used for selective laser sintering (see Chap. 4).
1.1.1.2 Excimer Lasers
Laser light sources in the ultraviolet spectral range are either frequency multiplied
solid-state lasers or gas lasers. Especially excimer lasers provide pulsed high power
ultraviolet to deep ultraviolet emission at a typical repetition rate of a few hundred
Hz up to some kHz. The main scientific and industrial applications of excimer lasers
are material processing, lithography and medicine, involving methods such as laser
ablation, engraving, marking, surface and sub-surface modifications and coatings
made via pulsed laser deposition in either projection or direct exposure mode. In
projection mode, the laser light is projected via a mask onto a target for UV exposure.
In direct exposure mode, the focused laser light directly ablates the material by
moving the focused laser across the target. In projection mode the effect of the laser
results either in patterned material removal or in exposure of the material without
removal, which depends mainly on the laser fluence and applied pulse number.
The active medium of an excimer laser is a gas of electrically excited dimers
(“excimer”, or more precisely excited complexes), where an excited noble gas atom
and a halogen form a noble gas halide, which decays after a short time (typically
4
Table 1.1 Important laser types, emission characteristics and field of application
Lasertype Gain medium Emission characteristics (mode of operation, Application
wavelengths, power/pulse energy)
Ar-ion laser Gas cw(*) operation λ = 488 nm, 514.5 nm some Watt Spectroscopy, holography, machining
He-Ne laser Gas cw operation λ = 633 nm some 0.1 Watt Alignment, spectroscopy, holography, Interferometry
He-Cd laser Gas cw operation λ = 325 nm some 10 mW Lithography interferometry
Excimer laser Gas pulsed operation (ns) λ = 157 nm (F2 ), 193 nm (ArF), Lithography, ablation, machining, surgery
248 nm (KrF), 308 nm (XeCl) some Joule
CO2 laser Gas cw, pulsed operation (µs) λ = 10.6 µm some mW to Machining, cutting, welding, drilling
some kW
Nd:YAG Solid state cw, pulsed operation (ns, ps) λ = 1064 nm, 532 nm Material processing, laser pumping, research, surgery
(SH**), 355 nm (TH), 266 nm (FH) some kW
Ti:Sapphire Solid state pulsed operation (ps, fs) λ = 670 − 1080 nm some mJ Spectroscopy, non-linear material processing
Nd:Glass Solid state pulsed operation (ms, ns, ps) λ = 1062 nm some 100 J High energy multiple beam systems, laser fusion
AlGaAs Semiconductor cw, pulsed operation (µs) λ = 780 − 880 nm some kW Machining, medical, optical discs, laser pumping
(laser diode bars)
AlGaInP Semiconductor cw operation λ = 630 − 680 nm Machining, medical, optical discs, laser pumping
InGaAsP Semiconductor cw, pulsed operation (ps) λ = 1150 − 1650 nm Machining, medical, optical discs, laser pumping
GaN Semiconductor cw operation λ = 405 nm Optical discs, lithography
Dye laser Dye cw, pulsed operation (ns) λ = 300 − 1200 nm, depends Spectroscopy, research, medical
on used dye
(*) cw = continuous wave, (**) SH = second harmonic, TH = third harmonic, FH = fourth harmonic. Adapted from [3]
V. Schmidt and M. R. Belegratis
some ns) into the dissociated state (e.g. Kr*F → Kr + F) under emission of UV light.
The type of excimer determines the wavelength of the emission. The technically most
relevant excimers are ArF, KrF, XeCl, and XeF and there are manifold applications for
excimer laser processes such as excimer based optical lithography [4], excimer laser
chemical vapour deposition [5], excimer laser micromachining [6] or eye surgery
[7]. The high photon energy of the excimer radiation is capable of directly breaking
intramolecular bonds of the target material, without only negligible thermal impact
on the surrounding material.
1.1.1.3 Nd:YAG, Nd:YLF, Nd:Glass Lasers

These solid state lasers provide high power radiation (some kW) with a fundamen-
tal wavelength in the near-infrared spectral range (e.g. fundamental wavelength of
Nd:YAG laser: 1064 nm). The Nd doped laser crystal is commonly pumped by IR
laser diodes (diode pumped solid state laser–DPSSL). Depending on the geometrical
shape of the laser crystal, such lasers are often denoted as disc, rod or fiber lasers.
Applications for these lasers are machining, medicine or pumping of other lasers
such as Ti:Sapphire lasers for the generation of ultrashort pulses. These solid state
lasers are use instead of CO2 laser in sintering of metallic and ceramic materials as
described in Chap. 4. By using higher harmonics of the emitted radiation, these lasers
may substitute excimer lasers in the UV region for laser assisted deposition methods
such as matrix assisted pulsed laser evaporation (Chap. 5), pulsed laser deposition
(Chap. 7) or laser induced forward transfer (Chap. 8).
1.1.1.4 Ti:Sapphire Lasers
The active medium is a titanium doped Al2 O3 crystal (Ti:Sapphire). This crystal emits
in the near-infrared spectral region and shows a spectrally broad emission. Because of
the uncertainty principle, a short light pulse consists of many spectral components and
the active laser must support the stimulated emission for many longitudinal modes of
the laser resonator. Hence, Ti:Sapphire laser are very well suited for the generation
of short (femtosecond) laser pulses, typically in the wavelength range 750–850 nm,
which is achieved by mode-locking of many laser modes with a constant phase
relation. This yields a soliton-like propagating pulse within the laser resonator of
a very short temporal width. Femtosecond laser pulses facilitate on one hand the
examination of very fast transient processes in biology, chemistry and physics and
on the other hand proved as a unique tool for lithography and material processing at
very high precision. Ultra short laser pulses are mainly demonstrated in Chaps. 2, 3
and 9 with respect to 3D laser lithography and tissure engineering based on non-linear
optical processes such as multi-photon absorption.
1.1.2 Laser Processing
The use of lasers in a lithographic apparatus relies on the unique properties of laser
radiation, such as high monochromaticity, coherence, directed emission of radiation
and excellent beam quality along with high focusability. If the laser substitutes the
conventional light source and provides high power radiation at a short wavelength
with high spectral density, it illuminates in a simple approach similar to conventional
lithography a sample through a patterned mask and projection optics. Alternatively,
the laser light can be tightly focused and scanned along a defined path, where it
modifies the target upon energy transfer from the beam to the material. Additionally,
superimposing multiple laser beams yields, owing to its large coherence length and
defined polarization, complex intensity patterns at sub-wavelength resolution, which
can be transferred into a suitable photosensitive material. Both methods do not require
photolithographic masks for patterning a material and are described in Sect. 1.1.3.1.
The concept of laser processing takes advantage of the high definition of the laser
radiation with respect to its high intensity, spatial anisotropy (directionality) and
spectral properties [8]. The high intensity of a focused laser sources generally alters
the target material in a confined region around the incident laser light. Depending on
the optical properties of the material, energy is transferred from the laser into a small
volume of the material leading to a local increase of the temperature. The evolution
of the temperature is governed by the thermal properties of the target material and
the amount of deposited energy. Numerous effects can take place in dependence on
the deposited net energy (energy deposition in the volume by the laser minus energy
diffusion out of the interaction volume) such as phase changing, melting, evaporation
or ablation. At low laser intensities, a gentle heating by the laser is generally induced,
while at highest laser intensity explosive material ejection and plasma formation is
observed. The main difference between high and very high intensity is the duration
in which the energy of the laser is deposited in the material. Short (ns) and ultra-short
(ps to fs) pulses deposit the energy on a time scale much smaller than diffusion occurs
and the heat cannot spread in the material. This leads to a superheated material and
eventually to the mentioned effects (Fig. 1.1).
1.1.3 Biomimetic Processes Involving Laser Radiation

1.1.3.1 Biomimetic Laser-Based Lithography
A straight forward application is to use the laser as shaping tool that modifies or
creates geometry from or within a target material. The laser acts as a light pencil
that draws either in two or three dimensions a structure with a biomimetic shape
in a material. The term drawing is quite general and includes processes commonly
associated with metals, ceramics or other inorganic materials such as removal (e.g.
ablation, etching, milling, drilling, and cutting), joining (welding, sintering), marking
or addition (e.g. laser cladding, cusing, laser assisted growth) of material or other
moderate high veryhigh

low intensity
intensity intensity intensity
• temperature • melting and • local • local

increase resolification vaporization and vaporization and
• modification of • crystallization mass removal in mass removal in
material • amorphization thermodynamic non
properties via equilibrium thermodynamic
• diffusion
phase • large heat equilibrium
processes
transformations (doping) affected zone • no heat
at elevated diffusion
temperatures • plasma
evolution
• pulsed laser
ablation
Fig. 1.1 Mechanisms in solid target material at increasing laser intensity
processes like photocrosslinking, photopolymerization, or photoactivation associated

with photosensitive organic or biomaterials.
Methods related to laser based shape creation are often termed as rapid prototyp-
ing methods and include direct writing methods (direct laser writing–DLW) with
a focused laser beam or with multiple interfering laser beams (laser interference
lithography–LIL).
Regarding biomimetic applications, the importance of true 3D structuring capa-
bilities of a lithographic method is often emphasized (cf. e.g. Chap. 2). 3D structures
can be built by a number of laser based rapid prototyping and fabrication methods
(cf. Chaps. 4, 6 and 9) such as (micro-) stereo lithography (µ-SL), selective laser
sintering (SLS), or laser additive manufacturing (LAM), which all facilitate a laser-
based solid free-form (SFF) fabrication, which are discussed throughout the book
chapters. Biomimetic applications of 3D structures are medical implants, such as
dental bridges or biologically inspired lightweight structures (cf. Chap. 6).
A common approach for 3D structures is the micro-stereo-lithography (µ-SL) [9],
where the shape is built layer-by-layer in a photosensitive material. The pattern in
each layer is built either by scanning the focus of a laser or by projecting patterned
UV light via masks or a digital mirror device onto the material. The 3D structure
is finally built as a layer stack in a repetitive process by vertically translating the
material reservoir. This imposes several restrictions on the structure regarding the
3D design (geometrical restrictions due to layer-by-layer processing) and limit the
structure resolution. The vertical resolution is limited by the achievable thickness
of the individual layers. The lateral resolution is determined from the spot size of
the light on the layer. In contrast to the use of conventional UV or VIS lasers in the
linear absorption regime of the target material, absorption via inter-band transitions
involving more than one photon is a key issue regarding multi-photon based laser
lithography, which takes advantage of the strong confinement of the energy transfer
of a tightly focused laser beam to a photosensitive material. The energy transfer is
responsible for a modification of the material only around the laser focus, which
enhances spatial resolution and enables true 3D structuring. The smallest exposed
volume element is typically called a voxel and represents the smallest building unit
of a 3D structure. µ-SL involving multi-photon based exposure with suitable mate-
rials with enhanced spatial resolution was demonstrated for building rather large
structures [10].
Multi-photon based laser lithography is a relatively simple method that is inherently
capable of 3D structuring, but requires lasers with high peak intensities of the laser
pulses. The technological maturity of ultrafast (femtosecond) lasers proved multi-
photon-absorption as realistic exposure mechanism with several technical benefits
over single-photon exposure. Most important technical benefits of this method are
true 3D structuring capabilities and high spatial resolution beyond the diffraction
limit (e.g. sub 100 nm structures fabricated with a laser wavelength of 800 nm),
which is controlled by the number of applied laser pulses and the laser pulse energy.
Finally, this method has found its way to biomimetics as presented in several chapters
throughout the book. Recently, Misawa and Juodkazis edited a very comprehensive
book about this kind of 3D laser microfabrication [11]. Multi-photon based direct
laser writing is a true 3D method that has definitely reached a level of technical per-
fectness over the last years and may potentially replace other direct writing methods,
such as electron-beam lithography in a wide field of applications. It has been applied
as a versatile tool in micro- and nano-fabrication anf had been reviewed compre-
hensively (e.g. [12, 13]) for 3D structures with arbitrary shapes, with freely moving
components [14] periodic structures and scaffold structures for photonic and biomed-
ical applications [15, 16], flexible structures for biological cell culture studies [17].
It was also applied to micro replication of biological architectures for cellular scaf-
folds or custom tissue replacements [18], or in vivo processing of scaffolds with
embedded living organisms [19]. Chapter 3 demonstrates biomimetic chiral struc-
tures made by 3D laser lithography.
Smooth 2.5D topologies can be achieved with a local variation of the exposure
dose with a suitable contrast of the resist. Direct beam writing methods such as
direct laser write grey-tone lithography or focused ion beam lithography are capable
of fabricating smooth relief structures in photosensitive polymer materials such as
commercial positive-tone resists. Due to their inherent capability of varying the
exposure dose as a function of the beam position, such methods are often used for
the generation of a continuous relief in the target material [20], which could find
applications on textured surface with taylored wetting or anti-fouling properties.
Often, these structures have a certain periodicity and must cover large surfaces. In
such cases, the scanning of a single focused laser beam is a too time consuming
process and large areas may not be structured within a reasonable time. For this
kind of structures laser interference lithography (LIL) can be used alternatively. LIL
is capable of structuring large areas in a single shot exposure (or limited exposure
time) without defects and without scanning, but the periodic interference pattern of
the laser light limits fabrication to periodic patterns.
The laser provides light of defined wavelength, polarization and coherence, thus
enabling coherent superposition of multiple laser beams, whereas the experimental
conditions such as laser fluence, film thickness, angle of incidence and polarization
of the beams directly correlate to the fabricated patterns.
The beam superposition of multiple laser beams leads to the generation of stable
interference patterns, which can be used for patterning films of (usually) positive and
negative type photoresist negative type resist, TiO2 gel films [21], hybrid organic-
inorganic sol-gel materials [22], biomimetic tissue [23], as well as PEDOT-PSS
[24], a conducting polymer, which is important for organic (opto) electronics. The
periodicity of the pattern is determined by difference between the wave vectors of
the interfering beams and proportional to the wavelength of the laser and the angle
between the interfering beams, which are thus crucial and limiting parameters for
the achievable spatial resolution. Depending on the number of beams, angle between
the beams and polarization, 1D, 2D, and 3D periodic patterns can be fabricated over
a large area in a single exposure step. Multiple exposure steps with rotation and
translation of a 1D phase mask facilitate complex 3D patterns such as woodpile
structures with three beams [25]. The coherence length limits path differences in the
optical setup and determines also the maximal area that can be processed in a single
exposure step.
Various types of laser sources such as Nd:YAG lasers at 266 nm (fourth harmonic)
or 355 nm (third harmonic) [26] are used for interference lithography. Regarding
costs, large area LIL with semiconductor lasers seems more attractive. The used
AlInGaN laser has a rather low prize and a long coherence length, which is a pre-
requisite for processing large sample areas [27]. Recently, LIL was combined with
multi-photon polymerization in a four-beam setup for the fabrication of micro lenses.
The four beams were generated using a diffractive optical element and a diaphragm
to remove undesired laser light from the optical path. The negative type resist was
exposed to multiple laser pulses, which facilitates a much faster processing as com-
pared to multi-photon based direct laser writing, which is a sequential voxel-by-voxel
build up process. Appropriate hatching or stepping of the exposed area enables the
processing over large areas and reduction of the structure degradation at the edge of
the exposed are due to the spatial intensity profile of the laser beams [28]. Originally
used for regular 2D patterns, interference lithography is increasingly applied to 3D
structures.
1.1.3.2 Biomimetic Laser-Based Coating and Deposition Methods
The previous section introduced the laser as a direct writing tool for the creation of
2D and 3D biomimetic structures. Mimicking the nature by the generation of bio-
compatible coatings and creating environments for living cells is another aspect of
biomimetics that can be dealt with laser technology. In this manner, the laser can be
used for the deposition of various biomaterials and research in cell biology. Several
methods (laser chemical vapour deposition, laser induced transfer methods, pulsed
laser deposition etc.) exist, where the laser is used for the patterned deposition of
materials on a substrate. Laser chemical vapour deposition (LCVD) was used for
the in situ fabrication of micro lenses with precise control of film properties [5].
This process takes place in a reaction chamber, which contains precursor gases and
the substrate. The laser is used to locally heat the substrate, which subsequently
dissociates the gas precursor and a thin film deposits on the substrate. Using multi-
ple beams or a layered approach to build the structure, it is possible to create also
3D structures. The deposition rate of LCVD depends linearly on the precursor gas
pressure and the laser power density and decreases with increasing scanning speed.
The deposition rate can be adjusted by these parameters and is much higher than
in conventional CVD [29]. Pulsed laser deposition (PLD) methods, ablation mech-
anisms and applications are discussed in Chap. 7.
Sensitive materials such as biomaterials that are easily destroyed by the laser are
often embedded in a matrix material that absorbs the laser energy. This method
(matrix assisted pulsed laser deposition–MAPLE) uses a frozen solvent, which is
evaporated upon laser irradiation. The material for deposition is evaporated together
with the matrix and deposits on a receiving substrate (cf. Chap. 5). Without masks,
the material deposition is unpatterned, hence another method, laser induced forward
transfer method (LIFT) is often used for laser assisted patterning (cf. Chap. 8). In
the LIFT (sometimes also called laser based bio printing–LBP) process, the laser
energy is absorbed in a thin film on a transparent substrate, which leads to droplet
formation and ejection of the transfer material. Subsequently, the evaporated material
precipitates on a second receiving substrate, which is facing the first substrate either in
close (micrometer) vicinity. For soft-matter materials such as polymers or biological
compound materials, a direct contact between the substrates was found to yield best
transfer results regarding resolution and defined edges of transferred pixels [30].
LIFT can be achieved with various types of lasers (UV excimer lasers, Nd:YAG,
Ar-ion lasers, fs lasers). The transfer materials are often sensitive to oxygen or humid-
ity, thus requiring a vacuum or inert gas setup. Originally used for the patterned
transfer of metal films, it can be applied for a variety of materials including oxides
and biomaterials or even more complex multi-layer systems such as a polymer light
emitting diode pixel [31] or organic thin film transistors [32]. Such sensitive mate-
rials or materials, which are transparent to the incident laser or easily destroyed by
the incident laser, can be transferred by using an energy absorbing sacrificial layer
(dynamic release layer) between the transfer material and the carrier, which promotes
the release of the material. Additionally, the temporal shape of ultrafast laser pulses
influences the LIFT process and the achievable resolution on the receiving substrate,
which is attributed to fast electron and lattice interactions. It was shown that fs pulses
with a short separation (less than 500 fs) show large impact of the deposited pixel
size, while the covered area stays constant for longer pulse separations up to 10 ps
[33].
Using microsphere arrays as micro lenses, parallel material transfer (parallel LIFT)
with an unfocused laser beam can be achieved [34]. Polystyrene beads are on top
of a transparent substrate (quartz glass) and focus the incident light onto the single
or multi-layered transfer material, which is on the other side of the substrate. Thus,
micron to sub-micron holes can be written into the films and corresponding dot
patterns on the receiving substrate.
1.1.3.3 Biomimetic Laser-Based Biomaterial Processing and Tissue

Engineering
From a materials point of view, the laser supports rapid tooling for natural biopoly-
mers (e.g. proteins, polysaccharides) and artificial biomolecules (PLA, PGA, PLGA
etc.). Laser radiation offers the possibility to generate 3D biological microstructures
(scaffolds) by crosslinking of oxidizable side chains in biomolecules. The purpose is
the creation of chemically and physically defined cell environments for applications
such as tissue regeneration and gene delivery as described in Chaps. 2, 9, and 10.
In the field of tissue engineering, which is closely related to replace or repair
tissue such as bone, cartilage, blood vessels, bladder, skin, muscle etc. the control
of cell density and organization is crucial. Laser based method such as laser assisted
bioprinting implementing the laser induced forward transfer can deposit patterned
films of bioink on substrates. Chapter 8 discusses examples of printed cell types.
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Chapter 2
Direct Laser Writing
Sascha Engelhardt
Abstract Direct laser writing has emerged in recent years as a powerful technology
for the realization of micron to sub-micrometer resolution structures in the field of
biomedicine. The technology is based on the nonlinear optical effect of two-, or
multi-photon absorption, inducing photochemical effects in a defined volume. These
photochemical effects can be utilized for the fabrication of microstructures, as well
as for a defined 3D chemical surrounding. In this contribution, the basic principles
of direct laser writing are described, followed by an explanation of process relevant
aspects and a short survey of available techniques and technologies for enhanced
performance. In the last part of this chapter, some examples of direct laser writing
in the field of 3D cell culture and tissue engineering are given.
2.1 Introduction
In his satirical novella “Flatland: A Romance of Many Dimensions”, published 1884,

Edwin A. Abbott describes a two-dimensional world, Flatland, inhabited by simple
geometrical figures. When visited by a sphere of the 3D spaceland, the protagonist
has difficulties to grasp the existence of such a world. In his world, only a two-
dimensional representation of the sphere, a circle, can be perceived. In the end the
protagonist accepts the existence of 3D-beings and hypothesis about even higher
dimensional worlds [1].
In analogy, much research concerning cell biology has been restricted to a two-
dimensional world over the last years. However, tissue is a 3D object, and cells as
part of the tissue are 3D by nature. Studying cells in a petri dish is like studying the
sphere, from the point of view of a flatlander. Aspects of their nature will be hard
S. Engelhardt (B)
RWTH Aachen, Institute for Laser Technology, Steinbachstraße 15, 52074 Aachen, Germany
S. Engelhardt
Fraunhofer Institut for Laser Technology, Steinbachstraße 15, 52075 Aachen, Germany

14 S. Engelhardt
to understand, or even impossible to analyze if the third dimension is not accounted

for. In recent years, 3D cell culture systems address this issue and have revealed
remarkable difference in cell behavior when compared to standard flat cell culture.
One possibility to generate arbitrary 3D biomimetic structures is direct laser writing.
Here, a focused laser beam is translated through a material bath. In a confined volume
in the focal region, a photochemical reaction occurs which is used for the fabrication
of the 3D structures. These structures may be physical structures as a result of a
curing process, or chemical structures due to a photochemical activation process.
The 3D capability of direct laser writing has its origin in a nonlinear behavior. In
most cases direct laser writing is associated with a two- or multi-photon process [2].
In this case, nonlinear absorption processes occur when the photon density is high.
In direct laser writing these high photon densities are only present in the vicinity
of a tightly focused laser beam with short pulse duration. Thus, the reactive volume
is restricted to just a few femtoliters and high resolution 3D microstructures can be
generated.
In this book chapter, the basic principles of direct laser writing will be described.
A typical setup for direct laser writing is introduced in Sect. 2.2 before the process
of two-photon absorption is described in more detail in Sect. 2.3. The photochemical
processes, which are used in direct laser writing, are subject of Sect. 2.4. Section 2.5
will focus on specific aspects of direct laser writing, which have to be considered
while applying the technology. Section 2.6 deals with some technological advances,
which address the main drawbacks of direct laser writing, before an overview of
biomimetic applications of the method is given in Sect. 2.7.
2.2 Experimental Setup
Depending on the application, several possibilities exist for direct laser writing setups.
However, the required basic components are quite similar (several reviews exist, e.g.
[3–9]). In order to initiate nonlinear optical effects, which are responsible for 3D
direct laser writing, high photon densities are necessary. These photon densities are
normally realized by tightly focusing a short- or ultrashort (fs–femtosecond) pulsed
laser beam with a high NA objective (NA–numerical aperture, 0.5 and above). The
laser wavelength is in the visible (VIS) or near infrared range (NIR) range. A common
laser source is a mode-locked Ti:Sapphire ultrafast oscillator, which provides laser
pulses with typical pulse durations in the range of tens to hundreds of femtoseconds,
at a center wavelength of approximately 780 nm. These laser systems may either
work as an amplified Ti:Sapphire systems usually operating in the kHz range or long
cavity oscillators working at low MHz frequencies. The intensity of the laser beam
has to be tuned finely, since the direct laser writing process sensitively depends on it,
especially when the process is aimed at a sub-diffraction limited resolution. Although
neutral density filters can be used to tune the laser intensity, they do not have the
ability for such fine tuning. Therefore other approaches, such as a combination of a
λ/2-waveplate and a polarizing beam splitter, acousto-optical modulators (AOM) or
Pockels cells are often used.
2 Direct Laser Writing 15
Since a mode-locked laser source provides a continuous pulse-train and hence

cannot be triggered, the on- and off-state of the laser beam is either controlled by a
mechanical shutter or an optical device, such as an AOM. The advantage of the AOM
is its fast response time (ns range), which is several magnitudes smaller compared
to mechanical shutters (ms range). However, mechanical shutters are more easily
implemented and are less susceptible to imprecise alignment. Additionally, AOMs
are optimized for a certain wavelength and therefore not suited if a second laser
source with a different wavelength is needed in the same setup. In general, AOMs
should be utilized if the fast response times are mandatory for the application, and
mechanical beam shutters if ease of use and versatility of the setup are of interest.
Beam expansion and collimation, realized with a telescope, is necessary to slightly
overfill the back aperture of the focusing objective, so that the entire NA of the
objective can be used and thus the resulting focal point is diffraction limited.
Besides these essential components, an optical isolator, for example a Faraday
rotator is often implemented to avoid interference from reflected light, which can
cause problems in the direct laser writing process. A cost efficient, but less effective
method to achieve this goal is the insertion of a slightly misaligned neutral density
filter. When femtosecond laser pulses pass a dispersive medium such as glass, the
pulse duration broadens due to group velocity dispersion (GVD). The pulse broad-
ening leads to a reduction in laser intensity, which in consequence reduces the two
photon absorption efficiency. The optical component which causes most GVD in
a standard direct laser writing setup is the objective, which consists of a complex
lens system, often with a total thickness of several centimeters. This effect can be
counteracted by introducing inverse GVD, which can be accomplished by a pair of
prisms, or by diffractive mirrors.
3D-laser writing is accomplished by a computer controlled translational stage,
which is able to translate 3D computer aided designed (CAD) data into axis move-
ment. Piezo driven stages are often used because of their high accuracy. However,
for piezo stages, total translation lengths are limited to a few hundred micrometers.
If larger structures are desired, linear stages with less accuracy or stitching becomes
necessary.
In order to identify the right focal position, most setups include an online moni-
toring system (Fig. 2.1).
Beside this basic setup, several other setups have been proposed which mostly
have the aim of decreasing process time, or expand the possible structure sizes. An
overview of these approaches is given in Sect. 2.6 of this chapter.
2.3 Two Photon Absorption
A molecule can be excited from its ground state Eg to an energetically higher state Ee
if the molecule absorbs a photon with energy equal or larger than the energetic gap
between the molecular states E = Ee − Eg = ωa (Fig. 2.2). Since the transition of
the electronic states occurs much faster than the correlated change in nuclear motion
16 S. Engelhardt
Fig. 2.1 Optical pathway of a basic setup for direct laser writing. The laser beam of a suitable laser
system, delivering ultrashort laser pulses can be attenuated by neutral density filters, a combination
of a λ/2-waveplate and a polarizing beam splitter, an AOM or a Pockels cell. The beam status is
controlled by an optical or mechanical shutter. A telescope expands the laser beam to a diameter
where it slightly overfills the back aperture of a focusing objective. A dichroic mirror (DM) separates
the incoming laser beam from an imaging system, consisting of an illumination source and a tube
lens, imaging the focal region on a camera, such as a CCD chip for online monitoring. A translational
stage moves the photosensitive material in all three spatial directions relative to the focal position
Fig. 2.2 Energy level diagram for the single and two photon absorption process. Both processes
can lead to the generation of an active compound for photochemical processes
(Franck-Condon principle), the molecule undergoes internal conversion until reach-

ing an intermediate state Ei , from which the molecule can relax to its ground state
by the emission of a photon with lower energy ωe , which has a longer wavelength
(red shifted) compared to the absorbed photon. Two photon absorption describes a
similar process, where E is realized by the almost coincidental absorption of two
photons with E = ωk + ωl . The physical derivation of this process was already
described 1931 by Maria Göppert-Mayer through second order perturbation theory

[10]. In this chapter, a more qualitative explanation will be given. If a photon of
energy ωk < E interacts with the molecule, no real transition from Eg to Ee is
allowed. However, for a short period of time t → 2 ω , given by the energy time
k
uncertainty principle, the molecule can be elevated to a virtual state Ev . During this
time, a second photon has only to overcome the energy gap ωl = E − ωk and a
real transition can occur. This transition is only possible, if the combined energy of
the two incident photons is sufficient to bridge the gap between the ground and the
excited state of the molecule:
ωk + ωl − ωi − ωe = 0

ωk + ωl = ωa (2.1)
Of practical importance is the degenerate case ωk = ωl = 21 ωa , where two
photons of the same energy are absorbed. In terms of technical implementation this
means that only a single laser source is required to initiate two photon absorption
processes. From this simple picture the activation rate can be approximated.
The number of photons interacting with the molecule per time is given by σ N,
where σ is the absorption cross section of the target molecule, and N denotes the
number of photons per area and time. The number of photons initiating the two
photon absorption process in the time frame t is σ tN 2 . Thus the two photon
transition rate ∂n
∂t per area can be written as:
∂n σ 2 t
= M N2
∂t 2
σ2
= M N2 (2.2)
2
with M as the density of absorbing molecules. σ2 represents the two photon absorp-
tion cross section. The two photon initiation rate is directly proportional to the two
photon absorption cross section, the density of absorbing and the squared photon
flux (cf. 2.2).
In this simple picture of two photon absorption, the two photon absorption cross
section follows the single photon absorption cross section at half the wavelength
σ2 (λ) = σ 2 (λ/2)t(λ). Indeed, this trend can be observed for many absorbing
molecules [11–13] and can serve as a basic thumb rule for choosing appropriate
absorbing molecules.
However, for quantitative predictions concerning σ2 this qualitative model is too
simple. The enhanced green fluorescent protein (eGFP), which is a commonly used
chromophore in cell biology, has a maximum absorption cross section at 489 nm of
approximately 2 × 10−16 cm2 . The corresponding maximum two photon absorption
cross is situated at 920 nm and is approx. 40 GM (1 GM = 1 × 10−50 cm4 s/photon)
[11]. Based on the simple model σ 2 t, results in a value for σ2 that is two orders of
magnitude larger than the value actually measured.
18 S. Engelhardt
Additionally a significant blue shift of 29 nm between the one and two photon
case can be observed. The first deviation has its origin in the far more complex
nature of two photon absorption. Actually for molecules with an inversion center, or
other symmetric molecules, different transition rules apply for one- and two photon
induced excitation. For centrosymmetric molecules, a one photon allowed state Ee
cannot be reached directly by a two photon process. In this case only transitions
between states with different parity can be reached by one photon absorption and
with equal parity by two photon absorption [14].
The blue shift was theoretically explained for the green fluorescent protein [12].
A number of Frank–Condon active vibronic modes lead to a stretching, or bending
around a central atom. These vibrations lead to a significant non-Condon influence
on the excitation process, which in consequence lead to the observed blue shift.
In summary, the described very simple model can give a good qualitative explana-
tion of the two photon excitation process, with regard to basic behavior of absorbing
molecules. A more precise model of the excitation process has to include the actual
structure of the molecule and its symmetries, as well as considering vibrational cross
talks that influence absorption behavior.
This aim can be achieved by looking at the interaction of photons with the molecule
θ
that can be described by the polarization P , represented by a power series of the
θ
electrical field E :

θ θ θ θ
P = ε0 χ (1) E + χ (2) E 2 + χ (3) E 3 + · · · (2.3)
ε0 is the electric constant and χ (i) denotes the ith order susceptibility. Two photon
absorption belongs to the third order nonlinear polarization, since three electrical
fields (described previously ωk , ωl and ωi ) interact to give a fourth electrical field,
the nonlinear polarization given by ωe . Thus, two photon absorption is governed by
(3) (3)
the imaginary part of the third order susceptibility χim , whereas the real χreal part is
associated with nonlinear refraction. The third order susceptibility is a representation
of the more complex description of the absorbing molecule. The relationship between
(3)
σ2 and χim is given by [4]:
8π 2 ωk2 (3)
σ2 = χ (2.4)
n2 c2 im
n is the first order refractive index of the medium and c is the vacuum speed of light.
For direct laser writing, the two photon absorption cross section is one possibility
to enhance the process efficiency, since it directly influences the absorption rate. By
(3)
manipulating χim many substances with huge two photon absorption cross sections
have been synthesized in the last years, resulting in two photon cross sections in the
range of 102 GM to 103 GM (e.g. [14–16]).
2.4 Chemical Processes for Direct Laser Writing
2.4.1 Photopolymerization
Polymerization describes a chain reaction in which monomers are translated into

a polymeric network (Fig. 2.3). Polymerization can be initiated by several trigger
mechanisms like heat or radiation [17, 18]. In the case of photopolymerization, elec-
tromagnetic radiation is used, mostly in the form of UV-photons, to deliver the nec-
essary energy for the activation of a photosensitive additive called photoinitiator (PI)
[18]. There exist two distinct photopolymerization mechanisms which are employed
for direct laser writing, radical photopolymerization and cationic photopolymeriza-
tion [3]. Free radical photopolymerization uses radicals, which are generated after
the excitation of the photoinitiator to start a polymerization chain reaction. These
radicals are either a direct result of homolytical cleavage of the photoinitiator (type I
photoinitiator), or an energy transfer to a coinitiator molecule (type II photoinitiator).
Radicals R◦ react with monomers M, for example by addition to double bonds of
acrylates,
R◦ + M ∗ RM ◦ ,
which then results in a chain propagation in the form of
RM ◦ + M ∗ RM2◦ ∗ · · · ∗ RMn◦ .
Therefore a single radical can be responsible for a crosslinking chain reaction and the
quantum yield for photopolymerization can easily reach values of 102–103 [19, 20].
The chain propagation continues, until two radicals interact to form a stable species,
either by a second radical recombining with the growing polymer chain or a second
growing polymer chain via electron transfer. Additional parasitic effects, such as
radical quenching by singlet oxygen, limit the polymer propagation [19]. For a good
material system, the polymer network forms readily after laser irradiation and stops
when the light source is turned off. This behavior implies good process control and
low dark polymerization and can only be achieved if activation-, propagation- and
termination rates are in balance. The sudden change in material density due to poly-
merization leads to a change in the refractive index of the material. On the one hand,
this behavior allows in-process observation of the polymerized structures, but on the
other hand, the refractive index change can negatively influence the laser propagation
through the forming structure. As a result many fabrication schemes utilize a layer-
by-layer approach to minimize beam distortion, although one of the advantages of
direct laser writing is its capability for arbitrary 3D structuring [5, 9, 21]. In general
the fabrication path and the position of the focusing objective with respect to the
forming structure have to be chosen carefully in order to minimize this effect.
Cationic photopolymerization can circumvent this problem. Here, the photoini-
tiator forms a strong Brønsted acid [19], which is capable of polymerizing epoxides
or vinyl esthers by ring-opening reactions. The following polymerization mechanism
20 S. Engelhardt
resembles that of radical polymerization; however, cationic polymerization possesses

in general lower curing speeds as well as an increased dark polymerization. The cat-
alytic nature of the reaction can also lead to quantum yields larger than one. For
many substances, such as the commonly used SU-8 [22–26], the photo irradiation
only activates the material and the polymerization is carried out subsequently, for
example by thermal treatment of the material. Thus, there is no refractive index
change during irradiation, which facilitates the realisation of 3D structures.
However, specimen induced spherical aberration caused by the refractive index
mismatch of specimen and the medium between specimen and exit pupil of the
focusing objective leads to focus distortion and a loss of focal intensity. This
effect increases with increasing penetration depth of the focus into the specimen.
In Sect. 2.5.3 the effect of spherical aberration on direct laser writing is discussed in
more detail.
2.4.2 Photocrosslinking
Photocrosslinking is closely related to photopolymerization, but the involved

materials do not undergo chain propagation (Fig. 2.3). It describes the photoin-
duced bond formation between two molecules or macromolecules. The photoinduced
crosslinking of biomolecules, such as proteins, is described by photocrosslinking.
Here, the photon energy is absorbed by a photosensitizer, which is first excited to a
singlet state, followed by intersystem crossing to a triplet state [27, 28]. This excited
photosensitizer can then directly interact with the biomolecule via hydrogen abstrac-
tion (type I reaction), or with ground state oxygen to form singlet oxygen, a highly
reactive oxygen species (type II reaction). Both mechanisms are known to induce
protein unfolding, fragmentation, aggregation and many other disruptive processes
[29]. However, for direct laser writing the aggregation of proteins offers the possibil-
ity to generate 3D protein microstructure. This aggregation is driven by crosslinking
of oxydizable side chains in proteins, such as tryptophan, tyrosin, histidine or cys-
teine [30–34]. As in the case of radical polymerization, crosslinking results in a
refractive index change. In general, the quantum yield is smaller than one, because
of the lack of chain propagation. Another aspect is the lifetime of the photosensi-
tizer. While most photoinitiators decompose after irradiation to form free radicals,
photosensitizers of type II can excite 103–105 singlet oxygen molecules before pho-
tobleaching occurs [27]. Additionally, proteins contain inherent photosensitizers in
the form of aromatic amino acids, which show a strong linear absorption at wave-
lengths of 260–280 nm and are therefore susceptible for two photon absorption with
visible light [35–37]. Each of these aromatic amino acids, such as phenylalanine,
tyrosine or tryptophan exhibit only weak two photon absorption capabilities, but
each protein contains several of them. Hence, it is possible to perform two-photon
initiated crosslinking of bovine serum albumin (BSA) without an additional pho-
tosensitizer by using frequency doubled Nd:YAG laser sources emitting at 532 nm
[38, 39].
The precise photochemical reaction pathways for protein crosslinking are not yet
fully understood, because of the sheer protein size and the resulting multitude of
possible binding mechanisms [29]. Several studies were performed to understand
the underlying mechanisms for protein aggregate formation based on DNA binding,
or synthetic polymers functionalized with different oxidizable groups (e.g. [30–33,
40–42]). These studies were able to identify several possible reaction mechanisms.
For example it has been shown, that aggregates may form through radical-radical
termination reactions such as the formation of di-tyrosine of two tyrosine derived
phenoxyl radicals [32, 43], or through addition reactions of carbonyl function con-
taining oxidized histidine with nucleophiles, such as lysine, arginine and cysteine
side chains [44, 45].
2.4.3 Photoactivation
The two chemical processes described above, primarily lead to physical changes
in the pristine material. The formation of covalent bonds between monomers or
macromolecules changes solubility of exposed regions, which results in stable 3D-
structures. Additionally, the density of crosslinking has a direct influence on mechan-
ical characteristics, such as elasticity or hardness [19]. Besides physical changes,
chemical modification through laser irradiation is also a possibility that has been
pursued extensively in recent years (see for example the reviews [46, 47]). There
exist several methods to achieve this goal; however, all these techniques are based on
the photoactivation of a chemical moiety on an existing surface or polymer network
(Fig. 2.3). In most cases hydrogels are used as a 3D material backbone in which
the photoactivation leads to a 3D chemical microenvironment. This chemical func-
tionalization can be primarily induced using one of two pathways [46, 47]. In the
first case, the hydrogel which contains susceptible side groups is incubated with
photosensitive molecules. Upon irradiation these photosensitive molecules are acti-
vated so they can form a covalent bond with side groups of the hydrogel [48–50]. In
the following sections, this process is denoted photofunctionalization. The desired
chemical functionality is in this case defined by the photosensitive molecule. In the
second case, the hydrogel contains reactive side groups, which are protected by a
photolabile group, acting as a cage for the actual functional group. Upon exposure
to light these protective groups are cleared off, and are able to leave the reactive side
group of the hydrogel [51, 52] which delivers the desired chemical functionality. In
both cases additional subsequent wet chemical steps can be performed, in order to
further bind functional moieties, such as proteins or adhesive peptides covalently to
the generated chemical active sides [53] (Fig. 2.3).
22 S. Engelhardt
Fig. 2.3 The four main photochemical reactions used for direct laser writing: photopolymerization,
photocrosslinking, photofunctionalization and photouncaging (inspired by [54]). All four reactions
begin with the activation of a photosensitive compound. In the case of photopolymerization, this
active compound leads to a chain reaction, which crosslinks prepolymers. Crosslinking resembles
polymerization, but without the chain reaction. Functionalization and uncaging describe chemical
processes, which result in a functional moiety embedded in an existing network by addition of a
functional group, or removing of a protective group. Details see text
2.5 Principles of Direct Laser Writing
Direct laser writing utilizes a focused laser beam to initiate a photochemical reaction
as described in the previous section. By scanning the focus through all three spatial
directions, arbitrary structures can be directly written inside the sample.
In order to manipulate a substance in three dimensions via laser irradiation, the
photo induced reaction has to be localized to a finite 3D volume. One possibility
to achieve such a volume is the quadratic two photon absorption dependency of the
photon flux (2.2). Two main prerequisites for direct laser writing have to be met: First,
since the probability of linear absorption is far greater than of nonlinear absorption,
it is mandatory that the substance used for direct laser writing has a small linear
absorption cross section for the laser wavelength. If the material is not transparent
to the laser wavelength the formation of cavities and other unwanted effects will
dominate the process. Additionally, according to the Lambert-Beer-law, the photon
flux will exponentially decrease with the penetration depth, making 3D manipulation
nearly impossible. Second, in order to initiate two photon absorption, a localized high
photon density is necessary. This feature is normally achieved by using ultrashort
pulsed laser sources in combination with a tightly focusing microscope objective. In
the vast majority, Ti:Sapphire oscillators, emitting near-IR laser pulses with a pulse
width of approximately 100 fs are used for direct laser writing [3, 5, 7, 9]. Because
of their small pulse width these lasers are able to deliver massive photon fluxes, while
obtaining a minimum of thermal heating. Additionally, many UV absorbers used for
photopolymerization are designed to work for a wavelength of 300–400 nm, which
is suited for NIR irradiation at 800 nm. However, laser sources with much longer
pulse widths or even cw-laser sources have been applied for direct laser writing
[38, 39, 55–58]. For an improved understanding of the laser source prerequisites, a
closer look on the two photon initiated transition rates is necessary. The transition rate
∂n/∂t depends linearly on the two photon absorption cross section σ2 , the number
density of absorbing molecules M and quadratically on the photon flux N. The
two photon absorption cross section σ2 (λ) strongly depends on the employed laser
wavelength λ and is generally higher for smaller wavelengths, since many of the
employed photosensitive compounds exhibit their maximum two photon absorption
cross section in the visible range [13]. For the comparison of laser sources, a constant
σ2 and M is assumed. Additionally a quantum yield φ has to be considered, since
not every transition leads to a molecule being able to initiate a chemical reaction.
When diffusion effects are neglected, the total photon flux in the case of pulsed laser
irradiation can be approximated by integration over a single pulse and multiplication
with the laser repetition rate v:
pulsed
∂Ri σ2 M
= N(t)2 dtυ
∂t 2
pulse
∂Rcw
i σ2 M
= · N(t)2 (2.5)
∂t 2
pulsed
∂Ri /∂t denotes the initiation rate for pulsed laser irradiation and ∂Rcw
i /∂t the
corresponding initiation rate for the continuous wave case. If the pulse duration τp
is small compared to the time between two pulses υ −1 , the photon flux N(t) can be
written as N0 with the average laser power P and the beam radius r:
P
N0 = (2.6)
υπ r 2 τp ω
The beam radius can be approximated by the resolution limit of the focusing objective
to r ≈ 0.61λ NA−1 , with the numerical aperture NA. Thus the initiation rate for
pulsed and continuous irradiation is given by:
24 S. Engelhardt
pulsed
∂Ri σ2 M P2 NA4 pulsed
= · = KM · KL
∂t 2 υτp π 4 0.55λ2 2 c2
∂Rcw
i σ2 M P2 NA4
= · 4 = KM · KLcw (2.7)
∂t 2 π 0.55λ2 2 c2
pulsed
With the material parameter Km and the laser parameters KL and KLcw . The advan-
tage of pulsed laser sources can be seen directly by comparing these two equations.
If the laser sources emit at the same wavelength, the difference between pulsed and
pulsed −1 cw
continuous irradiation can be summarized to KL = υτp KL . For a typical
experimental setup using a fs-laser source, with τp = 100 fs and υ = 80 MHz
pulsed
∂R ∂Rcw
this results in a value of 12.5 × 105 , so that i∂t ∂ti , which explains the
wide use of fs-laser sources for direct laser writing. Since these laser sources are
normally expensive, researchers were looking for alternative laser sources. Passively
Q-switched frequency doubled Nd:YAG laser have a pulse duration of typically
−1
600 ps and a repetition rate of 10 kHz. Thus υτp results in 1.6 × 105 , which
is only one order of magnitude smaller than a normal fs-laser source. Because the
wavelength is smaller, this difference in magnitude can be easily compensated, or
even overcompensated by the wavelength dependency of σ2 and the reduced focus
width depending linearly on the applied wavelength. This effect manifests itself
through lower necessary average laser power, while maintaining the total irradiation
time [55]. A direct comparison of continuous irradiation to the two above mentioned
pulsed laser solutions for a wavelength independent σ2 shows the close proximity of
the initiation rate for different average laser powers of the fs- and ps-laser sources,
whereas continuous wave excitation has an approximately 6 orders of magnitude
smaller rate of initiation (Fig. 2.4). This huge difference can be compensated by a
higher average laser power and through the material parameter KM [56].
Direct laser writing is influenced by a multitude of different mechanisms, of which
the rate of initiation is but one. For example, it takes approximately 1–100 ms dwell
time before the two photon absorption process manifests itself through a chemical
reaction such as local hardening [59, 60]. This translates into 104 –106 pulses for
the fs-system and into 10–1000 pulses for the ps-system and represents the fact that
in order for the chemical reaction to occur, a certain threshold value of the number
of transformed molecules has to be present in the focal volume.
The previously described mathematical model for the initiation rate neglects any
diffusive processes. In this model, the number of initiated molecules growing during
the pulse width of the applied laser beam is constant during the time between pulses
given by the repetition rate. However, this model is only valid if the diffusion length
rDif or the diffusion time τDif = υ −1 is small compared to the illuminated focal
region. The diffusion length rDif of a single molecule can be calculated by the
Einstein–Smoluchowski relationship [61, 62]:

rDif = 2 · d · D(T ) · τDif (2.8)
10
10 cw
fs
10
8 ps
Initiation Rate [1/s] 10

6
4
10
2
10
0
10
0 40 80 120 160
Average Power [mW]
Fig. 2.4 Comparison of the initiation rate for fs-, ps-pulsed and cw laser sources. Although having
much longer pulse durations, μ-chip ps-lasersystems result in a nearly identical rate of initiation
compared to fs-sources. The reason lies in the reduced repetition rate, and thereby higher pulse
energy and in the smaller wavelength compared to standard fs-sources. The smaller wavelength
additionally reduces the irradiated volume, which is why the initiation rate in this graph is even
higher for ps-irradiation compared to fs-irradiation. Continuous irradiation however, results in a 6
order of magnitude smaller rate of initiation, when diffusion is neglected and two-photon absorption
is considered
where d is the number of spatial directions and D(T ) is the temperature dependent
diffusion constant EA
D(T ) = D0 · e− RT (2.9)
with D0 as the maximum diffusion constant, EA as the activation energy for diffusion,
R the gas constant and T as the temperature. Typical values are D0 = 10−7 m2 s−1
and EA = 3 × 103 J mol−1 [63], thus at T = 300 K, rDif , results in a value
smaller than 1 µm for approximately υc = 2 × 105 Hz. Assuming an approximate
focus diameter of 1 µm, the above described initiation model can be well applied for
repetition rates exceeding υc . However, the actual kinetics is far more complex. For a
Ti:Sapphire oscillator, which emits 100 fs laser pulses at a repetition rate of 80 MHz
the diffusion time τDif is 12.5 ns. The material is a monomer resin, containing a few
weight percent photoinitiator, with an absorption spectrum suitable for two photon
absorption. The first pulse interacting with the monomer resin will elevate a certain
amount of photoinitiator molecules by two photon absorption from a singlet ground
state into an excited singlet state. This transition occurs in a timeframe of 10−15 s
and is almost instantaneous. Following the Frank–Condon principle, the excited
photoinitiator undergoes internal conversion by vibrational relaxation on a timescale
of 10−14 –10−11 s, followed by intersystem crossing (10−11 –10−8 s) to a triplet
state [64]. In most cases, such as photopolymerization and photocrosslinking, this
triplet state is the basis for the subsequent chemical process. In the case of type I
radical photopolymerization, the excited photoinitiator forms radicals α-cleavage,
26 S. Engelhardt
which then starts the polymerization chain reaction. Besides the propagation and
termination rate, diffusive processes, heat accumulation and concentration gradients
influence the kinetics of the polymerization. Most of the processes can be modeled
by a series of partial equations:
θ
∂ Qi θ θ θ
= K · Qi + ( S i − Di ) (2.10)
∂t
i
θ
Qi denotes the parameter of interest, which can be the monomer-, radical-,
photoinitiator-, or inhibitor concentration, or the accumulated heat, K is the
θ θ
corresponding diffusion constant S i and D i and describe relevant sources and drains
θ
to be considered. In the case of radical concentration R, the equation results in [65]:
θ
∂R θ θ θ θ θ θθ θ
= D · R + σ2 P N 2 − 2kt R 2 + (1 − f ) kp M · R + kz Z R e (2.11)
∂t
with the molecular diffusion constant D, the termination rate for radical combination
kt , the radical trapping by monomers described by (1 − f ) kp , where f is a number
between 0 and 1 describing the amount of radicals which initiate polymerization,
with the propagation rate constant kp and kz the inhibition rate constant for the inhi-
θ
bition with a radical catcher Z , such as solved oxygen. This rate equation describes
the kinetic effects that are governed by diffusion, the two-photon induced genera-
tion of radicals and three main sources for radical termination, radical combination,
radical trapping and radical quenching. Although the different rate equations can
be easily stated, the actual solution for the polymerization kinetics is rather cum-
bersome, because of the temporal and spatial dependencies of the involved mole-
cular species, which are also connected by the temperature dependent diffusion.
However, a numerical approach was pursued using standard material parameters and
two different laser sources [65, 66]. Both laser sources had pulse durations of 150 fs,
emitted at a wavelength of 800 nm and an intensity of 5 × 1011 W/cm2 , but one
laser source had a repetition rate of 80 MHz and the other of 1 kHz. Comparing
the results obtained by the numerical calculation with the above described model
for two photon absorption the numerical solution for the 1 kHz laser system yielded
a radical density in the order of magnitude of 10−7 –10−6 mol/cm3 after a single
pulse. Taking into account the intensity and photoinitiator density are the same;
the simplified model yields an identical radical density. Diffusive processes in the
numerical model are negligible for the 80 MHz laser system, which is in good agree-
ment with the random walk model described earlier, where the average distance of a
single radical molecule is below the typical focus size for repetition rates exceeding
105 –106 Hz. For the 1 kHz system the numerical calculations result in a loss of
radicals in the center of the focus to approximately 27 % in the laser-off period.
When using the random walk model for a 1 kHz system, the loss in radical density
can be estimated by the average distance rDiff ≈ 10 µm, given for the diffusion
coefficient D(T ) and the diffusion time τDiff , which results in a loss of 25–12 %,
depending on whether a 2- or 3D system is considered. However, with prolonged
process time, the kinetic effects become more dominant. The diffusion constant, as
well as the rate constants are temperature dependent and grow with increasing tem-
perature. During the polymerization process, the temperature rises due to vibrational
relaxation of photoinitiator molecules, as well as due to the exothermic nature of
polymerization. It can easily reach several hundred degrees Celsius in the processing
time. However, the simple model which neglects temperature dependent diffusion is
the basis for several voxel growth models that can be found in literature and experi-
mental data can be nicely explained by these models [21, 38, 59]. All of these models
postulate a critical photon flux, or radical density necessary for polymerization to
occur. The kinetic effects, present during polymerization mainly reduce the efficiency
of conversion of produced radicals to a polymer network. This reduced efficiency
is approximated by the models that imply higher necessary threshold values. Thus,
the general form of the equation is still valid, while parasitic effects are incorporated
through the experimental threshold value.
2.5.1 Voxel Formation
The above described initiation model can be used to calculate the size of the influ-
enced volume. This volume is normally called volume pixel or voxel and can be
applied to all the described direct laser writing methods. In the case of photopoly-
merization and photocrosslinking, voxels denote the insoluble volume that is gener-
ated by irradiation at a single spot for a certain amount of irradiation time, whereas
for photofunctionalization it describes the volume where the photochemical effect is
located. Most research on voxel size and shape in dependence on the process parame-
ters has been performed for photopolymerization and crosslinking, since the voxel
can be accurately measured by scanning electron microscopy [3, 5, 9]. However,
to a great extent, the knowledge gained for this type of voxels can be transferred to
photofunctionalization, because many of the physical characteristics correspond to
all three methods.
The basis for voxel models is the assumption that the desired photochemical reac-
tion, i.e. photopolymerization, photocrosslinking, or photofunctionalization, occurs
above a certain threshold value. This threshold value can be incorporated into the
photon flux, intensity, energy or radical density. This nonlinear material behavior has
its origin in the chemical kinetics of the system. Parasitic effects, like quenching of
radical or active groups have to be overcompensated in order for the desired chemi-
cal reaction to occur (Fig. 2.5). Experimentally this effect manifests itself through a
threshold value. In fact, this nonlinear material behavior is observed for two photon–
as well as for one photon based laser processes and can even be applied to 3D writing
using UV laser sources [6, 56, 67].
28 S. Engelhardt
The size of the voxel is derived by including the depletion of photoactive molecules
into (2.2) [21]:
∂R(t)
= (P0 − R(t)) σ2 χ N 2 (2.12)
∂t
where R is the radical density at the time t and P0 is the initial concentration of
initiating molecules. For a time independent photon flux N(r, z, const.) the spatial
photon flux N(r, z) can be written for a Gauss shaped laser beam at r = 0 and z = 0
as the center of the focus, as:

ω0 2 −2r 2 /ω(z)2
N(r, z) = N0 e (2.13)
ω(z)
where N0 = N(0, 0), r, is the radial distance from the center

axis of the beam ω0 , is
2
the beam waist and the beam width at position z, ω(z) = ω0 1 + zzR , with the
Rayleigh length ZR . The solution for the voxel diameter d(N0 , t) and length l(N0 , t)
can now be calculated by integration of the rate equation over the irradiation time t
and the condition R(r, z) ≥ RTh and results into:

σ2 χ tN02
d(N0 , t) = ω0 ln (2.14)
ln (P0 /(P0 − RTh ))

σ2 χ tN02

l(N0 , t) = ZR −1 (2.15)
ln(P0 /(P0 − RTh ))
There are several parameters that can be used to lower the voxel sizes. The quadratic
dependency of the photon flux, or intensity, has a direct influence on the voxel size,
compared to the single photon case. Additionally, the threshold value RTh allows only
photochemical reactions to occur if certain intensity is reached. The combination of
quadratic dependency and threshold behavior allows voxel sizes prohibited by the
Abbe-criterion for the employed focusing objective. For small enough irradiation
times, the accurate choice of these parameters allow voxel diameters in the range of
80–100 nm, which are often found in literature [24, 60, 68]. Smaller voxel sizes are
more difficult to achieve, because if the threshold value closes in on the maximum
intensity, the process is becoming more susceptible to inadequate laser parameters
like pointing stability or inhomogeneity of the material [69].
The two most frequently used parameters to influence the voxel size are the average
laser power, i.e. the photon flux (P-scheme), and the irradiation time (T-scheme). The
P-scheme and the T-scheme result into different growth behaviors [59]. In general, the
growth characteristic in the P-scheme is steeper than in the T-scheme. Additionally,
it was found experimentally with a fs-laser source emitting at 780 nm and a focusing
objective of NA 1.4 for urethane acrylates, that the aspect ratio of the voxels in the
Fig. 2.5 The intensity distribution for the radial distance to the focus center for the one- and two
photon absorption case. Considering the same wavelength, the quadratic intensity leads to reduction
of the effective focus size. The non-linear material behavior introduces a threshold intensity, which
has to be reached for the photochemical process to be initiated, resulting in a sub-diffraction limited
resolution
P-scheme growths more rapidly than in the T-scheme [59]. Even more, the aspect
ratio in the T-scheme is almost constant and even slightly declining for long exposure
times of 500 ms. This behavior was explained by introducing two separate voxel
formation models. In the P-scheme, diffusion is neglected and the formed voxel
resembles isolines of photon fluxes exceeding the threshold flux, denoted focal spot
duplication. In the T-scheme, voxel formation starts from an isoline, such as in the
P-scheme, but its growth is mainly governed by diffusion. This model is denoted
voxel growth. While in focal spot duplication the aspect ratio is expected to grow
because of the spatial nonuniformity of the point spread function, the aspect ratio in
the voxel growth model will be almost constant, since diffusion effects are uniform
in all spatial directions [59].
A crucial parameter for the voxel geometry is the NA of the focusing objective.
For most applications, an almost spherical voxel shape is desired, to generate high
resolution structures in all three spatial directions. However, the aspect ratio increases
according to 1/NA, thus the aspect ratio of small NA objectives is significantly larger.
Additionally the lateral resolution is proportional to 1/NA, making high NA
immersion objectives the first choice when high resolutions are desired. However,
using smaller NA objectives can have its merits depending on the application. From a
practical point of view, no immersion medium is necessary for objectives with a NA
smaller than the refractive index of air, which makes it easier to exchange samples,
or fabricate larger structures. Additionally working distances of several millimeters
are common for low-NA objectives, whereas high performance immersion objectives
often have only a working distance of several hundred micrometers. The combination
of a large working distance and easy handling leads to a reduced affinity of errors
due to improper use of the optics.
30 S. Engelhardt
2.5.2 Determining the Size of Voxels
The influence of the different parameters on the size of the voxel can be readily
measured, since the photosensitive material acts as a 3D film, which captures the
point spread function. For this reason, voxels have to be fixed to a surface, mostly
a glass surface, to prohibit the accidental removal during post-processing steps.
This necessity leads to truncation effects, which have to be considered [70]. Two
methods are widely used to eradicate this truncation effects, the ascending Voxel
method [70] and the suspended bridge method [71]. For the ascending voxel method,
an array of voxels is generated, where each voxel has an increased distance to the
surface, starting inside the glass and ascending to a position where the voxels are
no longer fixed to the surface and flips over unveiling its length. These arrays can
now be measured by scanning electron microscopy, where the lateral and vertical
voxel size of the last adhered voxel is determined [70]. Another method utilizes light
microscopy to determine the number of voxels generated with the ascending voxel
method that are fixed to the glass surface, thus determining the voxel length [38].
This method can be applied if post-process shrinkage of the voxels is an issue, such
as in the case of protein crosslinking. The suspended bridge method relies on the fab-
rication of support structures, between which lines are being fabricated. The vertical
and lateral size of the lines can then be measured by scanning electron microscopy.
The connection of the two methods is the dwelling time of the initiating laser beam,
which can be directly controlled using the ascending voxel method, and is related to
the writing speed for the suspended bridge method.
2.5.3 Spherical Aberration
One of the biggest advantages of low NA objectives is the reduced spherical aber-
ration that has its origin in refractive index mismatch [72]. Considering a typical
experimental setup for direct laser writing, the sample material with a refractive
index of n1 is situated between two glass slides of refractive index n2 , separated by
spacers with a thickness d. At the interface of glass and sample the refractive index
mismatch leads to reflection and refraction of the focused laser beam. Reflection
occurs to a small percentage for all angles; however, large angle illumination leads
to total internal reflection for high NA objectives, which in consequence leads to a
reduction of the effective numerical aperture. Thus the NA is restricted by the small-
est refractive index, which is for most immersion objectives the refractive index of
the sample material. In the case of protein crosslinking the refractive index is close
to the refractive index of water and the effective NA of the objective is limited to
1.33. Light that passes the refractive index boundary will be refracted according to
Snell’s law. The different path length of the paraxial part and the boundary part of
a focused laser beam will lead to two main effects. First, the actual focal position
will be different compared to the nominal focus position for n1 = n2 [73, 74]. The
resulting focal shift will be towards the glass slide facing the objective if n2 > n1 .
The second effect is a decrease in intensity given by a broadening of the focal spot.
The extent of such a spherical aberration on the shape of the point spread function
has been calculated previously for confocal and two-photon fluorescence microscopy
[72, 75–77], which faces identical problems, when imaging deep into a specimen.
When exiting the aperture of the objective, the wavefront has a converging spheri-
cal shape and according to the Huygens–Fresnel Principle, each point is the start of
secondary spherical wavelets [72, 77]. The application of Fermat’s principle from
each of the secondary wavelets to a point in the focal region delivers the resulting
point spread function (for more details: Hell et al. [72]). The numerical solutions
demonstrate the strong influence of refractive index mismatch n1 − n2 , the NA and
the nominal focusing depth on the extent of spherical aberration. The resulting focus
shift depends almost linear on the nominal focal position, which can be corrected
by appropriate scaling of the 3D structure. However, one important issue is the loss
of the axial symmetry with respect to the main maximum of the focus. In confocal
microscopy this leads to a difference in the resulting image when focusing above
or below a fluorescent specimen. The loss of axial and vertical resolution and more
importantly the drastic reduction of laser intensity have a huge impact on direct laser
writing. The lateral and axial full width at half maximum of the point spread func-
tion increases by a factor of 1.25 and 1.5 respectively for a NA of 1.33 and an oil
(n2 = 1.518) immersion objective, focusing in glycerol (n1 = 1.47) at a nominal
focus position of 50 µm [77]. However, the intensity of a fluorescence signal, which
indicates the absorption rate of the photoactive dye, dropped to 30 % of the original
value. Compared to confocal microscopy this effect is less drastic in direct laser
writing, since the point spread function of the observation system is negligible. But
even a smaller drop in intensity cannot be easily compensated in direct laser writing,
since the resolution depends sensitively on the applied laser intensity.
In order to reduce the amount of spherical aberration, a proper selection of the
optical components is necessary. One of the main goals is to reduce the difference of
refractive indices. Most photoactive resins have a refractive index of 1.4 to 1.5, but
in the case of protein crosslinking a refractive index close to the refractive index of
water is common. In most applications, the photoactive material is placed between
glass slides of a certain thickness. Thus, in the best case an immersion objective with
an immersion medium having a refractive index close or equal to that of the mate-
rial which is corrected for the applied glass thickness should yield the best results.
Specialized objectives exist, which are designed for water, glycerin or oil immersion.
Thus, depending on the material the best matching objective should be chosen. If
this possibility however, does not exist, a reduction of the NA can lead to a better
resolution and lower intensity variations compared to high NA objectives, depending
on the nominal focal position (Fig. 2.6). Another possibility is the reduction of the
nominal focal position. This technique is wide spread among laboratories perform-
ing direct laser writing. For high resolution structures, the structure is built from
the bottom to the top, with the laser beam entering the material from the bottom.
By this means, the realization of high structures poses a problem, since spherical
aberration increases with increasing structure height. Additionally, refractive index
32 S. Engelhardt
Fig. 2.6 Calculated intensity distribution of the focal region for objectives with numerical aperture
of 1.4 and 0.6 at a nominal focus position of 100 µm. The focus of the objective with NA 0.6
shows relatively low distortion and the maximum intensity is still 90 % of the original intensity.
The objective with NA 1.4 shows pronounced effects of spherical aberration with the characteristic
intensity tails. Since much of the available intensity is situated in secondary maxima the maximum
intensity has dropped to 26 % of the original intensity
changes in the material after laser irradiation, which are common for radical poly-
merization or protein crosslinking, lead to light scattering which has an additional
negative effect on resolution and on the intensity distribution. Thus, cationic poly-
merization is widely used for the realization of high resolution structures, because
crosslinking and the subsequent change in density and refractive index occur after
the laser writing process in a post exposure baking step.
2.5.4 Viscosity
For the generation of complex 3D structures, it is imperative that during processing,

the position of the fabricated structure exactly correlates with the position given
by the 3D model of the structure. If a structure is generated inside a material with
low viscosity, loose ends will float away and deformation occurs. Depending on the
viscosity, the geometry and mechanical properties of the crosslinked structure these
deformations can occur almost instantaneously. High viscosity materials or even
solid materials reduce this floating effect and allow larger and more complex struc-
tures. However, most materials used for photopolymerization and photocrosslinking
are in a liquid state and drifting effects have to be considered. One possibility to solve
this issue is a smart design and fabrication strategy of the structure, for example by
implementing support structures [38] (Fig. 2.7). Many cationic based photopolymer-
ization materials are in a solid state during irradiation. The widely used Epon SU-8
is a good example of such an epoxy based material, which is used for many chal-
lenging applications such as generating photonic crystal [78]. The solid and exposed
epoxy resin has to undergo a post exposure bake step, during which thermal energy
is used to form the polymerized structures. Due to the accumulated thermal energy
Fig. 2.7 Free hanging protein membrane (indicated by arrow), that could be fabricated due to the
barrel shaped polymeric support structure [55]
during light exposure, it is however, possible to circumvent postbaking, resulting in

a resolution that is twice as good as the resolution achieved after postbaking, most
probably due to reduced dark reactions [78]. Another effective method to increase
the viscosity is by generating oligomers by a pre-illumination of the resin with UV
light. By this means, a free hanging gear-wheel was realized [79].
2.5.5 Shrinkage
For high resolution applications, shrinkage of the fabricated microstructures poses a

huge challenge. During crosslinking, or polymerization, the density of the material
is increased by the transition from the liquid to the solid state, whereby the gener-
ated structures tend to shrinkage [80]. Additional shrinkage occurs after the removal
of residual pre-polymer and subsequent drying [81]. This additional shrinkage has
its origin in the crosslinking density. If the material is not fully cured, i.e. has a
small crosslinking density, the material network resembles a molecular sponge-like
structure. After removing non-crosslinked material, small cavities form, which can
collapse upon drying [81]. Additional deformation can occur, when capillary forces
that are present during drying exceed the mechanical strength of the fabricated struc-
tures [82, 83]. The fabricated structures are normally fixed to a solid surface, either
by covalent bonds or other adhesive processes. With increasing distance to the solid
surface, shrinkage leads to an increasing volume loss, resulting in a characteristic
Eiffel-tower like deformation (Fig. 2.8). Most drastically this effect can be observed
for crosslinked proteins, which form a hydrogel, incorporating considerable amounts
34 S. Engelhardt
Fig. 2.8 a, b Protein-cubes, made of bovine serum albumin, crosslinked by fs-laser irradiation show
drastic shrinkage after drying. Due to the fixation to the glass surface, a characteristic pyramid-like
shape of the shrunken cubes arises. c Top view of woodpile structures fabricated with laser power
from left to right of 8, 5.5 and 4.5 mW. Shrinkage due to post-processing leads to a size reduc-
tion and therefore an increasing resolution for decreasing laser powers. The reason is incomplete
polymerization processes, which leave not crosslinked material in the structure [84].
of water. If these structures are dried and the water evaporates, protein structures tend
to drastic deformation.
This shrinkage behavior depends strongly on the crosslinking density and the
irradiation parameters. In general shrinkage is more severe for values that are close to
the initiation threshold value, since here the smallest crosslinking density is present
[81, 84]. Besides the obvious drawbacks for 3D structuring, shrinkage has to be
considered, when the effect of laser parameters on voxel-formation is studied. For
example, a direct size measurement with a scanning electron microscope will result
in too small values for voxel size [81]. Here, a voxel counting method, described in
Sect. 2.5.2 will yield more reliable results.
To minimize the effects of shrinkage, many commercial materials, such as Epon
SU-8 are optimized for low shrinkage.
Another strategy to compensate shrinkage, is by adapting the 3D design of the
structure appropriately. It could be shown, that the shrinkage of woodpile like struc-
tures could be almost eliminated, by including the inverse shrinkage volume [80].
On the other hand, the increased shrinkage can be used to enhance the possible
resolution, if the design is chosen appropriately [84].
2.5.6 Damaging Effects
The process window is defined as the difference of the laser intensity threshold for the
onset of the photochemical reaction and the intensity above which damaging effects,
like cavity and bubble formation occur. The damage threshold for most materials is
reached by intensities which are only a few times larger than the minimum necessary
intensity [9, 55]. This small process windows and the associated cavity formation
due to small inhomogeneities in the material can render a stable process almost
impossible, because a single cavity usually destroys the whole generated structure.
Basically, cavities are forming when the energy that is present in the focal region
surpasses the energy necessary for evaporation of the material. Depending on the
material system and the laser parameters there exist several mechanisms which result
in cavity formation [85]. First, the shear accumulation of thermal energy during
processing can be a reason. In practice, this effect can be observed while working
below the intensity damage threshold, but pausing at a fixed position for a consid-
erable time, for example by reducing the writing speed. One possible origin for this
thermal energy is the linear photo absorption, which is normally negligible for single
pulses, but may have a significant impact after pulses, characteristic for MHz based
laser systems. However, it has been calculated for water that even several seconds of
irradiation with a fs-laser system, with an average power of 100 mW and a repetition
rate of 80 MHz, focused through an objective with a NA 1.2, the temperate increases
approximately by 3 K [86]. Thus, if the linear absorption cross section of the material
resembles water, linear absorption can be ruled out for fs-based systems. For longer
pulse durations this effect becomes more dominant. Additionally, many photochem-
ical reactions are exothermic in nature, such as radical based photopolymerization,
and can add to the thermal built-up [87].
However, the far more dominant effect leading to bubble formation is optical
breakdown. Optical breakdown describes a process similar to the well-known electri-
cal breakdown, where a non-conducting medium such as air can become highly con-
ducting, if the electrical field strength exceeds the dielectric strength of the medium.
For tightly focused high intensity laser irradiation, optical breakdown leads to a
drastic increase of the absorption coefficient and to the formation of a plasma, which
couples more energy into the material and leads to bubble formation [85, 87–92].
The optical breakdown process starts with the presence of an ionized quasi-free
particle, such as an electron. For the theoretic description of an optical breakdown,
the material is treated as an amorphous semiconductor, since the bound electronic
states of the material resemble an insulator, while the quasi free electrons represent
a conductive state [92, 93]. This quasi-free electron interacts with the potential of a
molecule or ion and can absorb more photons by inverse bremsstrahlung [85].
This absorption leads to an increase of the kinetic energy of the electron, until the
energy is sufficiently high to generate additional quasi-free electrons via impact ion-
ization, which leads to a cascade effect and the formation of high quasi-free electron
densities (Fig. 2.9). If the quasi free electron density exceeds a certain threshold, it
leads to damaging effects, such as cavitation bubble formation, thermomechanical
stress or shockwaves [94].
36 S. Engelhardt
Fig. 2.9 Schematic overview of the optical breakdown process [85]. This effect is the main reason
for cavitation bubble formation during direct laser writing
The starting point for the optical breakdown is the presence of a quasi-free electron
which acts as a seed for the following cascade ionization. This quasi-free electron
can be generated if the laser intensity exceeds the ionization potential, which can be
accomplished mainly by multi-photon ionization or quantum tunneling, impact or
cascade ionization and thermionic emission. The latter is in general not important
for laser parameters normally used for direct laser writing [85]. Depending on the
laser parameters, either multi-photon ionization or impact ionization is the dominant
effect. The kinetics of the optical breakdown can be described by a rate equation of
the quasi free electron density ρ [85]:
∂ρ
= ηmp + ηcasc ρ − gρ − ηrec ρ 2 (2.16)
∂t
Sources for quasi free electrons are primarily multi-photon ionization ηmp and cas-
cade ionization ηcasc ρ, whereas losses are described by quasi free radical diffusion
gρ, with the diffusion constant g and electron-ion recombination ηrec ρ 2 with the
recombination rate ηrec . During a single pulse, multi-photon ionization is dominant
in the sub-picosecond to picosecond range, since the multi-photon ionization rate is
proportional to I k , where denotes the intensity and k the number of photons that are
involved in the ionizing process. With increasing pulse durations however, cascade
ionization becomes more dominant, because it is proportional to I. Here, the initial
quasi-free electron is associated with material impurities, linear absorption or even
two photon based activation.
In general, the presence of a photo absorbing substance increases the probability
for the existence of a quasi-free seed electron via two-photon absorption or thermionic
emission, which can lower significantly the minimum intensity necessary for optical
breakdown [95]. For direct laser writing however, these molecules are fundamentally
important to start the photochemical reaction. This is one of the reasons, why the
damage threshold for direct laser writing is often very close to the initiation threshold
for the photochemical reaction.
2.5.7 Mechanical Properties
The mechanical properties of the construct play an important role for many bio-
mimetic applications. The elasticity and the hardness of a 3D biomimetic tissue graft
should mimic its biological model. Some examples of the mechanical variety are
brain tissue, which has a typical Young’s modulus of approximately 1 kPa, muscle
tissue of 10 kPa and collagenous bone of 100 kPa. It could be shown that mes-
enchymal stem cells that possess the ability to differentiate in a variety of cell types
react on their mechanical environment. A range of hydrogel substrates with Young’s
moduli of 0.1–1, 10 and 34 kPa, induce the production of neurogenic-, myogenic-
and osteogenic-markers respectively [96]. Thus, stem cells recognize their mechan-
ical environment and react accordingly. This prominent example demonstrates the
importance of mechanical properties while studying cell behavior.
Direct laser writing offers several strategies to tackle this issue, because of its
material diversity and possible control over the photochemical processes. First, the
material that is processed can be adapted. By mixing two photosensitive resins, each
having a different Young’s modulus, the resulting elasticity of the copolymer can
be easily tuned. An example are the two resins Sartomer 499 and Sartomer 368,
which have a Young’s modulus of 0.1 and 1.2 GPa respectively, mixing them leads
to an almost linear transition from one to the other Young’s modulus [97]. Besides
copolymerization, direct adaptation of the resin formulation can be pursued. The
elasticity depends directly on the formed polymer network, namely the crosslinking
density. According to the theory of rubber elasticity, the Young’s modulus E depends
linearly on both, the crosslinking density D and the temperature T, if T is well above
the glass transition temperature [98]:
E = 3RTD (2.17)
R denotes the gas constant. For this reason, different strategies to influence crosslink-
ing densities have been pursued and a broad range of Young’s modulus is possible.
The formulation of a prepolymer can include different substances, such as crosslink-
ing agents, filler materials, chain transfer agents, or reactive diluents [99–102]. The
number of these active groups dictates the crosslinking density of the resulting poly-
mer network, which in consequence changes the elasticity. Additionally, the chain
length of the molecules influences the crosslinking density. For biological appli-
cation polyethylenglycol is a common filler molecule, since it demonstrates good
biocompatibility and many chain lengths are commercial available [103, 104]. By
this material adaptations, the Young’s modulus can be adapted from the GPa to the
kPa regime [105–108].
Another possibility to influence the crosslinking density is the irradiation itself.
A higher irradiation dosage, leads to a higher crosslinking density until saturation
is reached. This strategy is not applicable for synthetic polymers used for biologi-
cal applications, since the unreacted active compounds of the photosensitive resins
are mostly toxic [109]. The situation is different when using proteins to form the
38 S. Engelhardt
crosslinked structure. In order to obtain a “close-to-nature” material system, no fur-

ther changes to the protein are normally desired. Additionally, there are no problems
with non-crosslinked residues, since the crosslinking responsible oxidizable side
groups occur naturally. During two-photon induced protein crosslinking, the voxel
growth can be described by a simple rate equation (2.12). This model describes the
perimeter of the voxels by defining a critical radical density. With increasing photon
flux or irradiation time, the perimeters and therefore the voxels are growing accord-
ingly. The crosslinking density; however, is the quantity which is changed inside the
boundary of the voxels when the critical radical density is reached. Thus, the same
physical models can be applied to the crosslinking density as for the voxel growth.
The T-scheme describes the uniform voxel growth by an accumulation of radicals
and oligomers with ongoing irradiation time. Following this scheme, the crosslink-
ing density and therefore the Young’s modulus increases with irradiation time. This
behavior can be observed for two photon induced protein microstructures. Albu-
min, Lysozyme as well as Avidin have been crosslinked using laser dwell times of
approx. 7–35 ms/µm2 and the Young’s modulus increased from approximately 0.01–
10 MPa [110]. Remarkably, the three different proteins show an almost identical
behavior upon irradiation. The Young’s modulus, as well as its increase, is almost
identical for each of the proteins, which imply the importance of the photochemical
crosslinking on the crosslinking density. Beside crosslinking density, protein confor-
mation is essential for the actual Young’s modulus. Deviations from the isoelectric
point, the pH value of the medium where the protein carries no net electrical charge,
can cause the protein to destabilize and finally unfold because of excess charge.
Indeed, the highest Young’s modulus could be measured for protein structures incu-
bated at the isoelectric point [110]. The more flexible the protein network, the more
water can be incorporated into this hydrogel. Thus, it is not surprising that the same
mechanism can be also observed for the swelling behavior of crosslinked protein
structures. Swelling can be exactly controlled up to the point that micro actuation
devices made of proteins can be realized [111]. An additional mechanism which
leads to similar results is a temperature increase. With increasing temperature pro-
teins start to destabilize, unfold and finally denaturate. Each step leads the protein
further away from its compact structure, and thereby increases the protein’s flexibil-
ity. This temperature driven effect can be directly observed through a decrease of the
Young’s modulus with each destabilizing step [110].
2.6 Advanced Setups for Direct Laser Writing
2.6.1 Process Speed
3D direct laser writing as described in Sect. 2.2 is based on generating a highly

localized focused laser beam, which can be translated in three dimensions through
a material. Depending on the technical implementation of the direct laser writing,
this method may encounter several inherent limitations regarding crucial parameters
such as process speed, structure size and resolution, which can be addressed by
implementing more complex setups as discussed in the following.
When considering direct laser patterning for application fields such as the
generation of scaffolds for tissue engineering, the main drawback of the method
is its low writing speed. In general writing speeds in the order of magnitude of tenth
of micrometer to millimeter per second can be achieved, when using translational
stages and commercial available photosensitive materials. The fabrication time tFab
of a 3D structure is proportional to:
VSt · F
tFab ∝ (2.18)
dV · hV · v
where Vst is the volume of the final structure, F is a filling factor, giving the percent-
age of crosslinked versus non-crosslinked parts of the 3D-structure, dV is the voxel
diameter, hV is the voxel height and v is the writing speed. In order to minimize
fabrication time, small filling factors are advantageous. The smallest filling factor
can be achieved if only the outer boundary of a closed volume is being crosslinked,
while the inner volume is crosslinked subsequently by UV-irradiation [21, 112].
However, this method can only be applied for inelastic materials that can withstand
the mechanical stress of rinsing. Scaffolds for tissue engineering mostly do not have a
large percentage of closed volumes. Their structure is sponge-like, or woodpile-like,
allowing cell ingrowth while providing a mechanical backbone. In the case of bone
tissue engineering, typical porosities are between 0.2 and 0.9 [113] and therefore
their respective filling factors are between 0.1 and 0.8. As can be seen from these
values, a reduction of the filling factor is not a feasible route for scaffold production.
Besides the filling factor the resolution, or the voxel diameter and height, is an
important factor for the fabrication time and macroscopic scaffolds generated by
direct laser writing are often accompanied with a sacrifice of resolution [114]. One
possibility to address this issue is to move the focus faster through the sample, i.e.
to increase the writing speed. The writing speed is influenced by a rate equation
(cf. (2.11)) where laser parameters such as intensity and repetition rate play a crucial
role, besides material parameters. In order to preserve the desired high resolution
of the arbitrary 3D structures, acceleration phases, oscillations and beam control
are of great importance. One elegant possibility is to use galvanometric scanners
where the sample and most of the mass can reside at a fixed position, while the
focus is being moved by two galvanometric driven mirrors (Fig. 2.10b). Because
almost no mass has to be accelerated highly precise beam deflection, at high writing
speeds can be accomplished. Although writing speeds of several meters per second
are technically feasible, this method imposes high demands on the material. If a
focus of 1 µm diameter is moved with 100 µm/s, the dwell time for each focus
area is approximately 10 ms. The dwell time reduces to 100 µs for a writing speed
of 1 cm/s and for a writing speed of 1 m/s to 1 µs. This reduction in dwell time
t has to be compensated by increased pulse energy EP , so that EP2 · t is constant.
Thus, compared to a writing speed of 100 µm/s, the pulse energy has to be increased
40 S. Engelhardt
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e)
Fig. 2.10 Principle drawings of examples of direct laser writing process schemes, depicting the
main differences. a The most common setup utilises a fixed laser beam, focused by a microscope
objective. Focus translational is achieved by a 3 axis stage. b If a galvanometric scanner is used,
the horizontal movement of the focus is caused by the rotational movement of scanner mirrors. c
A μ-lens array can be used to generate an array of foci with the aim to fabricate many structures
in parallel. d Apart from μ-lens arrays diffractive optical beam splitters (DOE) can be used for the
generation of such multifocus arrays. e Single foci of such multifocus applications can be controlled
by spatial light modulators (SLM), such as digital micromirror devices
by a factor of 10 for 1 cm/s and by a factor of 100 for 1 m/s. Since the formation
of cavitation bubbles scales with the pulse energy and the damage intensity thresh-
old for common materials is only several times the crosslinking threshold intensity, a
considerable increase in process speed using fast beam deflection is necessarily linked
to the development of highly efficient photosensitive material systems. Photoinitia-
tors having large two photon absorption cross sections, such as bis dialkylamino-
or diarylamino-substituted diphenylpolyenes and bis(styryl)benzenes [22, 115], or
having strong photochemical reactivity, such as triple-bond-containing 1,5- bis(4-(N,
N-dimethylamino)phenyl)penta-1,4-diyn-3-one [16] have been developed in order

to solve this problem (for further information on the topic see [14]).
One way to increase processing time without the need of faster beam deflection
is parallelization. The main idea is to have not one, but many foci inside the sample,
which leads to a reduced process time, which is proportional to the number of foci.
Microlens arrays are capable of generating such multifocal arrays and can be
easily integrated in a direct laser writing setup (Fig. 2.10c). The number of structures
that can be built simultaneously can be as high as several hundred and is mainly
limited by laser beam properties [116, 117]. Each structure should be equal, which
necessitates a highly uniform laser intensity distribution over the entire microlens
array. This uniformity can be achieved by using top-hat beams, or largely overfilling
the array with a Gaussian beam, which yields good uniformity [116, 117]. Another
possibility for the generation of multifocus arrays is the use of diffractive beam
splitters (Fig. 2.10d). In this case, a periodic grating generates a set of separated
beams, which depend on the period of the grating and the wavelength of the incident
laser beam. These separated beams exhibit the same temporal-spatial characteristics
and can be subsequently focused by an objective to form a set of well-defined focal
spots suited for direct laser writing. The number of foci accessible with this method
is generally considerably smaller compared to microlens arrays [118].
Both, microlens arrays and diffractive beam splitters, are well suited for fabricating
repetitive units of a microstructure at a given separation distance defined by the
optical properties of the setup. In order to use the speed advantage of multifocus
applications for the generation of a single arbitrary 3D structure, each of the foci has
to be controlled individually. This control is possible by imaging the multifocus array
on a controllable spatial light modulator (SLM), such as a digital light processor
(DLP) [119] or a dynamic micromirror device (DMD) [120] (Fig. 2.10e). By this
means, each focal spot can be individually turned on and off. This controllable array
of focal spots can be focused in the sample by a high NA objective. As before, the
separation distance of each focus is defined by the optical setup and motion of a
translational stage may be necessary for good fabrication results.
An elegant method which is free of the limitations of a set array of focal spots
is based on holographic interference patterns. These patterns can be realized by a
reflective SLM displaying a computer generated hologram (CGH) that acts as a phase
hologram [121]. The main advantages of this approach are the arbitrary positioning
of the focal spots and the ability to adjust the intensity of each focus individually.
2.6.2 Enhanced Resolution
Another effort in direct laser writing research is the increase in spatial resolution
well beyond the diffraction limit. State of the art direct laser writing setups can reach
lateral feature sizes of approximately 100 nm driven by the interplay of two photon
induced formation of reactive species such as radicals and scavenging processes such
as quenching effects due to oxygen or chain termination.
42 S. Engelhardt
Theoretically, by finely tuning the excitation intensity, even smaller structures

may be generated. However, at reduced laser intensity fluctuations in laser power
show an increasingly pronounced influence on the generated structures. As a result
of the reduced laser intensity, the crosslinking density is reduced as well, leading to
mechanical weaker structures. Although crosslinking may not be sufficient for the
formation of a microstructure, oligomers as well as reactive species will form in the
irradiated areas of the prepolymeric bath. These substances are changing the kinetics
of the crosslinking process, since less effort is necessary to finalize the crosslinking
process, leaving already irradiated areas in the vicinity of the actual crosslinking
volume more susceptible to irradiation. This memory effect of the material hinders
the fabrication of closely spaced high resolution structures in the fabrication process.
Typical minimum distances of crosslinked polymer are approximately 450–600 nm
[56, 122, 123], depending on the employed direct laser writing method. Although
lines of approximately 80 nm have been reported, this limitation to the spacing
restricts the actual resolution capabilities significantly.
A solution to these issues is to stop or to deactivate reactive species from forming
outside their intended boundaries. A possible technology is the so called stimulated
emission depletion (STED), already known from and widely used in fluorescence
microscopy [124, 125]. This method uses two distinct laser beams, one for excita-
tion and one for stimulated emission. The excitation beam is a focused laser beam
standardly used in confocal microscopy and in direct laser writing. The second beam
however, passes through a phase mask to form a doughnut-like beam shape to encom-
pass the focus of the excitation beam. The light absorbing molecule is excited by
the excitation beam from a ground state S0 to an excited state S1, from which it
undergoes intersystem crossing to a triplet state T1, which results in the generation
of reactive species. The depletion laser beam disrupts this process by transferring S1
back to S0 through stimulated emission before the molecule can undergo intersystem
crossing. As a direct result, the achievable resolution is no longer restricted by the
Abbe limit and much higher resolutions are feasible [126–128]. This STED approach
poses high demands on the materials used in direct laser writing. Normally applied
photoinitiators are designed for high quantum yields of the intersystem crossing from
S1 to T1 in order to increase the effectiveness for the formation of active species,
i.e. high intersystem crossing rates and low S1-S0 transition rates. However, the
S1-S0 transition mediated emission is important for an efficient STED process and
high transmission rate are desirable. Thus, suited materials should show sufficiently
large oscillator strength of the S1-S0 transition and large excitation lifetime, to allow
stimulated emission to occur, while maintaining sufficient generation of reactive
species for the photochemical activity. Given a two photon excitation at 810 nm and
a depletion wavelength of 532 nm, isopropylthioxanthone (ITX) and 7-diethylamino-
3-thenoylcoumarin (DETC) have been reported to fulfil these requirement [129].
Using DETC as an initiator, crosslinked lines with a separation distance of 175 nm,
which is slightly below the Abbe limit of the used optical setup, were realized [130].
Beside a separation of excitation and stimulated emission through different wave-
lengths, it is also possible to separate activation and deactivation through intensity.
Certain photoinitiators, such as malachite green HCL [131, 132] are able to undergo
excitation upon high intensity near-infrared irradiation, while emission is stimulated

at the same wavelength but at drastically reduced intensities, such as laser light
emitted by a continuous wave laser system. The basis for this effect is the band
structure of the photoinitiator. Most probably, the excited initiator experiences an
intersystem crossing until reaching a relatively stable and long lived intermediate
state, from which radical formation can occur. This state can undergo single photon
induced stimulated emission with the same wavelength as the two photon absorption.
Thus, a balance between deactivation and activation occurs, which can be shifted by
low intensity irradiation towards deactivation. An effective way of achieving high
deactivation rates while maintaining low activation rates is the use of long pulsed or
even cw-laser sources. This beam sources can deliver high energy but low intensity
laser beams, thus combining high deactivation rate with no, or minimal two-photon
induced crosslinking. By applying malachite green carbinol base, structure sizes as
small as 40 nm [131, 132] were generated, which is a drastic enhancement of typical
achievable structure size and resolution compared to standard direct laser writing.
The balance of activation and deactivation depends on the intrinsic properties of
the photoinitiator, on the kinetic transition rates and the laser intensity. A photoinitia-
tor that shows stimulated emission at the same wavelength as two photon activation
will reach equilibrium between activation and deactivation without additional deacti-
vation beam. If the irradiation increases, some photoinitiators shift the balance from
activation towards deactivation. This behavior results in a reverse growth character-
istic compared to standard initiation molecules. Normally, the size of the crosslinked
structures increases with decreasing writing speed, since active species have more
time to accumulate. However, for reverse growth initiators, such as malachite green
HCL, increased writing speed means less deactivation and hence larger structure
sizes. By combining photoinitiators with normal and reverse growth characteris-
tics it is possible to implement a material system that is independent of the writing
speed, effectively counteracting writing speed inhomogeneities due to acceleration
and deceleration of the translational system [133].
2.6.3 Large Structures
Although direct laser writing offers the possibility of generating 3D structures with
sub-micrometer resolution, the technology has significant shortcomings in producing
large structures, such as structures on the centimeter scale. The reason for this lim-
itation is threefold: (1) The limited writing speed, which is normally below 1 mm/s
makes the generation of large scale structures, even if possible, time consuming to
a point where it is no longer feasible. (2) High numerical aperture objectives, which
are necessary to achieve high resolutions, have a limited working distance, giving
a simple physical boundary to generate large scale vertical structures. (3) Spherical
aberration leads to a strong intensity dependency of the penetration depth, therefore
adding to point 2.
44 S. Engelhardt
For increased process speed several approaches can be pursued as described in

Sect. 2.6.1. Using a standard direct laser writing setup, high writing speeds of sev-
eral mm/s are feasible when employing materials with a sufficient dynamic range.
However, the size of the crosslinked features is more difficult to control since small
deviations in laser intensity or the material lead to a significant effect. Thus, struc-
tures produced at high writing speed are often produced with lower resolution where
deviations are less pronounced [114, 134].
Working distance can be maximized up to several millimeters and spherical aber-
ration can be reduced significantly by using low numerical aperture objectives, at the
cost of resolution, and an aspect ratio far greater than one [134, 135]. However, the
achieved resolution is comparable to the resolution that is possible using UV-based
µ-stereolithography [136, 137] and the overall benefit of direct laser writing has to
be evaluated case by case due to the higher costs of a direct laser writing machine
based on multi-photon absorption.
One possibility to address this issue, while maintaining reasonable resolution, is
to decouple vertical translation and focusing depth. Decoupling can be achieved by
adding a translational stage that moves the object and not the focal position vertically.
By this means 3D structures can be realized with a fixed focal position leading to
a setup that is no longer restricted by working distance and spherical aberration
(Fig. 2.11a). Such a setup was used to generate structures of several millimeters height
[138] and allows for more degrees of freedom compared to a setup where only the
focus is moved inside a material bath. Another possibility to overcome the restrictions
imposed by spherical aberration is to utilise refractive index matched photosensitive
materials (Fig. 2.11b). The material then acts as the immersion medium, eradicating
specimen induced spherical aberration and allowing structures higher than permitted
by the working distance of the objective. This method is called dip-in-lithography
(DiLL) and was developed by Nanoscribe GmbH (Nanoscribe GmbH, Eggenstein-
Leopoldshafen, Germany). The main drawback of this method is its dependency on
the refractive index of the photosensitive material and the limitation this restriction
imposes on material choice (Figs. 2.12, 2.13).
Since the fabrication occurs in a material bath, structures that consist of more
than one material are only feasible using subsequent process steps. This is a common
drawback of laser-based additive manufacturing techniques and indeed is thought of
one of the huge challenges in stereolithography [137]. One class of additive manu-
facturing techniques that does not have the same restriction is 3D printing, such as
3D plotting, or 3D inkjet printing [139]. Here, the structural features are not realized
by selective irradiation, but by a selective positioning of material, which is subse-
quently fixed by a suitable method such as photopolymerization, heat, or chemical
crosslinking. Although these systems work fine for rapid prototyping purposes, the
achievable resolution is restricted by the minimum droplet size of the material posi-
tioning process. Inkjet printing utilizes the contraction of piezoelectric elements to
deposit material through an array of small nozzles. Since the nozzle diameter and
the pressure build-up can be well regulated and designed to be small, inkjet based
printers can achieve a resolution in the order of magnitude of tenth of microme-
ters, compared to hundreds of micrometers for plotting based systems. However, this
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.11 Two methods to circumvent the limited fabrication height imposed on the process by the
limited working distance of the objective and specimen induced spherical aberration. a The distance
between objective and fabrication plane is fixed, while the sample is pulled out of the material bath
by a translational stage. b The refractive index of the photosensitive material matches the refractive
index of the immersion medium (e.g. is close to glass). Both methods eliminate intensity variations
of the laser beam in different structuring heights, which results in a homogenous fabrication quality
over larger heights
resolution is still two to three orders of magnitude lower than that is achievable by
direct laser writing. By combining inkjet printing and direct laser writing, two main
advances are feasible [140, 141]. For macroscopic hierarchical structures, such as a
blood vessel system, the overall processing time can be reduced significantly. In the
case of a blood vessel system, the diameter of necessary vessels ranges from several
millimeters, for dispersing blood throughout the system evenly, to several microm-
eters, where the exchange of nutrients occur through capillaries. This approach can
reduce the volume that has to be generated by direct laser writing to the absolute
necessary. Thus, the superior process speed of inkjet printing governs, depending on
the structure, is used to reduce the necessary production time.
Besides an increase in production time by omitting direct laser writing where it is
not necessary, the material positioning technique of inkjet printing can be used for
the fabrication of structures consisting of more than one material.
46 S. Engelhardt
Fig. 2.12 a Neuronal cells encapsulated by a 1 µm thick BSA/fibrinogen cylinder migrate towards
an adhesive fibrinogen scaffold situated in the center [170] (scale bar 50 µm). b Micromaze fabri-
cated by direct laser writing of BSA (scale bar 10 µm) [120]. c Chondrocytes cultivated on modified
gelatin fibres with a diameter of approx. 1 µm and a distance of 4 µm show strong alignment [55].
The arrows mark spots, where the cell induced force leads to a delamination of the gelatin lines
from the glass substrate. d 3D structure of modified gelatin with a low concentration of 0.005 %
photoinitiator fabricated with direct laser writing [171]
2.7 Direct Laser Writing in 3D Cell Culture and Tissue

Engineering
The study of cells in a 2D environment, namely a petri dish, has revealed signifi-
cant scientific insights, it has become more clear over the last couple of years, that
the third dimension plays a major role for cell adhesion, proliferation and signaling
pathways [142]. A cell cultivated in a petri dish, can detect its mechanical surround-
ing, which is an inelastic surface, surrounded with a liquid. Additionally the cell
detects chemical cues on the surface, mostly in the form of a protein coating and
other cells in proximity residing also in this 2D world. However, in a living organism
the circumstances are dramatically different. Cells interact in all three spatial direc-
tions with their neighboring cells and the constituents of the extracellular matrix. For
example the formation of focal adhesions, large dynamic protein complexes con-
necting the cytoskeleton to the extracellular matrix is triggered along the whole cell
body and is significantly different when studied in 2D and 3D [143]. Additionally,
Fig. 2.13 a Human sarcoma

cells cultivated on a woodpile
structure fabricated with direct
laser writing of acrylates and
their motility and b migration
speed analyzed by fluorescent
live cell imaging [97]. c
Fibroblasts adhere selectively
to polymer cubes that promote
cell attachment but not to the
PEG-DA structural backbone
[152]
focal adhesions do not only attach the cell to a surface, they act as communication
channel, conveying mechanical and chemical information, which implicates the sig-
nificance of a 3D cell culture. Two examples that demonstrate the importance of the
3D environment are, human breast endothelial cells that have been cultured in 2D
behave like tumor cells, but revert to normal growth characteristics when cultured
in a 3D environment [144], and the different structure, localization and function of
fibroblastic cell-matrix adhesions in in vivo 3D cell cultures compared to several 2D
counterparts, which leads to an enhanced biological activity [143].
Direct laser writing offers the possibility to create chemically and physically
defined cell environments, which can be designed to fit the needs of the experiment or
application. Let us consider for example focal adhesions, protein clusters that have a
major impact on the interaction of cells to their environment. A large quantity of these
focal adhesions is only 0.2 µm2 in size [145]. Direct laser writing is able to produce
structure sizes that are in the same order of magnitude. Combined with its inherent 3D
capability and material diversity, direct laser writing offers the possibility to realize
3D cell culture systems that could be used to study this aspect in a reproducible way.
Although, the application of direct laser writing in this field of research is not widely
spread yet, some application examples are presented here to demonstrate its potential
for 3D cell culture and tissue engineering (A summary of published studies can be
found in table 2.1).
Basically, two distinctive routes can be identified for the generation of such 3D
cell cultures [47]. The first route uses photopolymerization of synthetic polymers, or–
crosslinking of proteins to generate a physical object. These structures have defined
mechanical and structural properties. Chemical properties are defined through the
surface chemistry of the applied material, or by subsequent coating procedures. The
second route employs photoactivation inside a hydrogel, which results in a defined
3D chemical structure.
48 S. Engelhardt
Table 2.1 A list of biomimetic applications of direct laser writing

Material Structure/cell type Direct laser writing Notes Reference
method
Acrylate based Porous cylinder scaffold PP of master for Soft Good cell [146]
polymer, fibrin structure (pore size Lithography of viability,
∼100 µm)/human biomolecules adhesion and
pulmonary alignment in
microvascular pores
endothelial cells
Ormocomp , Porous cylinder PP of master for Soft Cells coat entire [147]
Ormocer , scaffolds (pore size Lithography scaffold
polylactid acid ∼100 µm)/fibroblast
and neuroblastoma
cells
Poly(ethylene Porous cylinder PP Washing [104]
glycol) diacrylate scaffolds (pore size protocols
∼25 µm)/fibroblasts reduce
cytotoxicity
from pho-
toinitiators
Methacrylamide 3D mesh scaffold (mesh PP Thin gelatin [114]
modified gelatin size mesh due to
∼250 µm)/Adipose- dark reactions
derived stem inside pores
cells improves cell
viability. Dif-
ferentiation
into
adipogenic
lineage after
7 days
BSA, biotinylated Protein fibres PC Chemical [148]
calf intestinal microparticles and gradients
alkaline scaffolds within cell
phosphatase culture,
enzymatic
nanoreactors
BSA Protein microcham- PC Pressure [110]
bers/motile E. measured that
coli E. coli apply
to a protein
membrane if
confined
BSA Lines as confine- PC Outgrowth of [149]
ment/neuroblastoma neuritis can
cells be spatially
manipulated
by BSA lines
Collagen I, II and IV Lines/fibroblasts PC Cells orientate [150]
parallel to
lines
(continued)
Table 2.1 (continued)

method
Photopolymerizable Woodpile like scaffold PP Observation of [97]
triacrylates with pore sizes from cell migration
12 to
110 µm/fibrosar-
coma cells
Ormocomp Pillars connected by PP Measurement of [151]
beams/cardiomyocy- cell forces in
tes 3D
Ormocomp , Protein repellent pillars PP Cells adhere [152]
polyethylene connected with selectively to
glycol diacrylate beams, Ormocomp Ormocomp
(PEG-DA) cubes on repellent cubes
beams/fibroblasts
Ormocer Polymer support pillars, PP and Peptide fibrils [153]
self-assembled photobiotin/avidin with diameter
peptide fibrills mediated ∼<1 µm and
self-assembled length
fibril growth ∼5 µm
Ormocer Mesh scaffold PP, binding of Scaffold with [154]
photobiotin/avidin defined
via UV biochemical
surface
Triblock copolymer Mesh scaffolds, circular PP Material cyto- [155]
scaffolds and line compatible
arrays/fibroblasts and
biodegrad-
able
Photocurable Cubic scaffold, mesh PP Hepatocytes [135]
polymer (Accura size cultured on
SI10) 200 µm/hepatocytes scaffold
showed
higher values
for liver
specific
functions
compared to
flat culture
Acrylate base resin, Polymer-protein hybrid PP, PC Free hanging [55]
methacrylamide structures, protein
modified gelatin lines/chondrocytes membranes
(Gel-Mo), BSA, on polymer
fibronectin support,
strong
adhesion of
cells to
Gel-Mo
(continued)
50 S. Engelhardt

method
Polytetrahydrofura- Branched vascular PP Material with [99]
nether-diacrylate scaffold/endothelial tunable
resin cells elasticity,
inner layer of
endothelial
cells
Ormocer Fibers PP Single shot fibers Long, high [156, 157]
scaffolds/fibroblasts (possible aspect aspect ratio
ratios of 180:1) fibers.
through Measurement
self-focusing and of contractile
seeded growth forces of cell
by bending
BSA, hyaluronic Different protein PC BSA was Combination of [53]
acid microstructures, crosslinked inside topographical
such as lines and hydrogel and and chemical
spirals/neuronal cell coated with cues inside
and glia cells laminin via hydrogel.
biotin/avidin Guided cell
reaction growth
achieved
Polyethylene glycol 3D cell guiding patterns PA Functionalization Encapsulation of [158]
diacrylate inside of biodegradable live cells
(PEGDA) hydrogel/Fibroblasts PEGDA with possible.
peptide containing Guided cell
diacrylates growth
achieved
Polyethylene glycol Biomimetic replica of PA Functional peptide Cells resemble [159]
diacrylate vascular patterns (RGD, structure of
(PEGDA) systems/Endothelial IKVAV) natural
cells, mesenchymal capillary
progenitor cells system
PEG-precursor Functional lines, PA Photofunctional- Combination of [50]
including vinyl functional degraded ization process controlled
groups and tubes/Fibroblasts and photocleavage chemical cues
nitrobenzyl ether separated by and physical
moieties wavelength stimuli
through
degradation
Polyethylene glycol Functional triangles, PA Subsequent Combination of [160]
diacrylate lines and meshes fabrication of growth
(PEGDA) chemical active factors to
sides consisting of study
up to three synergetic
materials effects on
cells
PP photopolymerization, PC photocrosslinking, PA photoactivation
2.7.1 Photocrosslinking of Proteins for Biomimetic 3D Structures
With the discovery that proteins can be crosslinked by direct laser writing, it was pro-
posed that these crosslinked protein matrices may serve as scaffolds for regenerative
medicine, or advanced 3D cell culture systems [161].
These structures combine the chemical environment of natural tissue, with the abil-
ity to govern their structure with a sub-µm resolution. However, during crosslinking
the proteins are subjected to highly reactive molecular species (e.g. singlet oxygen)
and high photon dosages. Additionally their intrinsic structure is being changed by the
crosslinking process itself, for example by bond breakage of sulfide bridges as well
as thermal effects [29, 150, 162, 163]. Taking into account all these effects that may
negatively influence protein structure and protein functionality, the question arises
if it is indeed possible to maintain protein functionality during direct laser writing.
Since a direct comparison of the protein structure before and after crosslinking is
not easily achieved, this issue was engaged by studying the conservation of certain
protein functions after crosslinking. One of the first experiments in this direction was
carried out using alkaline phosphatase and a bovine serum albumin solution [163].
After crosslinking a Michaelis-Menten kinetic analysis of the enzymatic activity of
the alkaline phosphatase was performed, with the result that the activity reached nor-
mal values. Thus, the laser irradiation had no visible effect on the enzymatic activity
of the enzyme itself. Additionally it was shown that crosslinked proteins were sus-
ceptible to subsequent enzymatic activity [150], indicating that the proteins are not
changed in a way that makes them no longer recognized by enzymes.
Fibronectin and fibrinogen matrices were produced and stained with protein spe-
cific dyes [162]. In this case diffusion parameters were measured. It could be shown,
that the fluorescent signal increased with increasing photon dosage and the diffusion
rates decreased. Thus, the targeted functional parts of the proteins are still active after
crosslinking and the increase in fluorescent signal is associated with an increase in
crosslinking density. If the laser irradiation would have a negative effect on protein
functionality, the fluorescent signal should decline with increasing photon density
and not increase. These results are strengthened by the fact that crosslinked avidin
demonstrates the same tendency using biotin as a marker [39, 57] and even retains
its sensitivity to hydrogen ion activity [39].
Although the underlying mechanism of photoinduced protein crosslinking is not
yet fully understood, the results so far demonstrate a remarkable conservation of
protein functionality during direct laser writing.
Protein microstructures produced by direct laser writing can be used to study
the interaction of single cells with their extracellular matrix in a controlled, yet
biomimetic way (Fig. 2.12). For this purpose, it is important to differentiate influences
that arise due to topographical features and those that are chemical in nature. The
sheer presence of 3D microstructures can alter cell behavior significantly, for example
in the form of contact guidance [164, 165] or even structure induced cell behavior
(e.g. [166, 167]). Additionally to these physical influences, structured chemical cues
that are purely 2D can lead to the same effect. These patterns are often generated
52 S. Engelhardt
using patterning techniques, such as micro contact printing [168], or direct laser
writing [169].
Direct laser writing of proteins necessarily combines both influences in a single
structure. This entanglement of influences has to be considered when interpreting cell
experiments. One possible route to distinguish the underlying causes is to crosslink
different types of material. Crosslinked bovine serum albumin (BSA), a protein that
normally does not promote cell adhesion, is an excellent cell guiding material. Cells
cultivated on BSA line structures change their shape according to the underlying
structure [172].
The biocompatible nature of BSA even allows for in-situ cell guiding of cells.
Here, cells are cultured in a petri-dish or other suitable vessel and the cell medium is
exchanged with a BSA solution. Since BSA can be crosslinked without an additional,
mostly toxic photosensitizer BSA microstructures can be generated in the vicinity of
a living cell, without damaging effects. These BSA structures then serve as an in-situ
guiding tool. The technique was demonstrated using nerve cells and a µ-chip laser
source emitting at 532 nm [39].
Chemical guidance by crosslinked proteins that promote cell adhesion was
observed for proteins such as fibronectin, fibrinogen or collagen. In contrast to BSA
microstructures, cells demonstrated a strong chemical connection to the protein struc-
ture by the presence of focal adhesions [55, 150, 172].
One example where the strength of direct laser writing of proteins is utilized for
a specific biological application is the generation of a basement membrane model
to study cell migration and adhesion of ovarian cancer cells [173]. The basement
membrane, a dense mesh of crosslinked proteins, plays a major role during metas-
tasis of many types of cancer [174]. Of course, the complexity of natural basement
membrane is not fully captured by the biomimetic model. In fact, the basement mem-
brane model generated by direct laser writing consisted of a single type of protein,
laminin, which is just one of the main components of the ovarian basement membrane
[175, 176]. Single laminin fibers with a diameter of 600 nm, a height of 2 µm and a
separation distance of 10 µm are written on a glass surface on a homogenous BSA
passivation layer. Ovarian cancer cell lines plated on such a scaffold demonstrate
distinctive contact guidance parallel to the laminin fibers, as well as an increase in
migration [173]. Although these first results are promising, the main advantage of in
vitro models generated by direct laser writing of proteins over other methods, such
as collagen gels [142], is their easy structural adaption, the amount of materials that
are processable and the ability to generate in vitro assays which are excellently suited
for the analysis of the cell behavior.
Although the idea of forming extracellular matrix proteins to a structure that
possesses feature sizes comparable to those found in nature is appealing, there is
a major drawback of the method. Complex 3D structures need a certain amount
of mechanical stability. Most crosslinked proteins however, are quite mechanically
weak. Stability can arise from the material itself, for example of a protein mixture
of fibronectin and BSA, where BSA increases the mechanical stability [170], or by
increasing the crosslinking density by the introduction of artificial side groups, such
as gelatin with methacrylamides [55, 114, 171, 177]. Using the latter, 3D structures
can be generated that support proliferation and migration of adipose derived stem
cells, and even differentiation into the adipogenic lineage can be observed after seven
days in culture [114].
Another possibility to overcome stability issues is a combination of soft protein
structures and more rigid polymer support structures [38, 153]. Here the polymer
support structure provides the necessary mechanical stability, so that the functional
protein structures can be generated with processing parameters that give the best
biomimetic results in terms of functionality and elasticity. This technique was used
to generate nanometer-sized peptide fibril between polymer supports [153], and free
hanging protein membrane assays [38, 55].
2.7.2 Photopolymerisation of Synthetic Polymers for Biomimetic

3D Structures
Although direct laser protein writing is intrinsically biomimetic, synthetic poly-

mers have been used to a large extend. Their main advantage over proteins is their
chemically well-defined nature and their susceptibility to adaptations. In their sim-
plest form, polymers serve as a physical backbone, which carries topographical
and mechanical information (Fig. 2.13). Chemicals cues are subsequently added by
adsorption of proteins or peptides. Besides, or better because its simplicity, this
method is widely spread for the fabrication of scaffolds for tissue engineering [178]
and defined biomimetic cell environments [156, 179]. The fabrication of small scale
3D biomimetic grafts such as small vascular systems is possible. By using biocom-
patible photosensitive materials, with mechanical characteristics close to nature,
small biomimetic vessels with an inner diameter of 20 µm and a wall thickness of
several micrometers can be realized [99]. Woodpile-like structures, with different
mesh sizes ranging from 12 to 100 µm were used to measure cell motility in a 3D
environment [97]. Human fibrosarcoma cells were tracked with a fluorescent live
cell imaging process and 3D migration patterns of single cells recorded. The mean
migration speed of these cells in the scaffolds was higher than the speed observed in
a two-dimensional cell culture, while the probability of cell movement to occur was
lower.
Hepatocytes cultured on cubic polymer structures demonstrated higher liver spe-
cific activity compared to a flat cell culture [135]. The difference between two-
dimensional and 3D cell culture arises due to structural properties and is not linked
to a chemical interaction with the scaffolds. The higher cell motility is most probably
due to a higher degree of freedom for cell movement [97]. The higher liver spe-
cific functionality of hepatocytes cultured on cubic scaffolds arises due to a locally
increased cell concentration, which in consequence leads to a higher concentration
of soluble factors maintaining hepatocyte phenotype [135].
The mechanical forces that heart muscle cells apply during their beating cycle
can be measured by the fabrication of single cell in vitro assays [151]. In this case, a
54 S. Engelhardt
well-defined scaffold of Ormocomp pillars was generated and connected by small

diameter beams in a spider web-like fashion. The myocytes adhered to the beams,
consequently applying a force during contraction. Due to the well-known and defined
geometry of the connecting beams, measuring the deformation leads to a mean cell
force involved of approximately 48 nN [151]. These single cell assays can be further
specialized by combining materials with different chemical properties. By combining
a protein repellent polymer for the pillars and beams with Ormocomp cubes situated
on the beams, cell adhesion can be specifically limited to the Ormocomp cubes
[152].
Another possibility to combine structural definition and chemical functionaliza-
tion is to use the biotin-avidin binding mechanism. Cubic scaffolds made of Ormo-
cer were treated with photobiotin, which was bound to the polymer surface by
UV-irradiation of an excimer laser source [153, 154]. By this means, avidin labeled
substances can be linked to the biotin binding sites, which allows for a wide variety
of biological active substances to be used.
2.7.3 Photoactivation of Hydrogels
All these processes rely on photocrosslinking or photopolymerization to generate

a physical 3D structure with significant mechanical and topographical properties.
Another possible rout is to create a 3D chemical environment inside a cell com-
patible surrounding. In general such a surrounding is realized by hydrogels, which
resemble closely the natural environment of cells. Of course the transition between
photocrosslinking and photofunctionalization is gradual.
Hyaluronic acid is a widely used hydrogel for 3D cell culture and tissue engineer-
ing applications (cf. e.g. [180–184]). Such hyaluronic acid hydrogels can be soaked
with a water based photocrosslinkable substance, such as biotinylated bovine serum
albumin [53]. By this means, 3D chemical active sides can be fabricated by direct laser
writing inside the hydrogel. Avidin labeled substances can be linked subsequently to
the biotin sides of the crosslinked albumin structures. Such an approach combines
physical and chemical stimuli for cells in a controlled manner and it was shown that
dorsal route ganglion cells and hippocampal neural progenitor cells are able to recog-
nize these structures and demonstrate guided outgrowth [53]. A comparable method
employs polyethylene glycol diacrylates (PEGDA) [158]. Hydrogels formed from
the biocompatible PEGDA can be made biodegradable by the incorporation of a
collagenase sensitive peptide sequence. Such hydrogels can be cured by the addition
of a photoinitiator upon UV irradiation, even with the presence of live cells clustered
in fibrin gel. Subsequently, the peptide Arg-Gly-Asp-Ser-Lys (RGDSK) containing
PEGDA were added and crosslinked by direct laser writing to remaining free diacry-
late groups [158]. Cultured fibroblasts showed a strong tendency to migrate along the
fabricated chemical cues [158]. Based on confocal images of microvascular struc-
tures, biomimetic replicas could be formed consisting of an RGDS patterned PEGDA
hydrogel, cultured with human umbilical vein endothelial cells and mesemchymal
progenitor 10T1/2 cells. These cells, organize into capillary-like tubule structures,
when cultured in the same, yet unpatterned material [185], indicating the biomimetic
strength of the approach.
This fabrication strategy is not restricted to a single functional group. By thor-
oughly removing any unbound residues of the active agent, and repeating function-
alization steps, different functional groups can be formed to patterns [159, 160].
Additional, by varying laser intensity, or repeating irradiation, the concentration
of such active compounds can be finely tuned [160, 186]. Such a spatial concentration
gradient was observed to promote ingrowth of neuronal progenitor cells [186].
Hydrogel based direct laser writing can also be used to combine physical and
chemical functionalities. For this means, hydrogels based on a PEG backbone con-
taining vinyl groups and nitrobenzyl ether moieties were developed [48, 50]. Depend-
ing on the applied wavelength different reactions can be triggered. Single photon
irradiation with visible light, or the respective two photon wavelength absorbed by
the photoinitiator eosin Y triggers a thiol-containing biomolecule to covalently bind.
This reaction was applied to bind the cell adhesive active peptide groups RGD and
PHSRN. The nitrobenzyl ether moieties, incorporated in the PEG-backbone undergo
photocleavage by UV irradiation, or the appropriate two photon wavelength, result-
ing in degeneration of the hydrogel network. Due to the difference in wavelength,
both mechanisms can be used in the same sample. Fibroblasts migrated in channels,
formed by the cleavage process, only if functional RGD peptides were present [50].
2.8 Conclusion
In just a decade, direct laser writing has matured in a way that many laboratories
apply this technology for diverse applications. The availability of turn-key femtosec-
ond laser oscillators, and even commercially available complete direct laser writing
setups, has facilitated its use in biology and medicine. It can be expected that the
first main impact of direct laser writing in a biological context, will be the realization
of controlled 3D cell microenvironments as in-vitro test systems, due to the unique
process properties:
• A large diversity of applicable materials, ranging from inelastic to elastic syn-
thetic polymers, hydrogels, to biological components, such as extracellular matrix
proteins.
• Controllable physical properties, such as elasticity.
• Highly defined structural features and inherent 3D capability.
• Geometrical freedom, since direct laser writing is not a layer-by-layer fabrication
technology.
• Controllable chemical characteristics.
These properties allow the realization of highly controlled test systems, where physi-
cal, chemical and structural influences on cell behavior can be analyzed separately, or
in combination. These in-vitro test systems may help to answer biological questions,
56 S. Engelhardt
where three-dimensionality is a key issue, such as cancer cell migration, interaction

of cells with their extracellular matrix environment or angiogenesis.
However, a deeper understanding of the crosslinking mechanisms and the rela-
tionship between process parameters and the resulting structural properties is still
necessary. This need becomes most obvious in the case of protein crosslinking.
Although basic conservation of protein properties has been demonstrated, the detailed
mechanisms leading to the cross-linked construct are yet to be revealed. Yet, such an
understanding is crucial for the realization of a highly controlled in-vitro test system.
A major issue which limits the widespread use of the technology today is its
limited speed. A typical writing speed in the order of magnitude of mm/s is not
sufficient to realize macroscopic scaffolds for tissue engineering, or the number of
in-vitro test necessary for biological analysis, on a commercially feasible timescale.
Here, a combination of process development and adapted high performance materials
may yield the solution.
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Nat Mater 10:799–806
Chapter 3
Biomimetic Photonic Materials by Direct
Laser Writing
Mark D. Turner, Gerd E. Schröder-Turk and Min Gu
Abstract Direct laser writing is a nanofabrication method used to develop

three-dimensional nanostructures with almost arbitrary geometry. The fabrication
of nanophotonic devices has been the major application of this technology to date.
However, recent growth in the adoption of this technology and even commercializa-
tion of direct laser writing systems has extended the access of this nanofabrication
method to a broader range of researchers including those in the fields of biology and
biomimetics. In this review chapter the direct laser writing method and its recent
application in developing biomimetic photonic materials are introduced.
3.1 Introduction
Biomimetics is both, the adaptation and the translation of underlying working princi-
ples of structures that have been found to exhibit certain properties in living systems
for the design of synthetic systems with the same or similar functionality. Biomimetic
designs, often motivated by resource-efficiency of the natural system, have been
employed to achieve a range of properties, including stiff but light-weight structure
adapted from the bees honeycomb, strong water repellence by mimicry of the Lotus
leaf [1], the strong adhesion of gecko paws on dry surfaces [2]. Biomimetic design of
photonic nanostructures that exploit the ingenious photonic geometries employed by
living organisms–in particular in insects, beetles and crustaceans–is a further current
field of research [3–5]. The focus of this chapter is the mimicry of three-dimensional
M. D. Turner (B) · M. Gu
Centre for Micro-Photonics and CUDOS, Faculty of Engineering and Industrial Sciences,
Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, VIC 3122, Australia
G. E. Schröder-Turk
Theoretische Physik, Friedrich-Alexander Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Staudtstrasse 7B,
Erlangen, Germany

68 M. D. Turner et al.
(3D) biophotonic designs. Modern 3D electron microscopy methods (including elec-

tron tomography [6]) allow us to decipher increasingly complex spatial structures
formed by nature. Advances in nanofabrication methods such as electron beam litho-
graphy (EBL) with resolutions below 10 nm [7] and direct laser writing (DLW) with
resolutions below 70 nm [8] allow for the truthful/accurate replication of these struc-
tures for custom-designed photonic applications.
Many photonic properties of biological nanostructures have been reported, and
indeed often their biological functionality and purpose identified. The pigmentless
generation of colour by a biological photonic crystals is well documented for various
organisms including butterfly wing scales [9, 10], insect cuticles [11], weevils [12],
bird feathers [13] and marine life forms [14], and documented in reviews and books
[15–18]. Iridescence, the dependence of the reflection rate on incident angle of the
light, is a common biological feature [14, 19–21]. Natural antireflection coatings
based on gratings have been identified in the visual systems of moths and have been
mimicked to demonstrate their potential in industrial applications such as, wide-
angle antireflection coatings and antiglare coatings for glass or plastic panels [22].
Similarly, photonic designs are in place in the eyes of various organisms to allow
polarization sensitive vision, in particular linear-polarization [23, 24] but also, less
well studied, to circular polarization [24, 25].
Many of the biophotonic structures are two-dimensional (such as the hexagonal
cylinder pattern in the sea mouse [14]) or variations of a two-dimensional pattern
(such as the tree-like lamellae grating responsible for the strong iridescence in the
Morpho butterfly [20]). However, intricate and inherently three-dimensional nanos-
tructures based on ordered or disordered spatial networks are also observed in several
organisms. Amongst these are the chiral ordered porous structure known as the gyroid
or srs-network [27] (a cubic chiral network named after the Sr Si 2 crystal [28]) found
in several green butterfly species [9, 29, 30] (Fig. 3.1). The chiral structure of this
photonic crystal [29, 30] causes circular dichroism [31]. A further ordered structure
is the achiral ordered diamond structures, observed both in beetles [32] and in weevils
[12]. Disordered porous geometries have been identified in bird feathers [33] and in
the cuticles of white beetles [5]. Their structures have been suggested for adaptation
of efficient paper coating [5].
Amongst the current topics in biophotonics is the response of the biological nanos-
tructures to circularly polarized light. A structure, biological or synthetic, that dis-
criminates between left-handed (LHD) and right-handed (RHD) circularly polarized
light must have a chiral, or handed, spatial structure (chirality is the geometric prop-
erty of an object that a structure and its mirror image cannot be transformed into one
another by rotations and translations alone, excluding mirror operations and point
inversion). It is by now well-established that some organisms have visual sensitivity
to circular polarization, including mantis shrimps [25] and beetles [34]. Birefringent
effects have been reported for the cuticles of crustaceans [35] and beetles [36]. In these
examples, the circular polarization effects are achieved through biological quarter-
wave plates (in the cuticles or eyes), i.e. by utilising the linear birefringence of the
structure. In green butterflies, the inherently three-dimensional chiral gyroid or srs-
network structure, realized in the porous chitin phase of the wing scales [9, 29, 30],
3 Biomimetic Photonic Materials 69
Fig. 3.1 Photograph (a) and optical (b) and SEM microscopy images (c–f) of the wing and
wing-scales of Callophrys rubi butterfly (courtesy of M. Thiel, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology).
g Spatial structure of the chitin phase of Callophrys rubi. The right fraction of the 3D body repre-
sents a subset of the tomographic data; the left side represents a solid body bounded by a parallel
surface to Schoen’s triply-periodic gyroid minimal surface [26]. Also shown is a single srs-network
tracing the centers of the void phase (orange)
has been shown to lead to a difference in the reflection of LHD and RHD circularly
polarized light [31]. It appears that the improved understanding of circular polar-
ization effects in biophotonics can open up numerous possibilities for biomimetic
replication of these designs and effects. The adaptation of the butterflies’ gyroid
structures for nanophotonic applications, described in literature [37] and below, is
certainly a step in that direction.
Nanophotonics, the structuring of materials at the nanoscale is an emerging field of
research that utilises the unique interactions between light and nanoscale structures to
engineer novel materials with superior optical properties. Recently, chiral structures
have been the focus of many nanophotonics designs due to the strong chiral optical
phenomena [31, 37–45].
The engineering of nanoscale chiral metallic nanoparticles has been used to
develop nanoscale plasmonic motors that can be rotated via application of an optical
source [44]. This phenomenon was attributed to the chiral asymmetry of the nanopar-
ticle leading to a net rotational force acting on the particle. In another report [38],
the same chiral metallic nanoparticle was also shown to have extremely high local
field chirality leading to a great enhancement in the sensitivity of chiral biomolecules
detection via circular dichroism spectroscopy [38]. Thus the design of nanostructures
with strong geometrical chirality can lead to greatly enhanced chiral light-matter
interactions.
Metamaterials (artificial materials whose optical properties are governed by their
highly subwavelength structure) have also recently been developed with chiral
geometries, demonstrating huge optical activity (i.e. optical rotary power) [45–47]
and strong circular dichroism (difference in the transmission, reflection or absorp-
tion of light) [39, 48]. These nanostructured metamaterials were constructed from
metallic components leading to their greatly enhanced chiral-optical properties
compared to that found in natural biophotonic structures which are typically made of
dielectric materials [29]. Amazingly, the chirality of these chiral metamaterials can
be larger than the refractive index of these materials, leading to unnatural phenomena
such as negative refractive indices [40, 49–51].
All of these chiral-optical phenomena arise from the interaction between light and
the 3D chiral asymmetries of the highly subwavelength nanostructures. Fabrication
technologies such as electron beam lithography can be used to make planar nanos-
tructures with 2D chirality [38, 44]. By applying a multi-step process of lithography
involving multiple layers of planar nanostructures carefully aligned on top of each
other [46, 47, 52], this technique can be used to extend these planar geometries
to 3D chiral nanostructures. However, this process is very time consuming, hence
expensive and designs are typically limited to just a few layers.
Another fabrication method applied commonly in the fabrication of 3D structures
with nanoscale resolution is the DLW method, which can be used to trace out nearly
arbitrary 3D nanostructures, with resolutions now down to 68 nm [8]. This is a very
suitable technology for mimicking and fabricating of biophotonic designs such as
chiral photonic microstructures [37, 41], 3D cell scaffolds [53–55] and biomimetic
microchannels [56]. Unlike self-assembling biological nanostructures that typically
have a narrow range of structural parameters such as size and porosity, DLW is a
flexible technology that can freely change these geometrical parameters (including
chirality), limited only by the fabrication resolution and overall mechanical stability
of the 3D nanostructure.
The next section discusses DLW in more detail and how it can be used for the
development of 3D biomimetic photonic materials. The following section, discusses
biologically self-assembled nanostructures which have inspired the DLW of novel
3D photonic devices. The final section reviews state-of-the-art fabrication results in
the development of 3D biomimetic microstructures. This chapter specifically reviews
the recent work on the chiral srs-networks found in the Callophrys rubi, as chiral
nanostructures are an excellent example of a structural property only found in truly 3D
geometries and is an asymmetry that is less common in nature, but easily achievable
using modern technologies such as DLW.
3.2 Three-Dimensional Direct Laser Writing
Direct laser writing is a 3D nanofabrication technique developed over the past

two decades [57–60] to what is now a well-established technology, with several
commercially available systems on the market. Being able to create arbitrary-
shaped 3D nano/micro-structures with resolutions as small as 68 nm [8], DLW is
a powerful technology for many fields of research, including the development of
novel biomimetic materials.
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.2 a The DLW method. A pulsed green laser is focused using an objective lens into a
transparent photoresist. The laser focal spot initiates a nonlinear photoreaction at the center and is
then traced out in an arbitrary 3D pattern as designed by the user. b SEM image of a butterfly-shaped
microstructure inspired by the 3D nanostructures found within the wing scales of the Callophrys
rubi. The scale bar is 10 µm
The DLW method typically uses an ultrafast (i.e. short pulsed) laser (typically
femtosecond or picoseconds lasers). However recent work has shown sub-micron
resolution from DLW with continuous wave lasers in certain materials [61]. The laser
source is tightly focussed to a diffraction limited focal spot, using a high numerical
aperture objective lens, forming an ultrahigh intensity of light (see Fig. 3.2a). The
sample, which contains a photoresist that is transparent at the wavelength of oper-
ation is placed at the focal spot. The transparency is critical for the ability to write
3D structures, as it allows the laser to pass through the entire photoresist without
attenuation. However, due to the very high intensity supplied by the tight focus-
ing condition, nonlinear processes such as two-photon absorption occur [57], which
trigger reactions such as photopolymerisation [57, 59], micro-explosion [58, 62] or
even photoreduction of metals [63]. Due to the nonlinearity of these photoreactions,
these reaction can only take place at the centre of the focal spot where the intensity is
highest, leaving the surrounding material relatively unmodified. The sample is then
moved using a 3D nanotranslation stage and the focal spot drawn through the sample,
tracing out the desired 3D design (as shown in Fig. 3.2a). In the case of a negative
polymer photoresist, after the DLW has completed, the sample is then rinsed with a
solvent, to remove the unwritten material, leaving behind only the regions where the
focal spot has traced through and caused photopolymerisation to occur.
An example of the flexibility of DLW is shown in Fig. 3.2b, which contains a
scanning electron microscope (SEM) image of a butterfly-shaped microstructure
inspired by the 3D nanostructures formed within the wings of the Callophrys rubi
butterfly. The microstructure consists of a 3D chiral srs-network, with cubic unit cell
2 µm in size and an overall size of 100×100×4 µm3 . The logo CUDOS is formed by
fabricating a second srs-network that intertwines with the first. More details on this
structure are given in section Direct laser writing of 3D biomimetic microstructures.
Much effort has gone into the development of DLW in a range of different
photoresists including: photopolymers [57, 64], photoreduction of silver [63],
chalcogenide glass [8, 65], bio-compatible materials [53] and even quantum dot
nanocomposites [66, 67]. Post processing techniques can also be applied to

modify the material properties of the 3D structure, including inversion techniques
with silicon [68], infiltration of quantum dots [67, 69], electroless metal coating
[70–73] and electrodeposition with conducting metals such as gold [48].
The maximum height of these 3D microstructures fabricated by DLW is typi-
cally tens of microns, limited by the working distance restrictions of the objective
lens. However, the recently developed dip-in DLW optical lithography method has
demonstrated the fabrication of 3D microstructures with hundreds of microns in
height [74].
Whilst in theory arbitrarily shaped microstructures can be written using DLW,
there are two practical limitations of this method. Firstly, the 3D voxel (or pixel)
that is traced out to form the microstructure has a limitation on its size. The exact
maximal resolution that is achievable is dependent on the photoresist and wavelength
of operation. For example, when using commercially available polymer photoresists
such as IP-L [68], Ormocer [75] and SU-8 [41], the smallest voxel size that can
be produced is typically around 100 nm in the lateral direction and 300 nm in the
vertical direction. The reason for the unequal sizes in the lateral and vertical axes of
the voxel is due to the unavoidable elongation of the diffraction limited focal spot
[76]. In higher index materials such as chalcogenide glass, the diffraction limited
focal spot is even more elongated, and can even become worse when spherical or
birefringent aberrations are introduced [77].
Due to the ever increasing demand for higher resolution recent efforts have been
made to further improve the resolution well beyond the diffraction limit [78–82].
These methods achieve their high resolution features by using two laser beams to illu-
minate the sample, inspired by the work on stimulated emission depletion microscopy
[83]. The first laser beam is focused as in standard DLW to excite the laser writing
photoreaction (e.g. photopolymerisation). The second beam is then applied to stop
this photoreaction, either via stimulated emission depletion [79, 81] or photoinhi-
bition [78, 82] (the photoexcitation of a chemical reaction that inhibits the writing
process). By carefully aligning the position and shape these two laser focal spots
on top of each other, the resulting fabrication voxel volume can be significantly
decreased, and in theory has no limit. Whilst, in its early stages of development
this technology is promising for the ability for 3D laser writing to achieve resolu-
tions comparable to that of nature’s nanostructure self-assembling methods, allowing
scientists to truly replicate 3D biological nanostructures.
The second practical limitation as with any 3D structure is structural integrity.
An important feature of any photoresists is their mechanical strength and lack of
distortions such as shrinkage [64, 84]. As well as the material dependence, the design
of the 3D structure, must take into account these mechanical requirements and it is
quite common for microstructures to be fabricated with square [59, 85] or circular
[86] frames to support the structure.
3.3 Chiral Structures in Self-Assembly and Circular

Dichroism in Biology
Biomimetic designs are naturally mechanical robust, as evolution rarely leads to the
development of mechanically unstable structures. Along with their superb mechan-
ical properties, many biological specimens contain interesting geometrical features
such as cubic symmetry and chirality, thus are great inspirations for the designs of 3D
nanophotonic devices fabricated by DLW. In this section the biologically inspired
srs-network and its exotic geometrical properties useful for photonic devices are
discussed.
The srs-network [27] named after the Si network in the poly-cationic Sr Si 2 crystal
[28] (also known as (10, 3)a or Laves’ graph [87–89]) is a cubic chiral network with
space group I 41 32 (see Fig. 3.3). The srs-network has a four-fold screw helix along
[100] and a three-fold screw helix, of opposite handedness along [111]. A RHD
srs-network is one whose four-fold helices along [100] are RHD. Related to the srs-
network, is Schoen’s gyroid minimal surface. The gyroid surface bisects space into
two domains that are mirror images of each other. The topology of these two domains
is represented by the LHD and a RHD srs-networks. The gyroid surface geometry is
ubiquitous in self-assembled materials, including lipid systems [90–92], copolymer
systems [93–96]), mesoporous silicas [97, 98], germanium oxides [99] and also in
cubic inner-cellular membranes [100, 101]. Materials structured according to just a
single chiral srs-network are less common, but have been reported in zeolites [102],
terblock-copolymers [96], butterfly wing scales [9, 29, 30, 103], mesoporous silica
[104] and mesoporous germanium oxides [99].
Materials structured according to the srs-network can be obtained by chemi-
cal removal of two of the three components of the I 41 32 phase in linear tri-block
copolymers, e.g. in gold [105], at a length scale of ∼50 nm. A self-assembly for larger
length scale is currently not available, but using the butterfly structure as template
for inorganic replica has been demonstrated (e.g. in silica [106] and titania [107]),
at ∼300 nm lattice parameter. On the contrary, 3D nanofabrication techniques such
as DLW as discussed in the next section have the ability to create arbitrarily shaped
3D structures with sizes from hundreds of nanometres to hundreds of microns.
3.4 Direct Laser Writing of 3D Biomimetic Microstructures
The development of novel photonic materials remains one of the major applications
of DLW today. Chiral microstructures are an excellent example of the development
of photonic devices with complex 3D nanoscale features, yet easily achievable via
DLW. An example of a simple 3D chiral microstructure is the spiral photonic crystal
(consisting of a square array of helices), which has been fabricated using DLW
[86, 108]. Due to their chiral asymmetry strong circular dichroism regions are
formed, manifesting in the existence of polarization stop bands [109]. However, these
Fig. 3.3 a The gyroid minimal surface and its two complementary LHD and RHD chiral srs-
networks. b RHD srs-network. c LHD srs-network. d Chiral composite consisting of two RHD
srs-networks. e Achiral composite consisting of RHD and LHD srs-networks. f–h Illustrations of
the pyramid shaped srs-networks viewed from the side (f), top (g) and at an oblique angle (h) [37]
spiral photonic crystals (PCs) have only uniaxial chirality and are highly anisotropic,
greatly limiting their potential applications in photonics. The development of novel
photonic structures providing complete 3D control of chirality is important for the
advancement of photonic devices in a broad range of applications where polarization
manipulation is important.
Recently, the bi-chiral PC [41] shown in Fig. 3.4, was developed which consisted
of helices orientated along all three Cartesian axes forming an interconnected net-
work with both chirality and cubic symmetry. The bi-chiral PC in [41] was inspired
by blue phase cholesteric liquid crystals [110–112] and consisted of a fully inter-
connected network of helices. By choosing the handedness of the helices as well as
the corners of these helical arrangements, the strength of the circular dichroism was
controlled [41]. Specifically, when the handedness of the helices was opposite to that
of the handedness of the corners as in the naturally occurring blue phase cholesteric
liquid crystals the circular dichroism was weak. On the other hand, when the handed
helices and corners were equal, the PC showed stronger circular dichroism. Thus use
of DLW to develop 3D biomimetic photonic microstructures, allows for a broader
range of geometries including those with superior optical properties. The applica-
tion of cubic chiral designs such as the bi-chiral network may have applications in
metamaterials, where the chiral geometry can be utilised to create phenomena such
as negative refraction. Recently, a metallic version of the bi-chiral structure has also
Fig. 3.4 a, b SEM images of the bi-chiral PCs from [41] fabricated using a commercial DLW
system (Nanoscribe Gmbh.), inspired by the blue phase cholesteric liquid crystals. The scale bars
are 2 µm in (a) and 10 µm in (b)
been demonstrated [72] that possesses broadband strong circular dichroism with
reduced angular dependence, than uniaxial or planar designs.
Another 3D cubic chiral network found in nature is the srs-network found in
the Callophrys rubi butterfly discussed in the previous section. The srs-network has
recently been shown to possess unique photonic properties such as circular dichroism
[31]. It was also predicted that a composite material consisting of four identical srs-
networks that intertwine with each other would lead to superior circular dichroism
properties [31]. Inspired by these theoretical findings, recent efforts have been made
to replicate of these srs-networks at the micro-scale via DLW [37].
An illustration of the gyroid surface and the srs-networks contained within the
surface is given in Fig. 3.3. Srs-networks that have RHD and LHD chirality are
shown in Fig. 3.3b, c respectively. A unique feature of the srs-networks that is a
result of its simplicity is the ability to intertwine multiple networks to form more
chiral composites structures [37] such as the chiral 2-srs composite (see Fig. 3.4) and
the achiral 2-srs composite (see Fig. 3.3e). Even more networks can be intertwined
to form what are known as the 3, 4 and 8-srs nets.
Figure 3.3f–h show the design of the srs-network used in the DLW fabrication
of [37]. The DLW was performed using a custom built DLW setup. A beam of
femtosecond pulses (∼150 fs) operating at a wavelength of 580 nm was focused by
an oil immersion objective (Olympus, N.A. 1.4, 100X) in the commercial photoresist
IP-L (Nanoscribe Gmbh). In order to maintain a uniform writing speed with high
precision, a slow writing speed of 10 µm/s was used for the 3D nanotranslation stage.
The overall shape of the srs-network shown in Fig. 3.3f–h has the shape of a flat
top pyramid. The reason for this is to ensure that there are no free standing rods,
by imitating cleaving planes in crystallography. This leads to boundaries with good
structural integrity, leading to minimal distortions of the overall structure. Note this
Fig. 3.5 a–f SEM images of the fabricated srs-network from the top (a and b) and at an oblique
angle (c and d). e, f SEM images of the chiral (e) and achiral (f) composites consisting of two
intertwined srs-networks. g Transmission spectra of RCP (blue) and LCP (red) waves for nor-
mal incidence, showing the formation of a circular dichroism band. The scale bars are are 10 µm
(a and c) and 1 µm (b, d–f)
is a powerful advantage of DLW microstructures over natural self-assembly, which

has limited (if none at all) control over the boundaries of these crystals.
The DLW of this srs-network design is given in Fig. 3.5, which contains scanning
electron microscope (SEM) images of the srs-network with a 3 µm cubic unit cell
size. This RHD chiral microstructure has excellent uniformity, demonstrating the
combination of the engineering quality of DLW and the structural integrity of the
srs-network. From close examination of the topology in Fig. 3.5a, b one can see the
RHD 4-screw axes, as highlighted by the blue arrow.
Figure 3.5g contains the transmission spectra of infrared waves passing through
the srs-network at normal incidence (i.e. along [1]), measured using an FTIR micro-
scope in conjunction with a broadband linear polariser, and quarter-wave plate to
achieve RHD (blue) and LHD (red) polarization. A deep bandgap at 3.4 µm is
observed only for the RHD polarization, which matches with the handedness of
the srs-network. This demonstrates the existence of a circular dichroism band as
theoretically investigated in [31]. These results imply that the chiral networks found
within the wing scales of the Callophrys rubi, may have chiral-optical features such
as circular dichroism [31], but at the UV and visible wavelength regime due to the
much smaller unit cell sizes.
The great flexibility of the DLW method also allows one to fabricate not only single
3D networks, but multiple intertwining networks. In Fig. 3.4d, e this is illustrated with
two different chiral (Fig. 3.4d) and achiral (Fig. 3.4e) composites, each consisting
of two srs-networks. These multi-network designs can also be realized via DLW
and the fabrication of the chiral and achiral composites are shown in Fig. 3.5e, f
respectively. Thus, the srs-network makes an excellent building block for the design
of chiral composites whose chirality can be controlled, a desirable feature for many
applications whose functionality relies on the chiral light-matter interactions.
Other designs that involve the intertwining of multiple 3D networks inspired
by biology and self-assembly may lead to photonic devices with novel photonic
properties realisable by DLW. These chiral PCs could be used for the development
of compact circularly polarized filters, beamsplitters, cavities and waveguides. Such
devices are of great interest for integrated photonic circuits requiring the manipulation
of polarization at microscopic sizes.
3.5 Conclusion and Outlook
DLW is a flexible technology for the development of 3D microstructures for appli-

cations in photonics. The 3D network designs such as the srs-networks found in
the Callophrys rubi are practical geometrical designs, with useful physical phenom-
ena such as photonic bandgaps and circular polarization stop bands. With a huge
variety of biological nanostructures that have been discovered (and are yet to be dis-
covered), other biologically inspired designs may lead to interesting 3D blueprints
for the design of biomimetic materials for photonics applications. With the recent
developments of super-resolution writing techniques, we may observe true 1-to-1
replication of these biological nanostructures in the near future.
Acknowledgments We would like to thank Michael Thiel for the photographs and electron
microscopy images of the Callophrys rubi. This work was conducted by the Australian Research
Council Centre of Excellence for Ultrahigh Bandwidth Devices for Optics Systems (project
CE110001018).
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Chapter 4
Selective Laser Sintering and Its Biomedical
Applications
Bin Duan and Min Wang
Abstract Selective laser sintering (SLS), a mature and versatile rapid prototyping
(RP) technology, uses a laser beam to selectively sinter powdered materials to form
three-dimensional objects, porous or non-porous, according to the computer-aided
design which can be based on data obtained from advanced medical imaging tech-
nologies such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computer tomography (CT).
In this chapter, major RP technologies suitable for biomedical applications are briefly
introduced first. A review is made on SLS, including its working principle, modifica-
tion of commercial SLS machines for fabricating biomedical products, biomedical
SLS materials, and optimization of SLS parameters. Finally, a detailed presentation
is given on the biomedical application of SLS, focusing on the fabrication of tissue
engineering scaffolds and drug or biomolecule delivery vehicles. It is shown that
SLS has great potential for many biomimetic and biomedical applications.
4.1 Introduction to Rapid Prototyping Technologies
With the advances in computer technology, imaging techniques, laser techniques

and control technology, rapid prototyping (RP) technologies, or alternatively termed
“solid free-form fabrication” (SFF), which can automatically construct solid objects
through additive manufacturing, have been developed over the past few decades. RP
comprises a group of techniques that can generate physical models directly from
computer-aided design (CAD) data, computer-based medical imaging techniques or
B. Duan · M. Wang (B)

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering,
The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Pokfulam, Hong Kong
B. Duan
Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering, Cornell University,
Ithaca, NY 14853-7202, USA

84 B. Duan and M. Wang
Fig. 4.1 The rapid prototyping (RP) manufacturing process
other computer-based technologies in a layer-by-layer manner and each layer is in

the shape of the cross-section of the physical model at a specific level [1]. In RP,
all computer-based information or data is in general firstly converted to the STL-
type file format, STL being derived from “stereolithography” which is the oldest RP
technology [2, 3]. The two-dimensional (2D) layers generated by the STL file are then
created in the RP machine so as to construct a solid three-dimensional (3D) physical
model, starting from the bottom of the physical model and proceeding upwards. Each
layer is bonded to the previous layer, thus forming a solid object based on the design.
The typical process for RP is illustrated in Fig. 4.1.
According to the working principle, there are three main categories of RP
techniques: (1) laser polymerization-based techniques, including stereolithography
apparatus (SLA) and two-photon polymerization (TPP); (2) nozzle deposition-based
techniques, such as fused deposition modeling (FDM) and 3D plotting; (3) powder-
based techniques, such as 3D printing and selective laser sintering (SLS) [4, 5].
Each type of these techniques requires a specific form of materials for constructing
3D objects and has its pros and cons. For the last decade, RP techniques have been
widely investigated for biomedical applications, such as fabricating tissue engineer-
ing scaffolds with or without human cells, making drug delivery vehicles, producing
medical devices, and constructing physical models for surgical planning. In this
section, commonly used RP techniques are briefly introduced and some of these
techniques, which are suitable for tissue engineering and drug delivery applications,
are described and illustrated.
4.1.1 Stereolithography Apparatus
Stereolithography apparatus (SLA) is based on the use of an electromagnetic radi-

ation source (e.g. a laser or a UV light source) to initiate photopolymerization
4 Selective Laser Sintering and Its Biomedical Applications 85
of resins [6]. The photopolymerizable resins are usually mixtures of simple, low-
molecular-weight monomers capable of forming polymers when activated by the
radiation energy within specific wavelength ranges. Typically, the controlled laser
beam or digital light projector is directed onto preprogrammed regions of a layer of
liquid resin, initiating polymerization and causing the radiation-exposed region to
solidify. The first solid layer on the machine platform is then lowered into the liquid
resin such that a new layer of resin is solidified by the radiation on the surface of the
first solid layer at a defined layer thickness. The polymerization process is repeated,
layer by layer, until a 3D object is built. The object produced may be mechanically
weak and therefore is subjected to post-SLA treatment after being removed from the
platform.
With the developments in polymer science and engineering, more and more pho-
topolymerizable biomaterials, including hydrogels and multifunctional monomers,
are investigated for the SLA process for biomedical applications. Some photoreactive
and crosslinkable groups such as acrylates or methacrylates can be easily attached
to poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) and then crosslinked into PEG hydrogel to be used
for tissue engineering and even for the encapsulation of cells in the presence of
a cytocompatible photoinitiator [7, 8]. The major technological challenges for the
SLA technique are the removal of uncured resin from the objects constructed and the
change of resin reservoirs for using multiple resins to fabricate composite porous or
non-porous structures for tissue engineering applications.
4.1.2 Two-Photon Polymerization
Two-photon polymerization (TPP) is based on the simultaneous absorption of two

photons, which induces chemical reactions between starter molecules and monomers
within a transparent matrix [9]. An ultrashort-pulse laser is needed to provide the
high intensity. The current capability of TPP allows the generation of 3D structures
with a resolution down to 100 nm [10]. For tissue engineering applications, TPP
has been used to manufacture 3D scaffolds for hepatocyte culture by triggering free-
radical polymerization processes within polymerizable precursors and to fabricate
micro-patterns of biomolecules for guiding cell migration within 3D PEG-based
hydrogels [11, 12]. The hydrogel network produced with well-defined chemical
and physical properties has been further functionalized and modified for elucidating
more complex relationships in cell behavior and tissue development and also for
introducing pathways to engineer complex tissues [13]. With high resolution and
high fidelity, TPP is capable to fabricate several types of small-scale medical devices,
including micro-needles, microfluidic devices, etc. [14, 15]. In contrast to other RP
techniques, TPP is not restricted to a layer-by-layer build-up of a 3D structure.
4.1.3 Fused Deposition Modeling

In an a fused deposition modeling (FDM) process, a spool of thermoplastic filament
is fed into a heated FDM extrusion head and the filament is melted into liquid poly-
mer (normally 1 ◦ C above the melting temperature) by a heater. As the extrusion
head moves horizontally in the x and y axes following a programmed path, the fil-
ament material is extruded from a nozzle directly onto the FDM machine platform
by a precision pump. Once a layer is finished, the extrusion head moves up for a
programmed distance in the z direction for depositing the next layer. Each layer is
bonded to the previous layer through thermal heating [16]. Solid objects are made
layer by layer, with the layer thickness depending on the nozzle diameter [17]. The
FDM technique is constrained by the use of thermoplastic materials with good melt
viscosity and human cells cannot be encapsulated into FDM-built structures during
the fabrication process because of the high temperature involved. It was shown that
poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) and poly(D,L-lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) filaments
could be fabricated from polymer pellets, which had constant diameters. These fil-
aments were then fit for FDM systems and 3D scaffolds of these polymers were
made [18, 19]. Furthermore, for bone tissue engineering, biodegradable polymer-
bioceramic composite scaffolds such as calcium phosphate (Ca-P)/PCL scaffolds
were fabricated using the FDM technique [20, 21].
4.1.4 3D Plotting
3D plotting, also termed “bioplotting” when used in the biomedical field, is based on
an automatic dispenser for a hydrogel material which is forced to go through the tip of
a syringe and then laid down on a platform in air or into a liquid medium [22]. Hydro-
gel formation can be achieved by further chemical reaction and crosslinking. The
main advantage of 3D plotting is the mild processing environment, which is a pre-
requisite for the incorporation of biomolecules such as growth factors or even human
cells. Many biodegradable materials can be used for 3D plotting, including gelatin,
PEG, chitosan, and composites such as gelatin/hyaluronan and starch/PCL [23–25].
However, its limited resolution and low mechanical properties of the products formed
have restricted its applications in tissue engineering.
With appropriate modification, 3D plotting can also be employed to lay down
fibers to construct 3D solid scaffolds in a process similar to that of FDM. In this
process, a highly viscous polymer in the molten state is deposited from an xyz motor-
driven syringe onto a platform by pressure [26]. Woodfield et al. used this technique to
produce 3D scaffolds containing deposited polyethyleneoxide-terephtalate (PEOT)
or poly(ethylene glycol) (PEGT)/polybutylene-terephtelate (PBT) block copolymer.
They investigated the effects of various parameters such as fiber diameter, fiber
spacing and layer thickness in the internal structure of scaffolds on the mechanical
properties of scaffolds [27, 28]. The PEGT/PBT scaffolds produced by 3D fiber
deposition could create an in vivo environment that enhanced cartilaginous matrix

deposition and therefore have the potential for treating articular cartilage defects
[29, 30].
4.1.5 3D Printing
3D Printing (3DP) was first developed at Massachusetts Institute of Technology,

USA, and is probably one of the most widely investigated RP techniques for fabri-
cating tissue engineering scaffolds. During the 3DP process, a thin layer of powder
is first spread over the building platform and then an “inkjet” print head prints or
deposits a binder solution onto the powder bed. After the 2D layer profile is printed,
the piston of the building platform lowers the platform so that the next layer of
powder can be spread by a roller and laid down. This layer-by-layer process repeats
until the whole 3D object is built. After the binder has dried in the object composed
of the powder, the solid object is retrieved and unbound powder is removed. Many
biodegradable polymers in the fine powder form may be processed into 3D scaffolds
through the 3DP process. For synthetic poly(α-hydroxy esters) such as poly(L-lactic
acid) (PLLA), PLGA, PCL, organic solvents (such as chloroform) are chosen as the
binder [31–33]. The conventional particulate leaching technique for scaffold fabri-
cation could be combined with the 3DP technique to create porous scaffolds [34].
(The particulate leaching technique is a very common method used for producing
tissue engineering scaffolds. In this process, porogens, i.e. dissolvable particles (such
as sodium chloride), are firstly mixed with a polymer solution. The solvent in the
polymer solution is then evaporated and hence a polymeric object (film, bar, rod, etc.)
which contains dispersed porogens is formed. This object is subsequently immersed
in a liquid (normally distilled water) to dissolve the porogens. After the total disso-
lution of porogens while avoiding possible damages to the polymer structure in the
immersion process, a porous scaffold is eventually formed). The use of an organic
solvent as the binder can cause problems to the incorporation of cells into scaffolds.
Therefore, a starch-based biomaterial consisting of cornstarch, dextran and gelatin
was used for 3DP, with water being used as the binder [35].
4.1.6 Selective Laser Sintering
Selective laser sintering (SLS) uses a laser beam, such as a CO2 laser, to make
solid 3D objects by selectively sintering thin layers of suitable and powdered mate-
rials (mainly polymers and polymer-based composites). This technique has many
advantages, including high part accuracy, material availability and easy post-SLS
processing [36], which make SLS a very attractive technique for producing physical
models for surgical planning and for prototyping medical devices. In addition, the
capacity of SLS to generate 3D constructs with irregular shapes and also structures
such as channels and overhanging features enables this technique to fabricate tissue
engineering scaffolds with controlled pore shape, pore size and customized scaffold
architecture [1]. In this chapter, the working principle of SLS is firstly introduced
and the modification of commercial SLS machines for fabricating tissue engineering
scaffolds is then presented. The materials used in SLS are reviewed and the optimiza-
tion of SLS parameters using various methods for fabricating porous objects of good
quality is discussed. Biomimetic and biomedical applications of the SLS technique,
particularly for tissue engineering and drug delivery, are demonstrated.
4.2 Selective Laser Sintering
SLS was first developed and patented by Deckard and Beaman of the University of
Texas at Austin, USA, in the mid-1980s. It was commercialized by DTM Corporation,
USA, in 1987.
SLS is an additive manufacturing process and CAD files can be used for SLS
machines to fabricate 3D objects, porous or non-porous. The external and internal
structures of the objects to be formed can be designed using professional computer
software for 3D drawing, be described using mathematical equations, or be derived
from computerized medical imaging techniques such as magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI) and computer tomography (CT). The CAD file or the reconstructed imaging
file with the information of geometry and size of the object is converted into an STL
file which can be used by the computer of an SLS machine. According to the design
of the 3D object, the laser beam of the SLS machine selectively scans the layer of
the fine powder material to heat the powder and fuse the particles together, forming
a thin layer (a slice) of the 3D object. Layer-by-layer, a 3D object is constructed.
4.2.1 Principle of Selective Laser Sintering and Modification

of Commercial SLS Machines
Figure 4.2 displays a schematic diagram for SLS. Before the SLS process is started,
the entire part bed of the SLS machine is heated to just below the melting temperature
of the material or near the glass transition temperature of the material (if it is an
amorphous polymer) in order to minimize thermal distortion of the sintered layer
(and hence the sintered object) and facilitate fusion of the layer being sintered to the
previous layer [37]. During SLS, following the cross-sectional profiles from the slice
data, the laser beam scans the surface of powders to heat up the powders, causing
the particles in the powder to fuse together to form a solid layer. The powders that
have not been scanned by the laser beam remain in place to serve as the support for
the next layer of powder and will be removed and recycled after the whole object is
formed via SLS. After one layer is finished, the part bed is lowered and the powder
Fig. 4.2 A schematic diagram showing the principle of SLS
tank containing fine powders is raised. A new layer of powder is then spread on the
sintered part by a roller and the selective sintering process is repeated. After SLS,
the non-fused powder is removed from the 3D object formed by shaking the object
manually or using a compressed air jet for blowing away loose powder.
With the application of powerful, high-quality lasers, complete melting of powder
materials can occur, giving rise to a new technique, selective laser melting (SLM).
The SLM technique is very effective to produce, from metallic powders, objects
with complex geometries and good mechanical properties [38]. SLM has a sintering
mechanism similar to that of SLS, which includes the following phenomena: absorp-
tion and scattering of laser radiation, heat transfer, phase transformation, fluid flow
within the molten pool caused by surface-tension gradient, evaporation and emission
of material, and chemical reaction [38]. Many metallic materials in the powder form,
such as stainless steel, titanium and Ti-6Al-4V which are widely used as materials
for medical implants, can be fabricated into either non-porous or porous objects
[39, 40]. Therefore, SLM for biomimetic and biomedical applications is also
reviewed in this chapter.
Commercial SLS systems normally produce relatively large objects–this is in
comparison with the size of most of the individualized medical devices for patients–
and hence require large amounts of powder materials which are needed to fill the
powder tanks and to build the object. (In the Sinterstation 2,000 SLS system, the
size of the powder tank is 325 × 250 × 370 mm3 ; and in the Sinterstation 2,500
SLS system, the size of the powder tank is 330 × 280 × 380 mm3 ) A typical SLS
operation requires a powder supply of at least one-third of the power tank volume.
Therefore, a commercial SLS machine is not material-efficient for producing objects
of small sizes or for constructing tissue engineering scaffolds using expensive bioma-
terials. In order to reduce the consumption of biopolymer powders in the fabrication
of tissue engineering scaffold using the SLS technique, modifications of commercial
SLS machines need to be made. For example, for producing bone tissue engineering
Fig. 4.3 The SLS fabrication process for Ca-P/PHBV nanocomposite scaffolds for bone tissue
engineering or as a demonstration, highly porous structures: A Wet-synthesis of Ca-P nanoparticles;
B Morphology of Ca-P nanoparticles synthesized; C Fabrication of Ca-P/PHBV microspheres using
the S/O/W emulsion–solvent evaporation method; D Morphology of Ca-P/PHBV nanocomposite
microspheres produced; E A commercial Sinterstation 2,000 SLS system; F A miniature sintering
platform for modifying the Sinterstation 2,000 SLS system; G Complex models designs for SLS: a
salamanders, b elevated icosidodecahedron, c snarl; H Sintered Ca-P/PHBV nanocomposite porous
structures based on the models
scaffolds, a miniature sintering platform was designed, fabricated and installed in the
build tank of a Sinterstation 2,000 system (Fig. 4.3E) [41]. The miniature sintering
platform consisted primarily of a miniature build part and two powder tanks similar
to those in the commercial machine but with a much smaller size. The movement of
miniature build part was synchronized with the existing build part of Sinterstation
2,000 and the two miniature powder tanks were driven by two additional stepping
motors fixed within the miniature platform (Fig. 4.3F). After the machine modifi-
cation, only small amounts of powders were needed to fill the miniature powder
tank, with the original powder tanks being kept empty. Two sensors were installed to
sense the roller positions and the signals were fed back to a control panel which could
control the movement of miniature powder tanks. In another investigation, a compact
adaptation device was developed for a Sinterstation 2,500 system, transferring the
motion of the SLS part bed of the Sinterstation 2,500 system to the part bed of the
compact adaptation device [42]. This device was an integrated attachment that was
fixed onto the building platform of the SLS machine. When the compact adaptation
device was used, the amount of powders required was only 15 % of that used in the
full build version of Sinterstation 2,500 machine. With the careful modification
of commercial SLS machines, small-size tissue engineering scaffolds and medical
devices can be fabricated economically, using much less biomaterial and also much
shorter time.
For some biomedical applications, surface selective laser sintering (SSLS) appears
very attractive. Different from conventional SLS in which a polymeric material
absorbs infrared radiation (e.g. CO2 laser at λ = 10.6 μm), resulting in a vol-
umetric absorption by the whole polymer particle, SSLS uses near-infrared laser
radiation (λ = 0.97 μm) to melt the surface of polymer particles [43]. It is therefore
possible to sinter polymer microparticles into solid 3D structures by melting only
the near-surface layer of microparticles instead of the whole microparticles. This is
advantageous for sintering thermally unstable polymers (e.g. PLLA or PLGA) and
for producing scaffolds which contain biomolecules. Bukharova and co-workers thus
used SSLS to fabricate PLLA scaffolds onto which bone marrow-derived mesenchy-
mal stromal cells were seeded [44]. The cell–scaffold constructs were subsequently
implanted subcutaneously on the back of rats. Neoangiogenesis and invasion of con-
structs by the surrounding tissue were studied. Results showed that the cell–scaffold
constructs did not evoke inflammatory response and could provide the conditions for
organotypic regeneration (a high degree of blood supply and considerable amount
of immature precursor cells).
4.2.2 Materials for SLS
For constructing porous or non-porous objects, SLS requires materials in the pow-
der form. Many powdered materials, from polymers to ceramics to metals, can be
processed into solid objects by SLS in the general engineering fields as well as in
biomedical engineering. Usually, CO2 lasers with the wavelength of 10.6 μm are
selected for sintering polymers or materials with low melting temperatures. These
materials, which are commercially available, include wax, polycarbonate, nylons and
their composites, and acrylics [45]. However, they lack biocompatibility or bioac-
tivity and therefore their biomedical applications are limited. With the development
of biomaterials and emergence of regenerative medicine, biopolymers, including
biodegradable and non-biodegradable polymers, have been used to fabricate tissue
engineering scaffolds or porous implants via SLS.
Neodymium: yttrium aluminium garnet (Nd:YAG) lasers with a short wavelength
of 1.06 μm can also be used for SLS. They may outperform CO2 lasers for sintering
metallic and ceramic materials, which absorb much better at short wavelengths [46].
Consequently, pure titanium, Ti-6Al-4V and NiTi shape memory alloy, which are
known for their biocompatibility and good corrosion resistance, have been success-
fully sintered into 3D porous structures for medical implantation using Nd:YAG laser
[47, 48]. Bioceramics such as hydroxyapatite (HA) could also be sintered to form
customized implants for bone substitution [49]. The type of laser used in SLS can
affect the properties (mechanical properties, density, and surface texture) of SLS-
formed objects.
In theory, any material that can be processed into the powder form and can be
sintered by heat may be used in SLS to form solid objects. And the powdered mate-
rials for SLS should be of appropriate particle sizes for sintering and for having
good flowability for spreading on the part bed of an SLS machine. For SLS, pow-
dered materials with particle sizes in the range of 10–150 μm are preferred [50]. It
has been shown that the polymer particle size has significant effects on the prop-
erties of sintered scaffolds. Salmoria et al. fabricated starch–cellulose and cellu-
lose acetate scaffolds using SLS and found that the scaffolds fabricated from small
polymer particles had a higher degree of sintering and a significant level of closed
pores [51]. Owing to lower degrees of sintering and low density of unions, larger
polymer particles caused decreases in mechanical properties of sintered scaffolds
(lower elastic modulus and tensile strength). Commercial powdered materials can
be either used directly for SLS or mixed with other particles of suitable size to form
composite powders to produce 3D objects via SLS. For fabricating nanocomposite
scaffolds for bone tissue engineering, in order to homogeneously distribute bioactive
bioceramic particles in the polymer matrix of scaffolds, bioceramics such as HA
particles could be blended with polymer granules and the mixtures could be then
compounded in a twin-screw extruder to form composites [52]. The extruded com-
posites were subsequently pelletized and powdered for SLS, leading to the formation
of implants for bone replacement. Another strategy for using nanocomposites in SLS
is to fabricate polymer microspheres or composite microspheres first and then use
the microspheres as raw materials for 3D scaffold fabrication [41]. Adopting such a
strategy, as shown in Fig. 4.3A, B, bioactive and biodegradable Ca-P nanoparticles
having sizes in the range of 10–30 nm were firstly synthesized. The Ca-P nanoparti-
cles were amorphous and had a Ca:P molar ratio of about 1.49, which is close to that
of tricalcium phosphate (TCP), a bioactive and biodegradable bioceramic for bone
tissue repair. Ca-P/poly(hydroxybutyrate-co-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV) nanocom-
posite microspheres consisting of Ca-P nanoparticles and biodegradable PHBV
matrix were then fabricated using the solid-in-oil-in-water (S/O/W) emulsion–
solvent evaporation method, as shown in Fig. 4.3C. The nanocomposite microspheres
were of the suitable particle size for SLS and were successfully fabricated into
bone tissue engineering scaffolds via SLS. As a demonstration of the capability of
SLS when proper powdered materials are used and optimized SLS parameters are
employed, porous structures with very complex shapes and architectures could be
made by SLS using Ca-P/PHBV nanocomposite microspheres (Fig. 4.3H), according
to the complex designs by Hart and shared through internet [53] (Fig. 4.3G).
Table 4.1 Definition of important SLS parameters

SLS parameter Unit Definition
Laser power W The power of the applied CO2 laser
Scan spacing mm On the part bed, the distance between adjacent scan lines
Layer thickness mm The distance that the build part piston moves after each layer is sintered
Part bed ◦C The temperature of the area in the build part that contains both the
temperature powder being sintered and the sintered part
Scan speed mm/s The speed at which the laser travels in a scan line across the part bed
Roller speed mm/s The speed of the roller that moves across the build part
4.2.3 SLS Parameters
During SLS, a number of parameters, including laser power, scan spacing, layer
thickness, part bed temperature, scan speed and roller speed need to be controlled. The
definitions of these parameters can be found in Table 4.1. Most of these parameters
determine the energy that the part being sintered will absorb and therefore they can
significantly affect the quality of sintered products. The laser power and scan spacing,
along with scan speed, determine the laser energy input into the part bed in the SLS
machine. Without sufficient laser energy, it is impossible to produce objects with
designed structure, sufficient mechanical properties and good structural stability.
A lack of input laser energy will result in products that are too fragile to handle.
However, excessive input laser energy (due to excessive laser power and/or small
scan spacing) will lead to inaccurate product dimensions owing to oversintering, i.e.
undesirable/unintentional melting due to excessive heating. The part bed temperature
should be maintained just below the melting temperature of crystalline polymers or
just below the glass-transition temperature of amorphous polymers. Overheating the
powder materials with a high part bed temperature will reduce the flowability of
the powders or even cause the unsintered powders, which should not be melted by
the part bed temperature, to partially fuse with the sintered structure, making them
difficult to be removed after SLS. On the other hand, if the part bed temperature is
not sufficiently high, the strength of the sintered products will be low and hence they
tend to fall apart during post-SLS handling.
4.2.4 Optimization of SLS Parameters
In order to obtain high-quality 3D objects, viz., 3D objects with accurate dimensions

according to design, good structural stability and handability, and desired mechanical
properties, SLS parameters must be optimized, and by using appropriate SLS para-
meters, the objects will be properly sintered and constructed. For the optimization of
SLS parameters, the one-factor-at-a-time method of experimentation is often used,
in which one SLS parameter is varied at a time while the other parameters are kept
constant [54]. This method is useful for initial explorations of any subjects of interest
in R & D and is adopted by many researchers (even for in-depth studies beyond the
initial investigations). But the results obtained through studies using this method do
not provide information about interactions among two or more influencing factors
and thus do not reflect the real situation. To be closer to the actual process during
SLS, the factorial design methodology can be employed to evaluate the main effects
and interactions of joint factor effects on the response variables. The determination
of factors, levels and responses is important in the factorial design approach for the
optimization of SLS parameters. Partee et al. employed the two-level factorial design
of experiments (DOE) technique to determine optimal SLS parameters for processing
PCL [55]. Five SLS parameters (laser power, scan speed, scan spacing, part bed tem-
perature, and powder layer delay time) were investigated and a mathematical model
was developed to relate their influences on the PCL part quality (dimensional accu-
racy, structural integrity, mechanical strength, etc.). It was demonstrated that after
optimization of these parameters, non-porous PCL objects and porous PCL scaffolds
with 1D, 2D and 3D orthogonal, periodic porous architectures could be produced
using SLS [56]. The mechanical properties of their sintered products were exper-
imentally determined and then modeled using the finite element analysis method.
In investigations of fabricating Ca-P/PHBV nanocomposite scaffolds for bone tis-
sue engineering, three aspects of the scaffolds, namely, the dimensional accuracy,
structure and handling stability and compressive properties, were considered and
DOE with three factors and three levels was used to optimize the SLS parameters
[57]. In order to demonstrate the usefulness of optimized SLS parameters, a porous
Ca-P/PHBV nanocomposite scaffold in the shape of the proximal end of a human
femur but with a reduced size was successfully produced via SLS [58]. It is believed
that SLS parameters should be optimized for the materials that are used for con-
structing the 3D objects, be they porous or non-porous. It has also been found that
the mechanical behavior of scaffolds fabricated by SLS was not isotropic and was
strongly dependent on the manufacturing direction [59]. The sintered objects were
the weakest in the x-direction, where scan lines were parallel to the loading direction.
The highest elastic modulus values were recorded for struts in the y-direction, where
scan lines were perpendicular to the loading direction. Further investigations need
to be conducted for elucidating the mechanisms.
4.2.5 Applications of SLS in the General Manufacturing Industry
Except for biomedical applications, SLS is most widely used for making prototypes
in the manufacturing industry. By carefully choosing suitable commercial SLS mate-
rials such as DuraFormTM (a nylon-based powder) and CastFormTM (a polystyrene
material coated with wax), prototypes with properties very close to those of injec-
tion moulded parts can be fabricated via SLS. These thermoplastic raw materials
provide users with a choice of producing durable and flexible objects or stiff and
rigid objects. The SLS technique is highly capable of fabricating prototypes with
complex geometries and irregular shapes, including structures containing channels
and overhanging features. In addition, the finished parts and/or assemblies have a
good surface finish and contain detailed features. Apart from making functional pro-
totypes, SLS can also be used to produce presentation models for marketing purposes
or showpieces for display. These SLS-formed objects usually require master finish,
which is a post-production process for the objects to be sanded, primed, plated or
painted according to different purposes. Another regular application that utilizes the
SLS technique is creating casting patterns. TrueForm (an acrylic-based powder) and
CastFormTM are the commercial SLS materials for creating patterns for investment
casting (an industrial process based on one of the metal-forming techniques) [45].
These SLS materials are easily burned off in the foundry process and are capable of
making patterns with moderate strength, high accuracy and intricate details. Com-
pared to other techniques, SLS is attractive and well suited to fabricate complex and
customized parts with shorter time and lower cost.
4.3 Biomedical Applications of SLS
SLS has found many applications in the biomedical field, including the fabrication of
tissue engineering scaffolds, drug delivery vehicles, medical device prototypes, bio-
medical devices themselves, and physical models for surgical planning and simula-
tion. This section highlights these biomedical applications and pays special attention
to the creation of tissue engineering scaffold and drug delivery system using SLS.
4.3.1 Physical Models for Surgical Planning
The first medical applications of SLS from the general manufacturing industry were
the production of accurate models for surgical planning and simulation, particularly
for craniofacial and maxillofacial surgeries and for neurosurgery. Surgical planning
is needed for accurately and effectively performing surgeries, for minimizing the
duration of complex and time-consuming surgeries and for reducing the risk of com-
plications [60]. Using high-resolution, multiplanar medical imaging techniques such
as MRI and CT, 3D medical images can be obtained from patients, whose computer
data are subsequently used for 3D model fabrication using the SLS technique. Phys-
ical models of the brain and skull were produced via SLS for the purpose of surgical
training in the procedures of deep microvascular anastomosis [61]. Similarly, neu-
rosurgeons could use SLS-formed models to practice with real sense and judgment
when manipulating operative instruments. Therefore, the accuracy of medical mod-
els formed by RP techniques is very important. The shape, dimensions and anatomic
details of models produced can be affected by errors at any stage of the SLS process.
Silva et al. compared the accuracy of a craniomaxillary model made by SLS to that of
the model fabricated via 3DP [62]. The model generated by SLS showed better dimen-
sional precision and reproduced craniomaxillary anatomy more accurately than the
3DP-formed model (dimensional errors of 2.10 and 2.67 % for SLS-formed and 3DP-
formed models, respectively). SLS-formed models could reproduce better anatomic
details, except for thin bones, small foramina and acute bone projections. When SLS
and 3DP were compared for reproducing mandibular anatomy, it was found that the
SLS-formed model had a greater dimensional accuracy than the 3DP-formed model
[63].
4.3.2 Medical Device Prototypes
A major advantage of using RP technologies to produce medical device prototypes

is the rapid fabrication of customized products which are tailored to the needs of
individual patients. Using the SLS technique, Wu et al. fabricated a wax pattern for a
partial nasal prosthesis [64]. The precision of the computerized model allowed for the
satisfactory restoration of facial contours and was advantageous for both the patient
and the maxillofacial prosthodontist. Montgomery et al. designed an actively actuated
prosthetic socket (which is the portion of the prosthesis that attaches to the residual
limb of an amputee and serves a variety of functions, from stationary support to the
transfer of forces necessary for making movements) and using nylon, manufactured
the prosthetic socket according to the design [65]. Tests with this socket showed great
potential for developing new sockets that would provide greater comfort and fit for
patients to avoid movement problems and rehabilitation difficulties. These studies
have provided good examples of using the SLS technique to produce the so-called
“bionic man”, i.e. to make functioning extremities (arms, legs, etc.) for patients
who unfortunately have lost or do not have these limbs due to accidents, diseases
or congenital anomalies. Also using SLS, Faustini et al. manufactured ankle-foot
orthoses (AFOs) which are used as assistive or therapeutic devices to improve gait
performance for persons with impaired lower limb function [66]. SLS allowed the
fabrication of AFOs directly from digital shape information of a patient’s limb and
was capable of optimizing the characteristics of AFOs (e.g. weight and stiffness)
by changing the materials and by using different reinforcements such as carbon
fibers. Similarly, customized foot orthoses, which are used to lessen the symptoms
of rheumatoid arthritis and to improve function and mobility, were fabricated using
SLS [67]. The trials by patients indicated that these tailor-made orthoses performed
well in terms of patients’ gait and evaluation for fit and comfort by the patients.
4.3.3 Medical Implants and Prostheses
One of the disadvantages of polymers or polymer-based composites for orthope-

dic applications is their low mechanical properties. They may only serve to repair
or regenerate cortical and/or cancellous bone in human bodies in non-load-bearing

areas or in load-bearing parts but without the load-bearing requirement. In contrast,
implantable metals such as titanium and titanium alloys can be used to construct 3D
objects as bioactive and load-bearing implants. Hao et al. fabricated HA/316L stain-
less steel (SS) composite using the SLM technique and studied the effects of SLM
parameters and HA particles on the properties of HA/SS composite [68]. The highest
tensile strength of HA/SS parts produced using optimal SLM parameters was close
to the tensile strength of human bone and was sufficient for making load-bearing
bone implants. In another study, porous Ti scaffolds characterized by high porosity
(∼70 %), connected Ti walls and open porous structures with macropores (in the
range of 200–500 μm) were successfully produced using a laser power of 1000 W
and a scan speed of 0.02 m/s [69]. Porous Ti structures were developed primarily to
circumvent the problem of mechanical mismatch between the implant and bone and
provide a suitable environment for bone ingrowth, thus achieving a strong fixation
between the implant and surrounding bone. Mullen et al. used a regular unit cell to
design and produce porous Ti structures with a large range of physical and mechan-
ical properties [70]. These properties could be tailored to suit specific requirements.
Particularly, functionally graded structures with surfaces that could enhance bone in-
growth were manufactured. They showed porosity dependent compressive strength
(porosity: 10–95 %; strength: 0.5–350 MPa) comparable to those of human bone.
For investigating biocompatibility of sintered products, human osteoblasts were cul-
tured on SLM-formed Ti-6Al-4V meshes and their behavior was studied [71]. SEM
examinations revealed osteoblasts with well-spread morphology and multiple contact
points. Other in vitro experiments confirmed osteoblast vitality and proliferation on
the Ti-6Al-4V meshes. SLM proves to be capable of producing metallic or ceramic
porous structures which are biocompatible and have sufficient mechanical properties
for load-bearing bone implants.
4.3.4 Tissue Engineering Scaffolds
Traditionally, autograft, allograft and synthetic biomaterials are used in the treat-
ment of diseased or traumatized tissues or organs in human bodies. Even though
the treatments can be successful, however, major limitations, such as shortage of
donors, graft rejections and lack of bioactivity for integration with the host tissue,
do exist. As an alternative for human tissue repair, tissue engineering emerged in
the late-1980s, which involves the use of biodegradable scaffolds and growth factors
with or without specific populations of living cells [72]. There are several strategies
in tissue engineering, which are generally divided into cell-based tissue engineer-
ing, factor-based tissue engineering and scaffold-based engineering, as schematically
illustrated in Fig. 4.4. For scaffold-based tissue engineering, controlling the macro-
and micro-architecture of the scaffold and fulfilling a customized design with a com-
plex anatomic shape are of significant importance for the clinical application of
the scaffold [73]. Unlike non-designed manufacture techniques for scaffolds such
Fig. 4.4 Tissue engineering strategies
as solvent casting/particulate leaching, phase separation, gas foaming/high pressure

processing, etc. SLS and other RP techniques are capable of achieving extensive and
detailed control over scaffold architecture using CAD designs and computer-based
medical imaging technologies [17, 74].
Scaffolds as bone graft substitutes or for bone tissue engineering can be made
via SLS using biopolymers (including both biodegradable and non-biodegradable
polymers), bioceramics and biomedical composites. In one investigation, Rimell
and Marquis used a simplified SLS apparatus to sinter an ultrahigh molecular weight
polyethylene (UHMWPE) [75]. They found that solid, linear and continuous objects
could be formed but the high degree of shrinkage caused problems in the forma-
tion of sheet-like structures. Other powdered non-biodegradable polymers such as
polyetheretherketone (PEEK) could also be used in SLS [76]. PEEK is a high temper-
ature, semi-crystalline thermoplastic polymer and is often chosen for manufacturing
medical instruments or implants due to its good mechanical properties and good
biocompatibility. These non-biodegradable polymers (UHMWPE, PEEK, etc.) can
form some useful implants for bone tissue repair. On the other hand, it is often shown
that only one single biomaterial cannot fully fulfill the requirements for bone graft
substitutes. Therefore, composite scaffolds based on non-degradable polymer and
HA, including HA/PEEK and HA/high density polyethylene (HDPE), were produced
using SLS [77, 78]. HA/HDPE scaffolds were made and investigated as potential cus-
tomized maxillofacial implants. It was observed that HA/HDPE composite scaffolds
with high HA contents enhanced cell proliferation, increased alkaline phosphatase
(ALP) activity and produced more osteocalcin (OCN) [79]. In the study of HA/PEEK
scaffolds, different amounts of HA were incorporated into PEEK to produce porous
scaffolds with well-defined pore interconnectivity. By varying the HA content, the
porosity of the HA/PEEK composite scaffolds changed gradually and the bioactivity
and mechanical properties were also altered [80].
For scaffold-based tissue engineering, with conventional notion, the scaffold
should be biodegradable and the degradation rate should be synchronized with the
rate of neo-tissue formation. Therefore, for tissue engineering scaffolds, several well
established biodegradable polymers as well as their composites have often been
used. One widely used biodegradable polymer is PCL which is a semi-crystalline
polymer with high thermal stability, good biocompatibility and low melting tempera-
ture [81]. It is a US Food and Drug Administration-approved biodegradable polymer.
Williams el al. used PCL to fabricate tissue engineering scaffolds via SLS [82]. The
sintered PCL scaffolds had a porous structure with orthogonal interconnecting pores
and were seeded with human gingival fibroblastic cells. The cell–scaffold constructs
were subcutaneously implanted in 5–8 week old immuno-compromised mice. Sub-
sequent studies using μCT and histological staining showed that bone formed on or
inside the orthogonal pore scaffolds. The sintered scaffolds possessed mechanical
properties in the lower range of trabecular bone. In order to demonstrate the poten-
tial for clinical application of SLS-formed scaffolds, a mandibular condyle scaffold
based on an actual pig condyle was designed, fabricated and evaluated. Ciardelli et al.
applied SLS to sinter blends of microparticles of PCL and a polysaccharide (starch,
dextran or gelatin) and systematically studied the morphology, thermal behavior and
cell compatibility of the scaffolds produced [83]. Some other biodegradable poly-
mers, such as poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA), PLLA and PLGA (LA:GA = 95:5), were
also successfully processed into scaffolds via SLS [84, 85]. Particulate bioceramics
such as HA can be incorporated into biodegradable polymers to form biodegradable
composite scaffolds and the composite scaffolds are expected to combine the char-
acteristics of constituent materials. For example, dry blends of PCL and HA particles
were used to fabricate composite scaffolds via SLS [54]. The SLS parameters for
sintering HA/PCL scaffolds were varied for achieving good-quality scaffolds. The
HA/PCL scaffolds produced exhibited good bioactivity in a simulated body fluid
(SBF) and good cell compatibility in cell culture experiments. Other composite scaf-
folds such as HA/PVA and HA/PLGA (LA:GA = 95:5) were made and investigated
by other researchers [85, 86].
For fabricating novel and/or improved biomaterials, the research has been moving
from conventional technologies to microtechnology and further to nanotechnology.
Consequently, the mechanical properties and the biological responses of materials are
improved. With large surface-area-to-volume ratios, nano-bioceramics are reported
to exhibit good ductility before fracture owing to the grain-boundary phase and lower
sintering temperature [87]. Nanostructured Ca-P and nanocomposites consisting
of nano-sized Ca-P can provide better biocompatibility and osseointegration than
their larger-particle-size counterparts [88, 89]. In reported studies, for achieving
a homogeneous distribution of Ca-P nanoparticles in the composite, nanocom-
posite microspheres consisting of nano-sized Ca-P and a PLLA or PHBV matrix
were fabricated first using the S/O/W emulsion solvent evaporation method [90].
The nanocomposite microspheres subsequently served as raw materials which would
be subjected to SLS for the fabrication of nanocomposite scaffolds for bone tissue
engineering, as illustrated in Fig. 4.5A. It has been shown that the incorporation of
nano-sized Ca-P in PHBV-matrix scaffolds significantly promoted cell growth, with
higher metabolic activity as compared to PHBV polymer scaffolds. Moreover, the
ALP activity of osteoblastic SaOS-2 cells on Ca-P/PHBV nanocomposite scaffolds
was remarkably higher than that of SaOS-2 cells on PHBV scaffolds.
Besides bone tissue engineering, SLS can also be used to fabricate 3D porous
scaffolds for the repair or regeneration of other tissues. Liu et al. physically
Fig. 4.5 Biological performance of SLS-formed Ca-P/PHBV nanocomposite scaffolds: A A Ca-

P/PHBV scaffold fabricated via SLS (Left design model; Right sintered scaffold); B Morphology
of C3H10T1/2 cells cultured on surface modified Ca-P/PHBV scaffold for 21 days in an osteogenic
medium; C ALP activity of C3H10T1/2 cells cultured on different scaffolds in an osteogenic medium
(White column Ca-P/PHBV scaffolds; Gray column Ca-P/PHBV scaffolds with simply adsorbed
rhBMP-2; Black column surface modified Ca-P/PHBV scaffolds loaded with rhBMP-2; for the
statistical analysis of results, ∗ indicates p < 0.05 and ∗∗ indicates p < 0.01); D In vivo evaluation
of bone regeneration: a, c μCT 3D images, and b, d histological images of different scaffolds after
their implantation in the ilium of rabbits for 6 weeks. a, b for Ca-P/PHBV scaffolds, and c, d for
surface modified Ca-P/PHBV scaffolds loaded with rhBMP-2
blended epoxy resin E-12 (a polymer, acting as a binder) with K2 O-Al2 O3 -SiO2
series of dental glass-ceramics, forming fine composite powders. Subsequently, they
used the powders to fabricate dental restoration devices through SLS [91]. After
pre-densification and sintering, glass-ceramic teeth could be made under the opti-
mized SLS condition. PCL scaffolds with designed architectural and mechanical
characteristics were also made using SLS to accommodate C2C12 myoblast cells
for cardiac tissue engineering [92]. The SLS-formed PCL scaffolds with a relatively
low stiffness (300–400 kPa) could support myoblast cells of a high initial density
and with a spatially uniform distribution and maintain their viability and function.
To engineer implantable liver tissue, Huang et al. designed a PCL scaffold with a 3D
branching and joining flow-channel network comprising multiple tetrahedral units
and fabricated the scaffolds using SLS [93]. Human hepatoma Hep G2 cells were
then seeded in the scaffold using avidin–biotin (AB) binding and cultured in a per-
fusion system. The 3D flow channels were shown to be essential to the cell growth
and function and the AB binding-based seeding improved remarkably the overall
performance of the cell-loaded scaffolds.
4.3.5 Drug or Biomolecule Delivery Systems
SLS can also be used to produce delivery vehicles for drugs or biomolecules. Leong
et al. fabricated drug delivery devices (DDDs) by selectively sintering mixtures of
nylon powder and methylene blue dye which acted as a model drug [94]. In order to
improve the release behaviour, two features, viz., porous microstructure and dense
wall formation, were introduced for DDD and then studied for their roles in drug stor-
age and in controlling drug release through the diffusion process [95]. In vitro release
experiments showed that SLS-formed DDDs were capable of controlling the release
of the model drug into a simulated body environment. Although non-biodegradable
polymer matrix, reservoir-type DDDs can provide zero-order drug release by the
diffusion of drug molecules from the core through the shell, these drug delivery
systems are not suitable for tissue engineering. Using biodegradable polymers as
device matrices, DDDs are potentially much more useful for drug or biomolecule
delivery. Therefore, a biodegradable DDD was made via SLS using PCL-methylene
blue mixtures [96]. In order to reduce the level of initial burst release, a number
of barrier rings were designed and made in the cylindrical DDD. The drug release
profiles could therefore be modified by changing the design and fabrication of DDD
structure for polymeric delivery systems. Generally, drug molecules are loaded in a
DDD either by blending them with polymer powders before SLS or by drug adsorp-
tion on a DDD after the formation of DDD via SLS. A PCL-progesterone (PG, a
steroid hormone used for endometrial cancer treatment) drug delivery system was
fabricated by sintering mixed powders of PCL and PG [97]. The introduction of PG
particles provided reinforcement for the DDD, resulting in a higher strength than that
of sintered PCL samples. In one investigation, as a demonstration of SLS capability,
bovine serum albumin (BSA)-containing nanocomposite scaffolds were produced
[98]. BSA was used as a model protein (biomolecule) and it was firstly encapsulated
in Ca-P/PHBV nanocomposite microspheres using the double emulsion solvent evap-
oration method. BSA-loaded Ca-P/PHBV microspheres were then processed into
3D porous scaffolds with good dimensional accuracy using the SLS technique. The
nanocomposite microspheres served as protective carriers for BSA and maintained
the bioactivity of BSA during SLS. In the subsequent in vitro BSA release study,
an initial burst release was observed, which was followed by a slow release. The
BSA encapsulation efficiency in both BSA-loaded microspheres and SLS-formed
scaffolds was relatively low owing to the materials used, the microsphere fabrication
method and the SLS process. However, this manufacturing route could be effective
for incorporating drugs which are not sensitive to high temperatures. On the other
hand, SSLS might be an alternative technique for making delivery vehicles for bio-
molecules. It was investigated for producing poly(D, L-lactic acid) (PDLLA)-based
scaffolds containing ribonuclease A (a model enzyme) [99]. Composite powders of
PDLLA and ribonuclease A were made into 3D porous scaffolds via SSLS. Ribonu-
clease A in scaffolds sintered at various laser intensities retained substantial activity
after the SSLS process.
For tissue regeneration, scaffolds alone may not be adequate due to the lack
of biochemical stimulation for promoting cell proliferation and differentiation. The
stimulants include hormones, proteins such as cytokines and growth factors, and they
are responsible for providing biosignals that will prompt specific cell behavior and
functions. Ideally, an adequate amount of growth factor(s) should be incorporated in
the scaffold according to the specific tissue targeted for regeneration and be released
in a temporal and spatial way for a desired period of time. Although biomolecule-
containing scaffolds could be made by sintering mixtures of polymer powder and
biomolecules or by sintering biomolecule-loaded microspheres, the SLS process
may damage the biomolecules due to high heat. One solution to this problem is to
bind biomolecules to the scaffolds after SLS and the bioactive biomolecules could
be released later in a controlled manner in vitro and in vivo. One example was the
loading of recombinant human bone morphogenetic protein-2 (rhBMP-2) onto sur-
face modified Ca-P/PHBV nanocomposite scaffolds [58]. The surface modification
of Ca-P/PHBV scaffolds was achieved through the physically attachment of gelatin
on scaffolds and then the immobilization of heparin on attached gelatin. rhBMP-2
was loaded onto surface modified scaffolds (and later released from the scaffolds in
vitro or in vivo in a sustained manner) due to the specific affinity between heparin
and growth factors. This strategy not only provided a means to protect the loaded
rhBMP-2 but also improved the sustained release profile for rhBMP-2. To investigate
the effect of rhBMP-2 release from scaffolds and also the osteogenic differentiation
of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), pluripotent mesenchymal cell line C3H10T1/2
was seeded on bare Ca-P/PHBV scaffolds and on surface modified Ca-P/PHBV scaf-
folds loaded with rhBMP-2. Figure 4.5B shows an SEM micrograph of C3H10T1/2
cells after 21-day culture on a surface modified and rhBMP-2-loaded Ca-P/PHBV
scaffold using an osteogenic medium. The proliferating cells were observed to cover
the whole surface of the scaffold. The ALP activity assay and mRNA expression
results showed that as compared with scaffolds with simple adsorption of rhBMP-2,
the ALP levels were significantly up-regulated for cells cultured on surface mod-
ified Ca-P/PHBV scaffolds loaded with rhBMP-2 (Fig. 4.5C). Consistent with the
up-regulation of ALP and gene expression, C3H10T1/2 cells cultured on surface
modified Ca-P/PHBV scaffolds loaded with rhBMP-2 also displayed much higher
OCN expression. In in vivo experiments, Ca-P/PHBV nanocomposite scaffolds with
or without rhBMP-2 loading were implanted in a drilled hole in the ilium of New
Zealand white rabbits. 3D images of explanted Ca-P/PHBV scaffolds were recon-
structed using μCT, as shown in Fig. 4.5D(a) and D(c). After 6 week implantation,
there was very limited bone formation in Ca-P/PHBV scaffolds without rhBMP-2
loading (Fig. 4.5D(a)), with the drilled hole being occupied by the scaffold. In con-
trast, using surface modified scaffolds loaded with rhBMP-2, new bone was formed
and it penetrated into the pores (Fig. 4.5D(c)). The histological images showed that
for the surface modified Ca-P/PHBV scaffolds loaded with rhBMP-2, the center of
the defect (the drilled hole) was filled with newly formed bone which bridged with
the host bone (Fig. 4.5D(d)), whereas in the bone defect treated with a Ca-P/PHBV
scaffold without rhBMP-2 loading, new bone formation was observed only at the
periphery of the defect (Fig. 4.5D(b)). For the surface modified Ca-P/PHBV scaffolds
loaded with rhBMP-2, the bony tissue grew from the host bone and the original site
of the drilled hole exhibited enhanced osteogenesis. All these results indicated that
the surface modification could provide binding sites for rhBMP-2 and control its sus-
tained release behavior. The sustained local release of rhBMP-2 could attract MSCs
in the bone marrow, stimulate their differentiation into osteoblasts and promote the
ingrowth of new bone in the scaffold.
4.4 Summary
SLS is a mature and versatile RP technique that can find many biomedical applica-
tions. It has already been intensively investigated for producing high-quality tissue
engineering scaffolds for the regeneration of different human body tissues. Unlike
the conventional use of SLS in industries such as microelectronics, telecommuni-
cation and automobiles where the cost of SLS material is not an issue for much
consideration, in most biomedical applications, the availability and cost of materials
can significantly affect the outcome of the strategy based on the use of SLS. It has
been shown that with certain modifications, commercial SLS machines can accom-
modate the requirement of using small amounts of powdered materials for producing
medical devices and tissue engineering scaffolds. For medical devices that will be
implanted in human bodies and tissue engineering scaffolds, current general purpose
SLS materials are not suitable and hence new approaches of using existing bioma-
terials and/or new biomaterials have been and will be investigated and developed.
On using SLS in the biomedical field itself, it has been demonstrated that the opti-
mization of SLS parameters is of great importance for the fabrication of good-quality
products. Using data from computerized medical imaging techniques such as MRI
and CT, customized biomedical devices and tissue engineering scaffolds can be made
through SLS. SLS can also be employed to produce delivery systems for the con-
trolled release of drugs or biomolecules. But the way a drug or a type of biomolecules
is incorporated in the delivery vehicle must be carefully considered and developed.
Within a relatively short period of time, many RP technologies, including SLS,
have been explored for fabricating implantable medical devices and tissue engineer-
ing scaffolds owing to their many advantages over conventional manufacturing tech-
niques. Still, new explorations need to be conducted and new efforts made to fully take
the advantages of SLS in the biomedical field. Issues such as making a device using
different materials for different parts and effectively incorporating desired amounts
of delicate biomolecules without denaturation must be tackled. Some future biomed-
ical application of SLS will require higher resolutions for the products (and hence
the SLS machine) and higher dimensional accuracy of sintered products. But as we
have witnessed over the past decade, with researchers of diverse disciplines (mechan-
ical engineering, materials science and engineering, biological science, and clinical
science) working together, SLS can have many biomedical applications. And SLS
certainly has great potential for further developments in the biomedical field.
Acknowledgments Our research on applying SLS in the biomedical field was supported by Hong
Kong Research Grants Council through GRF grants and by The University of Hong Kong (HKU)
through a research grant in its Basic Research Programme. We are grateful to staff and students at
HKU for their assistance in our SLS research.
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Chapter 5
Biomimetic Assemblies by Matrix-Assisted
Pulsed Laser Evaporation
Felix Sima and Ion N. Mihailescu
Abstract The Matrix-Assisted Pulsed Laser Evaporation (MAPLE) technique

emerged more than one decade ago as an alternative and complementary method to
Pulsed Laser Deposition (PLD) in view of transferring organic materials onto solid
substrates. In contrast to PLD, MAPLE proved to be a less harmful approach for
transporting and depositing delicate, heat sensitive molecules. Since origin, MAPLE
developed fast and was generally applied for organic biomaterials. It turned recently
to inorganic compounds and has become a competitor to PLD. An important ben-
efit of MAPLE is the capability of transferring films of nanoparticles with largely
extended active areas. Such films can play an essential role in biology, pharmaceutics
or sensing applications. This chapter reviews the mechanisms and recent progresses
of MAPLE in thin film assembling for biomimetic applications in drug delivery
systems, biosensors and advanced implant coatings.
5.1 Introduction
MAPLE was developed as a derivation of PLD and introduced [1, 2] for depositing
thin films of organic and polymeric materials with a minimal thermal and chemical
decomposition. In PLD, solid and compact inorganic materials are laser ablated and
transferred via plasma onto a parallel substrate. Nevertheless, even for low laser
energies, organic materials would be damaged by this approach. In MAPLE, organic
biomolecules are dissolved in a laser wavelength absorbent solvent which is next
frozen to form a solid target and exposed to laser irradiation. This way, the violent
F. Sima · I. N. Mihailescu (B)

Lasers Department, National Institute for Lasers, Plasma and Radiation Physics,
409 Atomistilor Street, 77125 Magurele, Ilfov, Romania
I. N. Mihailescu

112 F. Sima and I. N. Mihailescu
interaction of photons with the active material is diminished since the main fraction
of energy is absorbed by the solvent. The energy is converted to thermal energy
which helps to vaporize the solvent molecules entraining the organic molecules. The
volatile solvent molecules are eliminated by vacuum system while organic molecules
are reaching a facing substrate. There is a similarity of MAPLE with Matrix-Assisted
Laser Desorption/Ionization (MALDI) [1, 3] but in the latter case the matrix is more
complex from the chemical point of view and not appropriate for deposition.
With respect to solvent processing techniques, MAPLE preserves all the advan-
tages of PLD and, in particular, it allows a better control of the film thickness and
surface morphology, enhanced film/substrate adhesion, multi-layer deposition and
patterning. Furthermore, being a non-contact procedure, eliminates a major source
of contamination and can be integrated with other sterile processes. A more detailed
discussion is found in Sect. 5.5.
Biomimetics emerged as a novel technological approach based on the biodiver-
sity of the natural environment in order to reproduce the structure, physiology and
function of biological entities. By mimicking the organization and the mechanisms
in human body, the aim is to find solutions of replacing or repairing affected parts
by the creation and design of new bioinspired materials. Human structural assem-
bly is composed of complex configurations from nanometric to macroscopic scale.
Although there were many attempts to develop it, the biomimetic nanotechnology is
still in formative years, with no applications on the market. Nonetheless, exploring
and imitating the biology at the nanometer scale is challenging and could bring new
ideas and solutions in different domains such as tissue engineering, drug delivery
systems or biosensors. During the last decade, one new approach of nanomaterials
and of nanotechnologies focused on tissue engineering and regenerative medicine
fields with the view of developing new tissue substitutes with superior biological
properties [4].
Research in biomimetic tissue engineering and regenerative medicine takes
advantage of biology inspired structures and mechanism and follows generally three
directions: the development of bio-inspired functional surfaces for repair and regen-
eration of damaged tissues, the use of biomimetic drug delivery systems integrated
into engineering materials in view of a controllable local release to prevent e.g. post-
surgical infections in orthopedic implants, and to utilize engineered tissues with
biologically implantable biosensor microdevices in order to monitor physiology and
disease [5–8].
Development of Bio-Inspired Functional Surfaces For Repair and Regeneration of
Damaged Tissue
Nowadays, metallic prostheses or bone grafts are used to repair bone defects. Tita-
nium (Ti) and its alloys are the materials currently chosen in orthopedical and stom-
atological implants due to their high corrosion resistance in biological aggressive
media, low mass density, high specific strength and biocompatibility [9]. However,
in some cases implant failures due to encapsulation by a fibrous tissue or mismatch
in elasticity modulus between bone and implant lead to revision surgeries [9]. To
improve the regenerative capacity of bone tissue, bone associated materials are used
5 Biomimetic Assemblies by Matrix-Assisted Pulsed Laser Evaporation 113
for two main reasons: mimic the environment and speed up the healing processes
at interfaces [10–12]. Thin bioactive coatings were developed on implant surfaces
to form solid chemical bonds between implant surfaces and bone tissue in respect
with long-term stability [12, 13]. Inorganic materials such as calcium phosphates
(CaP) and in particular, hydroxyapatite (HA), which represents the major mineral
phase of native bone, bioglasses (BG) or CaP- and BG- based composite materials
are the most widely studied in the literature [14, 15] due to their biological proper-
ties for bone bonding and protein adsorption. On the other hand, organic structures
are interesting beside their biocompatibility, because of their biodegradability and
mechanical properties. Collagen-based matrices with complex pore orientation, pore
size and alignment anisotropy resembling the extracellular matrix (ECM) scaffolds
[16], porous crosslinked chitosan hydrogels [17], silk fibroin scaffolds with good sta-
bility [18], fibronectin (FN) crosslinked within hyaluronic acid hydrogels [19] were
suggested for damaged soft tissues regeneration and repair. In view of mimicking the
mineral-organic composition of bone and interaction processes, inorganic-organic
composite materials were focusing recently a great attention. HA-gelatin (HA-GEL)
composites were extensively studied since gelatin is a protein obtained by hydrolysis
of collagen, the main organic phase of bone [20–22]. CaP introduction into biopoly-
mer matrices such as polylactic acid (PLA) or poly (lactic acid-co-glycolic acid)
(PLGA) were found to improve mechanical performance as compared to CaP alone
[23]. Poly(lactide-co-caprolactone) (PLCL) with good mechanical properties and a
bone-mimicking gelatin-apatite system were combined into a functional composite
membrane with improved biological functions for hard tissues regeneration [24].
In addition to composites, which are intended to interfacial tissue reconstruction
between soft (e.g. cartilage) and hard (e.g. bone) tissues, gradient biomaterials of
multilayer coatings were synthesized for repairing or regenerating the functions of
damaged parts at the interface of different tissue types [25].
Use of Biomimetic Drug Delivery Systems
The second approach in biomimetic tissue engineering resorts to biomimetic
principles that have been extended to drug delivery systems. Such systems are inte-
grated into engineering materials in view of constructing cellular microenvironments
for different biomedical applications. Delivery of a drug into a precise place via
bioactive molecules is of a great significance for tumor or damaged tissues treatment.
Based upon a biomimetic approach antibiotics with calcium phosphate coatings were
obtained on titanium alloy (Ti6Al4V) substrates capable to release the drug with a
pH-dependent rate [26]. This approach is considered helpful to prevent post-surgical
infections in orthopedic implants. Calcium apatite has also been used for the retention
and local delivery of osteogenic factors such as recombinant human bone morpho-
genetic protein-2 (rhBMP-2) to locally induce the osteogenic transdifferentiation,
[27], which means that mature cells could differentiate into bone forming osteoblasts.
Thermosensitive polymers connected with peptides act as a dual stimulus-sensitive
polymer capable of both, forming a gel at body temperature and allowing degradation
in the presence of peptides. The controlled biodegradation has potential application
in delivery systems, where the polymer gels can release the incorporated drug in a
bioresponsive manner [28], sensitive to variations of physiological environment.
Engineered Tissues With Biologically Implantable Biosensor Microdevices
Bioreceptor entities such as proteins, peptides, enzymes or antibodies have been
extensively studied for biosensing applications. In this respect, natural (biomimetic)
recognition elements introduced in biomaterials extend the range of application
of biosensors. Immobilization of biomaterials on artificial devices are usually
attained by self-assembled monolayers (SAM), Langmuir-Blodgett (LB) films, or
layer-by-layer (LBL) assembling [29]. Genetically manipulated proteins capable to
fabricate 2D or 3D structures via bottom-up processes to control mineralization in
biological systems were synthesized [30]. Engineered tissues containing biologically
implantable biosensor microdevices which are able to observe tissue functions are
expected to improve the feedback loop of implementation by the biosensor record-
ings [8]. Enzymes were stabilized via encapsulation in liposomes, polymers or gels
to maintain their activity for longer time and be used as biosensors [31].
5.2 Biomimetic Design-Mimicking Aspects of a Natural

Organism
Research studies demonstrated that all living systems are governed by molecular
processes at nanometric scale. In particular, cellular organization and tissue character-
istics depend on the extracellular matrix (ECM) composition. ECM is a non-cellular
part present in tissues and organs and has significant roles in tissue morphogenesis,
cellular differentiation or homeostasis [32, 33]. It is also involved in the physical
arrangement of the cellular constituents. ECM is composed of water, proteins and
polysaccharides acting as mediators between cellular components and the growing
microenvironment [32]. It is a hierarchical complex structure with nanometer to the
centimeter spatial order. Tissue-derived cells require strong attachment to a solid
surface to ensure viability and growth. In contact with solid surfaces, the cells are
adhering and communicating via integrins, trans-membrane receptors that mediate
interactions between the cytoskeleton and the ECM. Studies confirmed the biological
productive interaction of a material surface organized at nanometric scale [4]. In fact,
human cells are in permanent contact with nanostructured surfaces [34]. In case of
an implant, surface features (such as morphology, composition and structure) notice-
ably influence the adsorption of proteins which consequently mediate the cellular
adhesion, proliferation and differentiation [35, 36].
Following a biomimetic approach, the future biomaterials will benefit from the
understanding of the biological processes such as wound healing or inflammation and
will develop reactions with high accuracy. The natural materials are generally com-
posites based on polymers and minerals exhibiting a diversity of properties depend-
ing on their structure at various length scales [37]. To avoid an uncontrolled cellular
response to surfaces, both, nanoscale and microscale characteristics are therefore

desired. In a recent review, porous structures were proposed for tissue replacement
and regeneration that could mimic hierarchically structured porous natural materials
[38]. It was stressed upon the different scales of porosity in natural materials (which
ranges from nanometers to millimeters): pores with small dimensions (nanometers)
are in charge with the bioactivity and protein interaction, micrometer sized pores
are involved in cellular attachment, while larger ones are responsible for cellular
growing, blood flux, mechanical resistance and implant functionality. In this view,
the use of inorganic materials (such as ceramics) is not always convenient for the
structural or functional restoration of a tissue, particularly in large bone defects. It
exists therefore a growing interest to deliver and release in a controllable manner
biologically active proteins, such as growth factors, adhesion proteins, or antibodies
via inorganic layer dissolution and to stimulate the cellular response toward mineral-
ization [39]. Deposition of composites, patterns or multilayer structures were found
clinically significant and innovative designs were proposed [40].
A material-inspired strategy of nano-assembling in biomedical applications for
enamel repair was recently reported [41]. The combined action of a glutamic acid
and nano apatite particles was capable to regenerate an enamel-like structure under
physiological conditions.
A novel design based on graded materials was proposed. The structure con-
sists of layers of biomineralized collagen, hyaluronic acid-charged collagen, and
an intermediate layer of the same nature as the biomineralized collagen, but with
a lower content of mineral. The aim was to develop composite osteochondral scaf-
folds organized in different integrated layers with biomimetic features for articular
cartilage and subchondral bone [42].
5.3 Scaffold Fabrication and Deposition Methods
One novelty in the field of biomimetics is the hybrid deposition methods with the
view of obtaining multilayer or nanocomposite structures for new applications and
improved performances. Many attempts were mentioned to combine magnetron sput-
tering with cathodic arc deposition, plasma-enhanced chemical vapor and electron
beam evaporation, or flash evaporation with physical vapor deposition to synthesize
innovative inorganic films, which are reviewed comprehensively in [43]. In case of
organic thin films it is mandatory to avoid thermal phenomena. Techniques such as
sol-gel, dip-coating or spin-coating which are in present employed to obtain thin films
of polymers or proteins are difficult to extend to multistructure generation because
of solvent implication and combination problems.
In recent years, there was a major interest in thin coatings technology to fabricate
multilayer coatings or high spatial resolution patterns on solid substrates with the
view of developing appropriate deposition techniques for available biomaterials in
suitable shape for specific applications [44, 45].
Table 5.1 summarizes widely used materials and deposition methods along with
specific advantages, drawbacks and relevant examples.
Multi-nozzle Deposition Manufacturing (MDM) was introduced as a non-thermal
process for manufacturing porous scaffolds for tissue engineering [14]. To obtain
inorganic-organic composites, MDM was applied in a single-nozzle deposition
process where the material was prepared by dissolving poly (L-lactic acid) into diox-
ane and mixing with tricalcium phosphate (TCP) particles. Thus, a
macroporous scaffold structure was obtained by phase separation and solvent sub-
limation while consequently a growth factor such as BMP (bone morphogenetic
protein) could be loaded into the scaffold by vacuum suction.
Organ-printing technology is a rapid prototyping computer-aided 3D method
based on layer by layer deposition of different types of hydrogels and cells in order
to fabricate 3D constructs for perfused, vascularized human tissues or structural and
functional units of human organs [65].
Direct assembling of cells and extracellular matrices for the construction of
functional 3D tissue/organ substitutes was achieved by an optimized cell-assembly
printing technique [66].
However, rapid prototyping techniques working with hydrogels, laser-based,
nozzle-based or printer-based systems, suffer from poor mechanical strength [67].
Another method to manufacture 3D hierarchical structures is the layer-by-layer
microfluidics process which involves immobilization of a cell-matrix assembly, cell-
matrix contraction, and pressure-driven microfluidic delivery to fabricate hybrid
biopolymer structures for tissue engineering [68]. Electrospinning enables the fab-
rication of scaffolds with micro and nanoscale topography and high porosity [69]. A
new generation of scaffolds comprising living cells was developed by electrospin-
ning technology. Antibiotics, proteins as well as living cells were incorporated into
the advanced scaffolds and electrospun [70].
Direct laser writing techniques such as Laser induced forward transfer (LIFT),
allow for the deposition of biomolecule patterns without degradation and with high
spatial resolution. Under the action of a laser pulse focused through a transparent layer
on a thin metallic film, a small fraction of an organic material coating is transferred
to a receptor substrate, which is placed closely and parallel. In this configuration,
biomaterials such as polyethylene glycol and eukaryotic cells, were deposited with a
spatial resolution of ∼10 µm without damage of structures or genotype [40]. In other
studies, microarrays of DNA have been spotted and were found capable to maintain
gene discrimination capacity [60].
Biological laser printing (BioLP) has been proposed as an alternative to the
above mentioned techniques for assembling and micropatterning biomaterials and
cells. High-throughput laser printing of a biopolymer, hydroxyapatite and human
endothelial cells was achieved demonstrating the capability of the method for three-
dimensional tissue construction [59]. LIFT-derived cell seeding pattern was shown to
modify the growth characteristics of cell co-cultures resulting in vessel formation and
in an efficient regeneration of infarcted hearts after transplantation of a LIFT-tissue
engineered cardiac patch [71].
Table 5.1 Common deposition methods of biomimetic thin films
Method Advantage Disadvantage Materials
Plasma spray (PS) Simple, not expensive Poor coating adhesion to Hydroxyapatite (HA)/ Bioglass
substrate/ weak (BG) [46]
ceramic-metal interface,
limited to inorganic coatings
Radio frequency magnetron Uniform dense coating Amorphous coatings, expensive, Hydroxyapatite (HA)/ Bioglass
sputtering (RF-MS) limited to inorganic coatings (BG) [47, 48]
Pulsed laser deposition (PLD) Film stoichiometry (especially Small covering areas, limited to Hydroxyapatite (HA)/ Bioglass
for doped materials) and good inorganic coatings (BG) [13]
adhesion
Sol-gel (SG) Application to both organic and Poor coating adhesion; Hydroxyapatite (HA)/ Bioglass
inorganic coatings Involvement of liquid media (BG) [49]
limit multi-layer assembling
Electrophoretic deposition (EPD) Simple processing equipment, Poor coating adhesion; Hydroxyapatite (HA)/ Bioglass
application to both organic Involvement of liquid media (BG) [50]
and inorganic coatings limit multi-layer assembling
(affect interfaces)
Electrostatic deposition (ED) Solvent-free coating process Limited to single coating Poly (lactic acid-co-glycolic
acid) (PLGA) [51]
Sol-gel (SG) Macroporous bioactive scaffold Poor coating adhesion; Chitosan/BG composite [52]
Involvement of liquid media
(affect interfaces)
5 Biomimetic Assemblies by Matrix-Assisted Pulsed Laser Evaporation
Layer-by-layer (LBL) Viscoelasticity/bioactivity Involvement of liquid media limit Chitosan/BG composite [53]
multi-layer assembling (affect
interfaces)
Adsorption on surface Simple, rapid Poor adhesion and uniformity, Fibronectin (FN), vitronectin
Involvement of liquid media (VN), collagen I [54]
(affect interfaces)
Spin coating Simple, uniform coatings Solvent issue during multilayers, PLGA/polycaprolactone (PCL)
adherence composite [55]
117
(continued)
118

Method Advantage Disadvantage Materials
Langmuir-Blodgett dip coating Monolayers Limited to very thin films Glucose [56]
Ink-jet printing Thicker films Possible nozzle blockage for PCL/chitosan [57]
composites
Multi-nozzle Deposition Porous structures Possible nozzle blockage for Poly (L-lactic acid)
Manufacturing (MDM) composites (PLA)/tricalcium phosphate
(TCP) [14]
Laser-induced forward transfer Patterns with high spatial Limited to patterns; difficulties Hydroxyapatite (HA) [58, 59],
(LIFT) resolution for large area thin coatings proteins [40, 60, 61]
Matrix assisted pulsed laser Nanoparticulate films, Small covering areas Fibronectin (FN) [62],
evaporation (MAPLE) application to both organic vitronectin (VN) [63],
and inorganic coatings Octocalcium phosphate
multilayers and (OCP) [64]
multistructures
F. Sima and I. N. Mihailescu
2D structures of hybrid polymers were produced by Two-Photon-Polymerization

(2PP). The scaffolds were tested in vitro for applications in tissue engineering with
the aim of developing a dermal graft [72, 73].
One alternative single step fabrication method of complex constructions of mul-
tilayers and multistructures is MAPLE due to the potential of transferring and
depositing both organic and inorganic materials. Because the transfer is supposed to
be dry (the solvent molecules are eliminated during the transfer by vacuum pumping)
the solvent implication is circumvented while the synthesis of multilayer structures
keeps rather simple. The method is a non-contact technique which proved very versa-
tile and challenging in respect with other laser based techniques [1, 74, 75]. One can
produce by MAPLE coatings with adhesion better than by other methods whilst film
uniformity and thickness on either rough or flat substrates can be well controlled.
Moreover, using appropriate masks in MAPLE one can manufacture microsized
samples (single or multilayered) for microarray chip applications [40].
5.4 Basics of MAPLE
Since its invention in late 1990s [2] as an alternative to spray coating of thin
films for chemical vapor sensors [76], MAPLE was successfully applied to a large
class of organic compounds for various applications [1, 77]. Thin films of pullu-
lan [78] or triacetate-pullulan [79] polysaccharides for drug delivery, polyfluorene
and polythiophene copolymers for metal-insulator-semiconductor and field-effect
transistor (FET) structures [80], chemoselective polymers for microsensors [81] or
proteins with applications in tissue engineering [62, 82] or biosensing [83, 84] were
obtained. A recent review on MAPLE deposition of organic, biological and com-
posite thin films summarized several potential applications of thin coatings obtained
by this method [85]. MAPLE was recently used to deposit uniform, ultra stable and
nanostructured glassy polymer films with superior thermal and kinetic stability [86].
5.4.1 Experimental Conditions and Mechanisms of MAPLE
According to the introductory remarks about the principle and prerequisites of

MAPLE, a typical MAPLE experiment starts with the preparation of a homoge-
nous solution consisting of a small amount of solute (0.5–5 % wt) dissolved in a
solvent (matrix). Next, the solution is frozen with liquid nitrogen to obtain a solid
target (Fig. 5.1), which is cooled and kept frozen during the laser irradiation and
deposition process.
Adequate deposition substrates are chosen according to specific applications or
analyses to be carried out. Before use, they are purged with acetone in an ultrasonic
cleaner, ethanol and deionized water and dried with high purity N2 gas. Subse-
quently, the substrates are placed parallel at an optimized distance in front of the
Fig. 5.1 Preparation stages of a solid frozen target starting from a liquid solution
Fig. 5.2 Photos of a MAPLE configuration inside the reaction chamber: non-irradiated target
mounted on cooler (a), cryogenic target illuminated during laser irradiation (b), deposition substrates
dimly lit by irradiated target (c) and eroded target after multi-pulse laser irradiation (d)
rotating frozen target in the reaction chamber and gently heated below the degrada-
tion temperature of the solute (Fig. 5.2).
The solvent plays an important role in the MAPLE process, since it is the carrier
of the solute molecules. Therefore it must be chemically inert and must not interact
with the solute during laser irradiation. The frozen solvent must efficiently absorb
Liquid N2 Frozen target
Biomolecule
Si substrate
y
Cooler
Volatile solvent
molecules are
pumped away
Heater
Fig. 5.3 MAPLE scheme. The solution is frozen and forms the target (left) which is cooled by a
liquid nitrogen flow and maintained in constant rotation and translation. The laser beam (center top)
irradiates the target, disrupting material from the surface which is deposited on the heated substrate
(right). A warm substrate encourages solvent evaporation and adherence of film
the incident laser power and be easily evaporated. The volatile solvent molecules
are vaporized and evacuated from the reaction chamber by the pumping system,
guiding the solute molecules onto the substrates where they are deposited without
degradation (Fig. 5.3). The most important MAPLE parameters are laser fluence, laser
pulse repetition rate, substrate temperature, and target-collector separation distance.
A dynamic pressure (<10−1 mbar) is maintained inside the deposition chamber
during the process. Typically, several hundred up to few thousand laser pulses are
applied in order to achieve the desired thickness of the growing film.
The preferred laser systems in MAPLE experiments are pulsed UV lasers, such
as excimer lasers (ArF* (wavelength: 193 nm), KrF* (wavelength: 248 nm), XeCl*
(wavelength: 308 nm)), which generate pulses with a duration in the range of 20–30 ns
or solid state Nd:YAG lasers (wavelength: 266 nm (fourth harmonic) or 355 nm (third
harmonic)) with durations in the range of 5–10 ns. A typical applied laser fluence
varies from 0.05 to 1 J/cm2 [87]. In addition, a uniform intensity over the laser spot
is generally desired (top hat profile) for a defined and stable material evaporation.
At first sight, it seems difficult to apply MAPLE for the coating of large substrates
due to the concentrated and localized (point-like) laser–material interaction. This
drawback is circumvented by rotating and translating the substrates.
Parallel to the experimental efforts related to MAPLE, theoretical considerations
aiming at the explanation of the underlying processes were made. In this context, a
model based on complete evaporation process was proposed for the interaction of the
laser beam with the frozen target [88]. Namely, it is supposed that the laser energy
is absorbed by the matrix, converted into thermal energy necessary for the solvent
molecules to be vaporized. Next, the solute molecules are transported by collisions
with solvent molecules and deposited on facing collector.
Later on, molecular dynamic simulations demonstrated that a consequence of
the interaction between a laser beam and the cryogenic target is the formation of
solvent-solute clusters due to overheating [89, 90]. In support of the proposed
explosive-boiling model, it was shown that the ejection of material can be the result of
explosive evaporation or spallation also described as “cold laser ablation”, a phenom-
enon which becomes more evident when increasing the fluence. This results in the
deposition of thin droplet coatings with high roughness morphology. Another mecha-
nism based on local overheating of absorbing outmost surface layer of biomolecules
was proposed [91]. More concretely, the solute molecules are also absorbing laser
energy and their temperature is increasing. The heating is transferred to the solvent
which, under vacuum, starts boiling just above melting point. The material ejection
is consequently produced at lower temperature than the degradation threshold.
A nonhomogeneous absorption mechanism was proposed as well. This mech-
anism could account for the two cases: for low laser fluence the mass ejection is
produced by surface evaporation while at higher fluencies hydrodynamic ablation
mechanisms is responsible for the expulsion [92]. A frozen target composed of solute
dissolved in a solvent also includes different phases such as ice cracks, air bubbles,
or other defects. These phases were suggested to be involved in light absorption or
scattering processes during laser irradiation of the heterogeneous frozen target [92].
Accordingly, the absorption was found to be higher in ice as compared to water. The
laser absorption can be increased by the addition of other compounds in the solution,
which introduce local modifications of material properties. An example is visible
from Fig. 5.4 where the absorbance level at e.g. 248 nm is indicated for distilled water
(d.w.) and solutions containing organic (TRIS–tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane),
inorganic salts (NaCl) and proteins (bovine serum albumin–BSA) before and after
freezing. These salts act in two ways: as protein stabilizers and absorption centers
during laser-target interaction.
Based upon the above mentioned theoretical considerations, which confirm the
important role of the chosen solvent regarding the properties of the ejected parti-
cles, films with quite small roughness and improved surface morphology were re-
cently obtained [93–95]. In this view, properly selected solvent and a reduced solute
concentration in the target allowed for an optimum absorption regime. Perfectly
matching experimental conditions such as a proper selection of the solute-solvent
mixture, suitable laser source (laser wavelength with respect to spectral absorption
of the solute-solvent mixture), dynamic pressure, substrate temperature and target–
substrate separation distance are important prerequisites for an optimized MAPLE
transfer and deposition of the solute on the solid substrate.
Hence, a major issue within a MAPLE deposition process is related to the laser-
target interaction, which essentially depends on the used solvent or solute. Moreover,
the process becomes more complicated when introducing supplementary compounds
in the solution. A MAPLE protocol, which defines appropriate experimental condi-
248 nm
8.0
7.5
7.0 frozen BSA (1mg/ml) in d.w.+TRIS+NaCl
6.5
6.0
5.5
Absorbance (a.u.)
5.0
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5 BSA (1mg/ml) in d.w.+TRIS+NaCl
1.0 d.w.+TRIS+NaCl
0.5 d.w.+NaCl
d.w.+TRIS
0.0 distilled water (d.w.)
-0.5
230 240 250 260 270 280 290 300 310 320
Wavelength (nm)
Fig. 5.4 Optical absorption spectra of pure distilled water, distilled water + TRIS (50 mM), distilled
water + NaCl (150 mM), distilled water + TRIS (50 mM) + NaCl (150 mM), distilled water +
TRIS (50 mM) + NaCl (150 mM) + BSA (1 mg/ml) and frozen solution of distilled water + TRIS
(50 mM) + NaCl (150 mM) + BSA (1 mg/ml)
tions, should therefore be elaborated for each investigated solvent-solute mixture and
laser wavelength combination.
Thin coating processes are “wet” when the method involves solvent flow coating
and air drying and “dry” when the liquid phase is avoided. A still open question is if
the MAPLE process could be considered wet or dry. The concern is related to the pos-
sible transfer of solvent molecules along with the solute on the substrate. In this case,
MAPLE could be considered wet. For example, in case of not very volatile solvents
such as DMSO, some molecules are reaching the substrate and remain immobilized
along with the solute. It is not dramatic in this case since DMSO is considered
biocompatible. However, some further interaction with the biopolymer molecules
or other film layer could affect morphology or even composition. MAPLE can be
considered dry when using very volatile solvents such as toluene. This solvent is def-
initely undesirable, in particular for further biological investigations, but it is entirely
pumped out by vacuum system and is not reaching the substrate. In case of proteins,
water is completely eliminated during transfer but part of the buffer (inorganic and
organic salts) is expected to reach the substrate and further act as stabilizers. We
mention that nowadays, wet processes are employed in pharmaceutical production
to coat drug tablets with a thin film which allows for the controlled release of the
active substance. Dry processes are advantageous for multi-component coatings and
are environmentally safe by avoiding the waste of organic gas or aqueous stream.
The choice of a good solvent is therefore one important key to the successful transfer
by MAPLE.
5.4.2 Reliability
Since polymers and proteins easily denaturate, precipitate or aggregate, special

attention should be paid to the preparation of a homogenous starting solution. It
is emphasized that this is a prerequisite for reproducible sample fabrication, espe-
cially in the field of biomimetics involving cell technology. Each material demands
individual treatment and exposure conditions and is therefore discussed separately:
Deposited Polymer Films
Reproducible samples require well controlled film composition and morphology.
The cluster formation after target irradiation by using a low solute concentration and
low laser fluence should be avoided. This regime results on one hand in a reduced
deposition rate and hence a slow film growth, but on the other hand yields a smoother
film surface and composition conservation. Some morphological features specific to
MAPLE deposited films were assumed to origin from evaporation of solvent re-
mains in the coating, which accompanied the solute molecules to the substrate in
case of explosive evaporation or spallation of target. This happens e.g. in case of not
very volatile solvents like DMSO, for which the solvent molecules are reaching the
substrate along with the solute. There, the solvent is slowly evaporated since the tem-
perature of the substrate is moderately heated [96]. Heating carefully the substrate
just below the degradation temperature of the solute one could improve the film as-
sembling and morphology by better controlling the adhesion of the film and avoiding
the formation of non-homogenous zones. Besides composition and morphology, the
film thickness should be carefully monitored since MAPLE is not always an additive
process. Thus, in some cases, when increasing the amount of solute deposited on
the substrate it tends to become more compact then growing in thickness. This is
not generally applicable and it happens for low quantities of transferred material.
A combined effect of evaporation induced assembly after transfer of solute-solvent
clusters with the specific linkage between the linear structures of polymers was found
to influence film growth [93].
Deposited Protein Films
Proteins are sensitive biological macromolecules, consisting of one or more amino
acids, which are held together by peptide bonds. While they are stable under normal
ambient biological conditions (especially temperature), they are easily disrupted and
denaturated at elevated temperatures [97]. Consequently, intense laser irradiation and
the associated heating can cause irreversible structural changes of proteins, which
affect drastically the protein or cell activity. Thus, a compromise must be sought
between the protein stability in the solution, its freezing and the safe laser transfer
and immobilization on the substrate. For this purpose, colloidal solutions containing
organic and inorganic salts, which are beneficial for protein stability and increase the
laser absorption of the matrix while protecting the protein, are used (Fig. 5.4). The
aqueous solution is softly homogenized while its freezing is induced rapidly drop by
drop by pouring in an already cooled copper container at liquid nitrogen temperature
Fig. 5.5 Ponceau Staining on nitrocellulose paper after MAPLE protein transfer. Staining of bovine
serum albumin (BSA) on nitrocellulose through a mask with four circles of 12 mm diameters:
the used mask (a), staining of BSA after the MAPLE transfer from solutions of 0.1 mg/ml (b),
0.25 mg/ml (c) and 1 mg/ml (d)
(to ensure target homogeneity in volume). During freezing the protein remains folded
to preserve its structure. After laser transfer, proteins are usually adsorbed onto solid
surfaces via electrostatic and hydrophobic forces. The protein recovering from frozen
state on surface is preferred in order to get the desired bio-effect. To this aim, various
functionalized substrates should be tested. To control the material spreading from
target and the deposition distribution on substrate in order to uniformly collect the
solute, experiments on nitrocellulose paper (known to exhibit a good protein affinity)
can be carried out at different target-substrate separation distances which stand for
an important issue in MAPLE transfer. The proteins are collected through masks on
paper surfaces of identical areas with actual deposition substrates (Fig. 5.5).
The deposition area is visualized by staining with Ponceau S Solution [62, 98].
By monitoring the gradient of color intensity on the nitrocellulose paper, the op-
timum separation distance between the target and the collector is selected as the
best compromise between deposition efficiency and distribution uniformity [21]. To
quantify the amount of protein deposited by MAPLE, a bicinchoninic acid (BCA)
assay can be performed using bovine serum albumin (BSA) dilutions as standard
[99]. The spectrophotometry data indicate the amount of deposited protein on area
of interest [63].
5.5 MAPLE: From the Origin to Biomimetics
5.5.1 Application to Organics
MAPLE provides a more gentle mechanism than PLD for transferring different com-
pounds, including large molecular weight molecules. It is generally acknowledged
that PLD is limited in case of organics due to the high laser intensity which can
cause irreversible damage to polymer or protein chains. Nevertheless, there were a
few attempts to apply PLD to polymers at very low laser fluence [100–103]. The tech-
nique failed, in particular, in case of more sensitive biopolymers [78, 104], enzymes
or proteins [91, 92].
MAPLE was applied from the very beginning to organic biomaterials in order to
develop structures, which mimic parts of organism [105]. The huge number of mate-
rials with potential interest for biomedical applications allowed for a fast expansion
of the method which rapidly improved and developed in search for an appropriate
niche. The following survey illustrates the development and application scenarios of
MAPLE:
Polymers for Drug Delivery Systems
Biodegradable polymer coatings are applied to implants for controlled and local
drug delivery. A poly(DL-lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) and polycaprolactone (PCL)
composite in a multilayer configuration was deposited by spin-coating technique and
dipyridamole was loaded as a drug into the surface nanopores [55]. This configuration
was found effective as drug-delivery platform over 70 days for drug-eluting implants,
in particular for cardiovascular stent applications. A PLGA coating with sirolimus
(rapamycin—an immunosuppressant drug used to prevent rejection of an implant)
was deposited by a dry-powder electrostatic process. During the 90 days of coating
absorption, the drug was released and prevented inflammation [51].
Thin coatings of biocompatible and biodegradable polymers with potential as car-
rier vectors for drug delivery such as polyethylene glycol (PEG) [40], (PLGA) [96],
mixtures PEG-PLGA [106, 107], poly(D,L-lactide) [108] or triacetate-pullulan [78]
among others were obtained by MAPLE without noticeable chemical degradation.
Among biomimetic “smart” solutions, some fascinating materials (e.g. polysaccha-
rides such as chitin which is found in fungal and yeast cell walls or mollusk shells
[109] or other biopolymers from microbial sources [110]) with exceptional properties
are developed by biological organisms. In particular, Levan is an exopolysaccharide
which can be used as food or feed additive and is distinguished from other polysac-
charides by its low viscosity, high solubility in oil, compatibility with salts and
surfactants, stability to heat, acid and alkali media, high holding capacity for water
and chemicals, and good biocompatibility [111–113]. MAPLE application to obtain
nanostructured thin films of Levan was reported for the first time in [93]. Thin coat-
ings of desired thickness could be attractive to control the rate of dissolution for drug
release and delivery applications. The nanostructure feature has the potential to en-
hance the biopolymer specific surface area for applications as carriers in drug delivery
systems. An unusual ordered array was observed by AFM (Fig. 5.6), the most proba-
bly forming by the solvent (DMSO) evaporation induced nano-assembling combined
with the specific linkages between the linear structures of polysaccharides. MAPLE
samples exhibited a compact structure, with good adhesion to substrate and a ho-
mogenous nanostructured surface, fully compatible with potential use in biology or
medicine [93].
Proteins and Enzymes for Biosensors
Biomimetic materials with sophisticated three-dimensional design, well-defined pat-
tern and tunable properties used for drug carriers and tissue engineering can be also
used to monitor biological microelectromechanical systems and diagnostics. They
can respond to in vivo environmental changes and secure controlled parameters for
Fig. 5.6 Typical AFM images of polymer surfaces for (a) Levan and (b) Oxidized Levan coatings
by MAPLE on Si. Reprinted with permission from Biomacromolecules [93]
drug release, cell interaction, mechanical properties, or permeability [114]. The need
to elucidate fundamental mechanisms of growth and the structure of biological sys-
tems in response to new biomaterials is one challenge for developing miniaturized
protein or enzyme based biosensors [109]. MAPLE could provide in this respect an
alternative to “wet” methods in view of obtaining patterns [105] or multi-structures
since the solvent issue is avoided [94]. The accurate control of the expulsed material
and layer thickness or the uniform and homogenous distributions of the material on
the substrate are the real advantages of the method.
Insulin and horseradish peroxidase (HRP) were the first proteins deposited by
MAPLE [115] as active biomolecules that could be used in biosensors with the goal
of fabricating a functional microfluidic device. In the same study efforts have been
paid to develop a polymer (poly(ethylene glycol -PEG)–protein(HRP) composite film
with increased adhesion to surface. The structure and activity of the proteins were
found unaffected and the method was proposed for depositing active biomolecules
for sensor or microarray applications.
MAPLE was applied to immobilize urease (an enzyme which catalyses the
hydrolysis of urea in biological systems, monitoring the nitrogen concentration of the
human serum in the form of urea–a measure of the kidney function) on solid collec-
tors with the aim to develop a sensor based on a biomimetic principle, a strategy that
mimic natural processes, with interest in clinical applications [116]. The immunoas-
say, one of the most used analytical method based on the selective affinity of the
biological antibody for its antigen, was applied to show that MAPLE-immobilized
IgG films can be used as immunosensors for the detection of specific antigens in
research or clinical investigations [83]. It is noted that IgG molecules are able to
struggle with bacteria and viruses while a quantitative antibody test is clinically
indispensable for autoimmune diseases, allergies and recurring infections [117]. To
this prospective, the observed morphology change by the content of salts and lipids
in MAPLE solution could open the door to reach the best compromise between
the IgG content and surface condition over sensing capabilities, an essential step in
developing personalized and miniaturized biosensors.
Proteins for Tissue Engineering

Sophisticated synthetic (tissue-engineered) and multi-(bio)functional surfaces or
bone scaffolds were proposed to build up a microarchitecture that integrates different
biological entities such as proteins, cells and cell processes [118]. An ideal synthetic
engineered biomaterial should be biocompatible, biodegradable and to mimic the
hierarchical structure of native tissue with the view of promoting actively desirable
physiological responses (bioactive). This will avoid additional surgical procedures
and reduce risks of infection [5]. In order to accelerate extracellular matrix (ECM)
production, enhance cellular activity in the early stage of a material implantation and
push its tissue integration, a common approach relies upon the presentation of the
arginine-glycine-aspartic acid (RGD) adhesive sequence derived from fibronectin
(FN) (glycoprotein present in ECM that interacts with cells to control cell adhesion,
cytoskeletal organization and cellular signaling) [119, 120]. More specifically, in the
field of biomaterials for bone reconstruction, FN has been proposed for enhancing
osseointegration [121].
Deposition of FN by MAPLE from saline buffer-based cryogenic targets was
reported. The aim was to transfer and immobilize a high molecular mass protein such
as FN (∼450 kDa) on a flat Si surface by a controllable approach in order to obtain a
biologically active protein structure. Under these conditions, FN is exposing binding
sites that promote intermolecular interactions and cell adhesion and consequently
cell proliferation speeding up tissue formation around implant and a faster stabiliza-
tion. A rather rough surface with a particulate-like morphology was observed. The
particulates were uniformly distributed floating on a base film on substrates. The pres-
ence of particulates could be beneficial for e.g. orthopedic applications because they
increase the specific surface area and thus the binding capacity of MAPLE coated
implants to tissues. No noticeable changes were detected of FN structure after the
MAPLE transfer. Different organization of intact protein, from small aggregates to
fibril-like forms were observed while human osteoprogenitor cells grown on FN thin
films exhibited a superior attachment as compared to controls [62] (Fig. 5.7). A simi-
lar cytoskeleton morphology was found in osteoblast-like cells grown on intact FN as
compared to cells grown on FN fragments [122] suggesting that MAPLE-transferred
FN forms patterns with non-denatured and functional cell binding domains. It was
also demonstrated that FN adsorption on apatite/nanodiamond films or HA-coated
solid substrates improved cellular attachment, adhesion and spreading [123, 124].
A layer-by-layer coating with heparin, growth factor and FN of titanium sur-
faces were found to improve cell proliferation while multilayer films significantly
promoted cell attachment and growth [125].
Three ECM proteins (FN, vitronectin (VN), and collagen I) were in parallel tested
and proved that they can play a role in wound and tissue repair [54]. VN is another gly-
coprotein present in serum and the extracellular matrix which promotes cell adhesion
and spreading [126]. It was recently shown that a VN coated Ti implant improved
primary fixation in vivo resulting in an increased osteointegration [127]. Human
osteoprogenitor cells grown on MAPLE transferred VN on HA coated Ti samples
exhibited an improved adherence, spreading and growth compared to cells grown on
Fig. 5.7 HOP cell actin filament staining on a standard cover slips, b silicon and c FN covered
silicon by MAPLE after 3 h in cell culture. Cells were fixed, permeabilized, and stained for actin
using Alexa Fluor 594-conjugated phalloidin (red). The mounting media contained DAPI (blue),
which stained cell nuclei. On Fig. 7c FITC conjugated FN are marked in green (arrows). Scale
bars are of 200 (I), 100 (II) and 50 (III) µm respectively. Reprinted with permission from Acta
Biomaterialia [62]
Ti/HA samples, supporting a faster cell colonization and proving the physiological
VN functionality after laser transfer [63]. Thin films of collagen obtained by MAPLE,
with roughness controlled by experimental parameters were also reported [128].
A key advantage of ECM protein coatings obtained by MAPLE versus other
simple adsorption methods is the accurate control of the expulsed material and coating
thickness. Homogeneous distribution on the surface, in particular for small amounts
(µg) of proteins, is beneficial, while the buffer salts (NaCl, TRIS) contained in the
starting solution and deposited next to the protein are expected to act as a stabilizer. To
enhance protein immobilization, one can easily use calcium phosphate or polymer
films already deposited in an unique all-laser procedure [63] which demonstrated
beneficial effects as shown in refs [129, 130]. One can thus develop ECM-mimetic
biomaterial surfaces that could trigger protein organization into biologically active
molecules. Protein-coated calcium phosphate layers, and in particular nanostructured
thin films, are expected to provide a synergetic interface for biomimetic implant
applications.
5.5.2 Application to Organic–Inorganic Composites
To mimic the multidimensional, hierarchical and complex structure of native tis-

sues (e.g. bone) from the chemical and physical (morphology, structure, composi-
tion and functionality) points of view organic-inorganic composite coatings are the
best choice to reconstruct the molecular architecture of the local environment and
to trigger dynamic biomechanisms. Inorganic materials (e.g. ceramics, metals) are
used to render the strength and to provide or compensate for the mineral phase of
the tissue. Organic bioactive molecules are able to accelerate tissue integration (as
e.g. ECM proteins) or to prevent undesired biological response (as e.g. drugs) in a
well-controlled manner [131]. Biodegradable polymers or bioresorbable ceramics
are used as scaffold materials as well as matrix carriers for drug release. As a soft
laser deposition technique that minimizes the photochemical damage of an organic
exposed to the laser light, MAPLE was naturally extended to organic-inorganic com-
posites aiming to create three-dimensional structures for faster cell colonization and
tissue regeneration. This could represent a benefit over other techniques including
PLD (see Table 5.1) since most of the methods are efficiently applied to either inor-
ganic or organic materials but not to both of them or to composites.
HA-sodium maleate (MP) copolymer thin coatings deposited by MAPLE on Ti
substrates were tested in vitro. Osteoblast-like cells showed a higher proliferation
when cultivated on these nanocomposite coatings in comparison with the cells grown
on Ti coated with HA only (Ti-HA) (Fig. 5.8). This demonstrates that the polymer
presence improved surface bio-adhesive characteristics, cell attachment, spreading
and proliferation, which recommend the potential of Ti coated with HA-polymer
nanocomposites as scaffolds in dental or orthopedic implantology [132].
HA-sodium maleate-vinyl acetate copolymer coatings were synthesized on Ti
surfaces for specific biological investigations. Human primary osteoblasts spread
and proliferated onto modified surface and formed groups of cells which during
biosynthetic activity expressed osteoblast markers [133]. PMMA-bioglass compos-
ites were obtained by MAPLE as uniform thin layers onto chemically etched Ti from
targets of mixtures containing PMMA reinforced with either 6P57 (lower silica con-
tent) or 6P61 (higher silica content) bioglass powders [134]. Osteoblast-like cells
were found in both cases to entirely cover the MAPLE coatings with which they
strongly interact, as proved by the pseudopodia deeply infiltrating into the compos-
ite material. The difference in density proves that cells find a more friendly living
medium on glasses with lower silica content. In addition, the corrosion characteris-
tics of these glass-polymer composite coatings on titanium were investigated [135].
An unexpected self-arrangement of a double layer nanostructure after immersion in
SBF consisting of an inner barrier (polymer) and an outer porous layer (bioapatite)
was revealed with potential effects for osseointegration capacity of the Ti implants.
The authors suppose that the immersion in SBF triggered an intense ion exchange
process between coating and solution leading to the formation of a rapidly increas-
ing bioapatite layer, which proved very efficient in protection against corrosion. The
process evolved faster in case of nanostructured 6P57+PMMA coatings but a better
Fig. 5.8 Cytoskeleton organization of mesenchymal stem cells and human dermal fibroblast cul-
tured on different surfaces modified by MAPLE. Cells were grown for 24 h in direct contact with:
Ti-HA, Ti-HA-MP1, or Ti-HA-MP2 (Ti-HA-MP1 and Ti-HA-MP2 corresond to solutions with
0.2 % and 1 % HA-MP powder); standard borosilicate cover glass (CG). Fixed cells were stained
for actin (red), microtubules (green) and nuclei (blue) and analyzed by fluorescence microscopy;
Reprinted with permission from J Mater Sci: Mater Med [132]
protection was reached for 6P61+PMMA coating when the corrosion was almost
completely stopped.
MAPLE was also applied to obtain thin coatings of alendronate-hydroxyapatite
composites [136] after nanocrystals’ synthesis in aqueous medium with increasing
bisphosphonate content (3.9, 7.1 % wt) [137]. For control, MAPLE was conducted
with pure HA (0 % wt biphosphonate content) as well. The presence of alendronate
in the MAPLE synthesized HA thin films had a positive effect on osteoblast viability
and differentiation while inhibited osteoclast proliferation and differentiation, caus-
ing their apoptosis [136]. Similarly, a comparison was carried out between MAPLE
deposited films of pure HA and silk fibroin mixed with HA thin structures for bio-
mimetic implants [138]. The best results from physico-chemical and biological points
of view were found for the composite HA-silk fibroin in comparison with MAPLE
deposition of pure HA or fibroin films [138]. These were the first attempts to deposit
HA by MAPLE technique to difference of PLD which is usually applied in this case
[139]. We mention that in all cases the composite films presented superior mechani-
cal and biological characteristics as compared to the films obtained by MAPLE from
the respective pure materials.
5.5.3 Application to Inorganics
In view of reconstructing gradient inorganic layers or inorganic-organic multilayers

by a single-experiment process, a significant attention was paid during the last 5 years
to MAPLE application to inorganic compounds since the method was shown to
produce nanoparticulate inorganic films [140, 141]. The single-experiment process
of inorganic-organic multilayers could represent an actual advantage of MAPLE
technique in respect with PLD which cannot be applied to sensitive organic poly-
mers or proteins. Moreover, by using different solvents and deposition temperatures
one can control the film assembling (growth and surface morphology) on substrate.
When increasing the specific surface area a nanostructured or nanoparticulate film
aspect (very often the MAPLE deposited coatings exhibit a high density of nano- and
micron-sized droplets) could boost surface properties for specific applications such
as sensors, drug delivery systems or biomimetic implants where a larger contact area
is advantageous.
Following the application of MAPLE to organics, then to organic-inorganic
composites, the method turned naturally to inorganics. Although the biological
evaluation demonstrated that the composite films are presenting improved perfor-
mances than pure inorganic coatings, as presented in Sect. 5.5.2, the opportunity
to obtain inorganic-organic multilayers in a single-experiment process pushed the
research toward experiments of MAPLE application to inorganics. Thus, MAPLE
was employed to the deposition of calcium phosphates, in particular octocalcium
phosphate (OCP) thin films, on titanium substrates [64] which is a challenge to OCP
coatings fabricated by PLD [142]. It was demonstrated that the milder conditions of
a MAPLE process ensured a higher degree of OCP crystallization with respect to
PLD. This was in accordance with the presence of crystal fragments to the difference
of OCP coatings deposited by PLD, which consisted of cauliflower-like aggregates
and droplets only [64]. Next, Mg and Sr-doped OCP were deposited by MAPLE [64].
A remarkably uniform dopant distribution in films was evidenced. An enhanced cel-
lular proliferation and differentiation on SrOCP and MgOCP in comparison with
OCP films demonstrated that ion-doping improved the effect of OCP on bone cells,
suggesting that such biomimetic coatings could be usefully applied for orthopedic
use.
Nanoparticulate films obtained by MAPLE exhibited a good sensitivity in sensing,
in particular, a good electrical response to acetone and ethanol vapors was evidenced
for MAPLE deposited TiO2 coatings starting from nanoparticle powders suspended
in deionised water [140]. The good sensitivity was attributed to the nanoscale
dimensions of the TiO2 particles in the deposited films [141]. Recently, MAPLE was
used to deposit single-wall carbon nanotubes functionalized with oxygen-containing
groups without any alteration of the starting material [143].
5.6 Conclusion and Perspectives

During the last 15 years, MAPLE developed and improved fast and became a sig-
nificant competitor to other deposition methods in the field of nanotechnology, in
particular, for biomimetic applications such as drug delivery systems, biosensors or
advanced implants. The method can ensure the control of film uniformity and thick-
ness on either rough or flat substrates and permits the synthesis of coatings with
increased adhesion.
MAPLE was initially proposed as an alternative to PLD for transferring and
depositing thin organic materials. Extracellular matrix proteins, enzymes and poly-
mers were transferred by MAPLE onto facing collectors and found to significantly
improve their biological characteristics. It was possible to fabricate inorganic–
organic composite coatings with improved bioactivity and controlled action in view
of local release of some drugs to promote bone formation and prevent bone resorp-
tion. MAPLE turned recently unexpectedly to application of inorganic materials and
transformed into a cryogenic PLD, a real competitor for PLD. Thus, MAPLE was
for the first time applied to deposit inorganic coatings of ion-substituted OCP thin
films. The obtained structures were found to support the growth and differentiation
of osteoblast-like cells. In particular, an enhanced activity was demonstrated when
cells were grown on ion-doped OCP coatings in comparison with pure OCP.
Because MAPLE was efficiently applied to either organic or inorganic material
deposition it possesses actual advantages over other deposition techniques since
most of them do not apply to both organic and inorganic or to composite materials.
One single-experiment process of inorganic-organic multilayer deposition could be
approachable as well by MAPLE technique. One can therefore foresee the potential
use of appropriate masks in MAPLE experiments to manufacture well-controlled
microsized, single or multilayer, organic-inorganic samples for advanced biomimetic
applications.
Acknowledgments The authors acknowledge with thanks the financial support of UEFISCDI
under the contracts PD 101/2012 and TE 82/2011 and of European Social Fund POSDRU
2007–2013 through the contract POSDRU/89/1.5/S/60746.
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Chapter 6
Laser Additive Manufacturing of Metals
Claus Emmelmann, Jannis Kranz, Dirk Herzog and Eric Wycisk
Abstract Laser Additive Manufacturing (LAM) is based on a repeating layer wise

manufacturing process which uses a laser beam to melt and solidify material in a
powder-bed according to slices of a corresponding three dimensional computer aided
design (3D-CAD) model. The stepwise production causes a reduction of complex
three-dimensional (3D) geometries into simpler two-dimensional (2D) manufactur-
ing steps [1, 2]. Thus LAM offers great potential in design and production due to
its high freedom of geometry and flexibility. The basic manufacturing process is
tool less. Its preferred field of application is the one-step manufacturing of complex
geometries in low lot sizes, ideally with lot size 1 where conventional machining
would require a longer overall production time due to a high number of processing
steps [3]. This chapter gives an overview over the process basics, its parameters and
the major influences on the quality of parts manufactured by LAM. It ends with
design guidelines, current applications of LAM and future developments.
6.1 Process Basics
Laser Additive Manufacturing (LAM) embraces all laser based additive manufactur-
ing processes. Processable materials include polymers, ceramics and metals. Dur-
ing the recent years especially LAM of metal alloy has gained attention for the
J. Kranz (B) · C. Emmelmann

TUHH Technische Universität Hamburg-Harburg, 17 (L) Denickestr,
D-21073 Hamburg, Germany
J. Kranz · C. Emmelmann
iLAS Institut für Laser-und Anlagensystemtechnik, Hamburg, Germany
D. Herzog · E. Wycisk · C. Emmelmann
LZN Laser Zentrum Nord GmbH, Am Schleusengraben 14, D-21029 Hamburg, Germany

144 C. Emmelmann et al.
scanner
manufactured part with
inert gas support structures
lens oulet
collimating lens
laser
lens flush
powder
reservoir
recoater
device
inert gas
outlet
powder
bed
building
platform
Fig. 6.1 Left laser additive manufacturing: machine setup; Right part with support structures
manufacturing of geometrically highly complex functional parts. LAM of metals

is an iterative, layer wise and powder bed based manufacturing process (Fig. 6.1).
Depending on the machine other designations are Laser-Cusing, Laser-Sintering or
Selective Laser Melting for example. The process basis is a 3D-CAD-Model of the
part to be manufactured. The first steps of data preparation include the 3D-CAD file
conversion according to the machine requirements and the part orientation in the
building chamber. Manufacturing multiple parts with different shapes in the building
chamber is possible [1, 2].
Even though the geometrical freedom of LAM is very high compared to conven-
tional processes, there is one mayor manufacturing restriction that must be obeyed
when designing and preparing parts for manufacturing. If a part would be built
directly in the powder bed with no connection to the building platform, two major
problems would occur:
Firstly the powder beds poor carrying capabilities can lead to part imperfections at
overhangs because of a melt flow in the underlying unexposed powder layer. Secondly
temperature gradients between the melting pool and the surrounding, already melted
and solidified part sections can lead to different shrinkages and thus internal stresses
during the cooling process. Possible outcomes are a reduction of form stability during
the cooling process, a distortion of the part and / or the delamination of single layers.
The latter can lead to a collision between the recoater device, see Fig. 6.1, and the
parts topmost layer leading to a misalignment of the part.
Adequately placed support structures consisting of fine lattice structures con-
nected with the building platform can help minimizing these effects, see Fig. 6.1.
Based on the 3D-CAD data the automatic addition of support structures to the part
geometry at sections with overhanging structures can be initiated [1, 2, 4, 5].
6 Laser Additive Manufacturing of Metals 145
That followed the part and support structures will be separated in the process
specific layers which is designated as slicing-process. Hence a complex three-
dimensional problem is reduced into simpler two-dimensional manufacturing steps.
After defining the process parameters the actual manufacturing process starts. Man-
ufacturing the part is performed on a building platform which is connected to a lifting
table guaranteeing the parts fixation. The first step of the manufacturing process is
lowering the lifting table by one layer thickness and the application of a powder layer
by the recoater device, see Fig. 6.1. Typical layer thicknesses vary between 30 and
60 µm, depending on material and machine setup. The applied powder is then locally
exposed and completely melted by the laser beam according to the slicing data. Usu-
ally Ytterbium-fibre-lasers with output-powers between 200 and 400 W (state of the
art) and beam spots of 100–500 µm are in use. Typical building rates depend on the
material as well as the machine setup and differ between 2 and 20 cm3 h. Usually, sin-
gle component metal are being used [6–9]. The solidification occurs by heat transfer.
By applying an inert gas to the process chamber the molten metal’s oxidation will be
minimized. Moreover, the chamber heating reduces the temperature gradient during
solidification thus leading to a reduction of internal stresses [1, 5, 10].
Repeating these steps leads to a layer wise melting, solidification and connection
of the basic powder material by a defined energy insertion. The iterative process ends
with the final layer’s exposure. Thereupon the not molten powder and the building
platform with the part will be removed from the machine. Subsequently the not molten
powder needs to be sieved in order to remove process contaminants like spilling
from the exposure process. After the parts separation from the building platform
and removing the support structures, an additional end machining can be necessary
in order to obtain sufficient surface qualities or to realize exact holes and threads.
Especially at filigree parts special attention to the support structure dimensioning
must be given in order to guarantee a damage free separation from the part itself
[1, 2, 4, 5, 11].
Beside the ability of manufacturing highly complex parts, the high recycling rate
of additive manufacturing leads to a reduction of material waste during machining,
compared to conventional subtractive manufacturing processes like shape cutting.
Furthermore, the raw material cost savings, handling smaller billets of raw feedstock,
by-products or scrap produced by machining due to netshape manufacturing is easier,
Additionally, this toolless manufacturing process benefits from significantly reduced
tool costs especially when processing highly abrasive materials such as titanium.
On first sight, LAM is predestined for the production of highly complex parts in
small or single lot sizes, due to the described tool-less and layer wise production
process [2]. However, considering restrictions and other additional benefits of the
LAM process the assessment for an economical production with LAM is more com-
plex. Possible limitations for economic LAM production and geometrical possibili-
ties are among others high machine hours, high powder costs compared to wrought
material, the need for support structures, the limitations of the building chamber, lim-
ited surface qualities due to powder adhesion and potential need for finishing (see
Sect. 6.3). However, major benefits from new engineering possibilities arise: LAM
allows converting structurally optimized geometries and bionic structures without
adaptation into the part design which results in new lightweight constructions. Addi-
tionally, functions can be integrated, which could only be realized by multiple parts
in conventional designs. Due to the freedom of design LAM facilitates the combina-
tion of parts conventionally designed in assemblies into one single part or complex
new product features like internal cooling ducts. Commercially used LAM machines
show a huge diversity, even though they are all based on the same physical concept.
Varying specifications include laser type and power, building chamber and powder
handling concepts as well as machine specific digital process chains. An overview
of the available machines for LAM, their denotations and specifications can be seen
in Gebhardt et al. [1, 2, 12, 13].
6.2 Process Parameters
Laser Additive Manufacturing depends on manifold process parameters that must

be matched with each other depending on the material and machine type to be used
in order to obtain parts with a density comparable to conventional materials. In
his studies Rehme [3] was able to identify 157 single parameters influencing the
LAM process. The essential ones shall be shortly described in the following. The
parameters and procedures may slightly vary between different machine types. Thus
they are described in a generic way in order to show the basic coherences according
to Rehme et al. [1–5, 14]. An overview over future developments incorporating the
aspects described in the following is given in Sect. 6.5.
6.2.1 Building Chamber Dimensions
Currently available machines for powder bed LAM based metal parts are limited to
a maximum available part size of approximate 250 × 250 × 300 mm3 . Dimensions
can slightly differ depending on the machine concept. Current machine generations
limitation is primarily the optical concept. Future machine setups including new
optical concepts show a trend towards larger building chambers [1, 2, 7, 9, 15].
6.2.2 Layer Thickness
The layer thickness (TL ) significantly determines the geometry’s resolution of the
part and has an impact on the manufacturing time as well as on the realizable surface
qualities. The layer wise production process leads to a staircase effect at angled sur-
faces due to a limited geometry resolution (Fig. 6.2). Thus only an approximation of
the ideal part contour is possible. Compared to high layer thicknesses low thicknesses
facilitate a higher geometry resolution, but lead to an increase of manufacturing time
laser beam
ideal part contour
unmelted powder
melting zone
layer
staircase effect
TL
Fig. 6.2 Layer composition by laser additive manufacturing, simplified
by an increase of the overall layers to be build and to be exposed. Typical layer

thicknesses vary between 20 and 60 µm and depend on the material specific powder
grain size distribution. Moreover the machines recoater concept also influences the
suitable layer thickness. [1, 5, 6].
6.2.3 Scanspeed
The powder melting is correlated to the material-specific amount of energy deposited

in the melting zone, which is described by the energy per length EL or energy density
PL
EL = (6.1)
vs
The adjustable parameters are the laser power PL and the scan speed vs . Since EL
depends on the melting temperature, the absorptivity and the materials thermal con-
ductivity, laser power and scan speed can be tuned for a best possible melting of the
material. A high energy density at preferably high scan speeds is desired in order to
minimize the manufacturing time. Therefore, the applied laser power must be maxi-
mized without vaporizing the material in order to avoid spillings and degradation of
the part properties due to erroneous layers [5].
6.2.4 Laser Beam Power
It is required to apply a high laser beam power to obtain high part density and thus
optimum part properties. However, the material specific maximal applicable power
at a constant spot size and scan speed is limited by material evaporation. This leads to
spattering powder particles, reduced density and increased surface roughness due to
1. contour exposure
part contour
2. hatching
3. exposure of outer
contour
Fig. 6.3 Typical exposure procedures in LAM
powder particles adhering to part’s surfaces. On one hand this constricts the smallest
possible size of features that can be fabricated. On the other hand neglecting the
changed melt pool size will result in inaccurate part dimensions since the laser beam
focus diameter typically increases with rising power yielding to a melt pool growth
as well as an increase of thermal induced powder adhesion [3, 5].
6.2.5 Exposure and Scan Strategy
As described in Sects. 6.1 and 6.2 the process basis is the exposure of single layers
that assemble the part to be manufactured. A single layer’s exposure can be separated
into three single steps, see Fig. 6.3. The first step comprises the exposure of the parts
contour. In this regard the spot shift plays an important role for an exact layer build up.
At the first contour exposure the spot shift SV conducts slightly more than half
of a melted scan line width. Its purpose is the contour’s enlargement compensation
due to the laser spot shape by slightly moving the scanlines inwards of the area to
be exposed [5, 16]. During the second step the inner surface will be exposed and
filled by multiple scan lines, also called hatching. The third step is a final contour
exposure with an exact spot shift of the half spot size in order to assure exact part
geometries [16].
(a) standard (b) stripe (c) chess

Fig. 6.4 Typical hatching variants in laser additive manufacturing
6.2.6 Hatching
There are three common scan strategies for the inner area’s exposure, also called
hatching, see Figs. 6.3 and 6.4. The standard strategy fills the whole inner area of a
slice by line scanning the laser focus in x- or y-direction, beginning in one corner.
The stripe strategy divides the area to be exposed in stripes, beginning in one
corner as well. The chess strategy divides the areas to be exposed in singles squares.
The squares exposure and the exposures direction can be of a defined or stochastic
nature. The stripe and chess strategies are recommended for large areas due to reduced
thermal induced stresses compared to the classical strategy. The hatch distance (hH )
is the separation of adjacent lines, which is crucial for an optimal connection of every
single line and a fully exposed part layer. A correct setting of the hatch distance is
essential: Both, a too large and a too small hatch distance with respect to the laser
spot size lead to a degradation of the final part.
A hatch distance equal or larger than the laser’s spot size results in an insufficient
overlap of adjacent lines. This leaves unexposed powder particles between the scan
tracks and hence a degradation of the overall density respective part strength. On the
other hand, the same results can be seen with hatching distances that are too small.
A too narrow hatch distance draws powder from adjacent unmelted areas into the
melt pool. Consequently, the next scan track suffers from too little unmelted powder,
which in turn will reduce the part density [3]. Further details are given in Meiners
et al. [3, 5].
6.2.7 Available Metals and Alloys for LAM
Currently available materials for LAM of metals include aluminum, titanium and
steel alloys. They are being processed as a single component powder with varying
grain size compositions depending on the material and supplier. Generally speak-
ing, weldable materials can be processed by LAM. The list of available materials is
steadily increasing and usually provided by the machine manufacturers [1–3]. Mate-
rial properties achieved by LAM, especially its strength, are comparable to conven-
tional manufacturing processes [17–19]. Past applications of LAM were focused on
the fields of tooling and the medical implants thus leading to a broad field of avail-
able steel alloys as well as biocompatible titanium alloys. The current trends towards
lightweight applications lead to the exploitation of further lightweight alloys like
titanium alloys or aluminum scandium alloys.
6.3 Part Quality
In order to be suitable for functional parts in serial production LAM-parts must ful-
fill certain quality criteria when being compared with conventionally manufactured
counterparts. According to Rehme [3] the major factors are the parts “density in terms
of pore-free microstructure, strength (ultimate stress, yield stress, Young’s modulus,
break strain), hardness as a value for resistance to wear, residual stresses (leading
to warping or cracking of parts during the process or after), the accuracy to shape
and size as well as the surface quality”. This section introduces the main factors
influencing the quality of parts manufactured by LAM.
6.3.1 Density
The bulk density of solid LAM parts should be the most relevant issue of all ini-
tial examinations for new materials since other part quality properties such as high
strength and hardness require low porosity. Ideally, the density should always be
near the theoretical maximum, i.e. it should be above 99 % of the value obtained
for rolled material [3]. As previously described the density can be influenced by
parameters such as the scan speed, the laser power as well as the exposure type and
its settings. Moreover, the density is influenced by the powders grain-size fraction.
The smaller the grain-size, the more consistently is the melt-pool, which leads to a
higher density [5].
6.3.2 Strength
Parts manufactured by LAM exhibit a structural orthotropy (=different material prop-

erties or strengths in different orthogonal directions) due to the layer wise manufac-
turing [1–3, 17, 20]. Concerning the yield strength and tensile strength a maximum
at a part orientation of 0◦ and a minimum at 90◦ with respect to the building plane can
be observed, compare Fig. 6.1. Their maximum values are comparable to the ones
of wrought material. The extreme values of the breaking elongation act analogous
to the strengths in regard to the orientation. Moreover, the Young’s modulus shows
no dependency in orientation and is comparable to conventional counterparts [1, 3].
Up to now, analyses on the fatigue strength are barely available due to the fact that
the process was mainly used in applications with static loadings [1, 20].
6.3.3 Hardness
The hardness of a material highly depends on the density as it is defined as the

resistance against indentation, which is in fact another strength property. Moreover,
hardness is often found to follow similar behavior as strength properties. Typically,
hardness values above those of rolled materials are obtained due to the extremely
short solidification times of local material areas in the LAM process [3]. Studies
by Santos investigated the Vickers hardness of LAM titanium samples [21]. The
variation of the laser beam power and scan speeds showed a hardness increase with
a rising energy density in the melting zone (cf. 6.1).
6.3.4 Residual Stresses
Residual stresses are defined as mechanical stresses inside a closed system despite
the absence of outer forces. Two major reasons can be identified for the existence
of such stresses in parts manufactured by LAM in particular [3–5]. The first reason
inducing stress is a volume change due to a variation in the materials microstructure
during solidification after melting the powder. The second reason is the influence of
shrinkage at the just exposed and melted layer adverse the already solidified layer,
which leads to residual stresses acting perpendicularly to the building direction that
can lead to the parts deformation. In general the building platform, respectively the
already solidified layers, countervails a free formation of the parts deformation. At
overhangs the latter is not the case, which leads to the necessity for additional sup-
port structures preventing the part’s deformation [3]. The deformations and residual
stresses’ intensity strongly depends on the material and process properties.
6.3.5 Accuracy Grade
Both, the dimensional accuracy and the accuracy of shape have to be regarded con-
cerning the accuracy grade of LAM parts [5]. Both are primarily influenced by
thermal induced residual stresses as well as the machine setup. Residual stresses can
lead to inaccuracies due to part warping either during the process or after the process
when the occurring thermal stresses are relieved [3]. Depending on the machine
setup zero point deviations of the scanner as well as a tolerance in the lifting table
can lead to form deviations. Furthermore the positioning accuracy of the lifting table
as well as the abrasive wear of the recoater device influence the accuracy in building
direction [5]. Due to the residual stresses and processes complex nature the realizable
tolerances strongly depend on the parts geometry and the chosen material.
6.3.6 Subsurface Quality
The surface quality usually is being defined by the factor Ra [5], which constitutes
the arithmetic average of the absolute values regarding the surface texture. It shows
a clear dependency on the part orientation, the powder composition and the chosen
layer thickness [5, 22]. The best surface qualities can be achieved perpendicular to the
working plane and in the working plane [3, 5]. Due to the layer wise manufacturing
process part slopes exhibit a stair case effect, see Fig. 6.2, resulting in poor surface
qualities. On the other hand the roughness of surfaces perpendicular and parallel to the
working plane depends on the contour exposure. Moreover powder particles adhered
on the part during the melting process can lower the surface quality additionally
[3, 5]. Overall, a rising surface roughness from the horizontal plane to an angle of
90◦ to is the result. Detailed studies on the influencing parameters and dependencies
of the surface quality were done by Meiners [5]. Depending on the machine type and
material typical surface roughnesses Rz vary between 40 and 90 µm [6–8]. Requiring
high surface qualities usually causes the necessity of a conventional final machining
[1–3, 23].
6.4 Designs for LAM
Due to the processes reduction of complex three-dimensional topologies into simpli-

fied two-dimensional manufacturing steps, compare Sect. 6.1, LAM facilitates new
impulses for the design of functional parts by having the potential of manufacturing
topologies that are impossible to manufacture by conventional processes, compare
Sect. 6.6. This geometrical freedom enables the designer to realize complex hollow
structures, overhangs and lattice structures. Albeit the potential for manufacturing
complex geometries by LAM is currently essentially not exploited in practice as
the knowledge of its capabilities, especially its design-freedom, are still limited to
experts. Available design guidelines are currently fragmentary at most. Available
design rules give recommendations regarding the basis process inherent restrictions
influences, part design as well as basics for post processing. Process inherent restric-
tions include available building chamber dimensions influencing the parts allowable
dimensions, the surface qualities dependence on the parts orientation versus the build-
ing platform as well as available materials and their basic characteristics. Process
specific guidelines for part design are mostly of a twofold nature. Firstly, conceptual
recommendations include basics for the design of complex geometries as well as
the integration of functions in order to benefit from the processes ability to produce
highly complex geometries. Secondly, restrictions are given that enable the designer
to consider the process inherent thermal induces stresses in form of a tolerant part
design. Finally, post processing restrictions are outlines including recommendations
for support design as well as powder removal after the building process. Table 6.1
summarizes the available guidelines and is based on the studies of Aumund-Kopp et
al. [3, 5, 6, 22].
Table 6.1 Essential design guidelines for LAM

Design - guidelines
building chamber dimensions:
3
300 mm - currently max. 250 x 250 x 300 mm
- larger parts can be split
m
0m
250 mm 25
ca. 60° part overhangs:

- from ca. 60° to the vertical support structures necessary
- depending on material larger angles possible
bad good notch effect:

- thermal induced notch effect can deform and damage the part during
manufacturing process
- avoid strongly bent part changeovers
prefere hollow structures:

- reduction of manufacturing time and part weight due to reduction of the parts
volume
- reduction of thermal induced stresses by avoiding an accumulation of material
integration of the building platform where possible:

- reduction of end machining
- reduction of manufacturing time
building
platform
integration of functions:
- enables new approaches for part design not possible up to now
- reduction of assembly time
AlSi12 material:
- currently limited lineup of materials available
Ti
CoCrMo - consider process-specific material properties!
TiAl6V4
...
bad strength parameters:

- highest strength in building plane
- consider flux of force during part operation
- consider process-specific material properties!
optimum
layer thickness:
- defines smallest geometry resolution
- possible layer thicknesses depend on material and machine
- typical thicknesses: 20 - 60 µm
surface quality:
Ra - consider material and machine dependency!
- typical values: Rz 40 - 90 µm
Rmax
- surface roughnesses worst at down facing areas
Rz - surfaces with high demands on surface quality to be positioned upward
bad good supports structures:

necessary at:
- overhangs
- fine strutures that could be damaged by the recoater device
- mostly manually removed, thus guarantee accessability
removing of powder:
- holes for powder removal must be considered
6.5 Future Development
Considering the possibilities of LAM, in terms of high geometrical freedom or low

process waste and thus high ecological efficiency, the process shows great potential
for manifold applications. Yet, due to the currently only marginally spread knowledge
about LAM, holistic research approaches concerning the process chain are neces-
sary. Thus, the whole value chain including the part design, material development,
manufacturing process inclusive pre and post processing, machine development and
finally the process chain qualification must be in the focus of future research. Beside
other research institutions, the iLAS of the Hamburg University of Technology is
investigating these fields within versatile research activities. Furthermore the Laser
Zentrum Nord GmbH concentrates on an industrial approach in order to analyze new
markets, feasible business cases and to provide production and qualification services
for new factory concepts and personal training.
Especially the machines and machine hours are still expensive compared to con-
ventional processes [1, 2, 24, 25]. Thus, the optimization of the process productivity
is of uttermost importance. For example the latest commercially available machine
generations show an increase in laser power compared to previous generations, rais-
ing the laser power from 200 to 400 W leading to higher buildup rates. Moreover,
new exposure and layer strategies are in the focus of research: currently, a system
capable of varying the spot size and layer thicknesses in process with laser powers up
to 1 kW in order to optimize the buildup rate and thus the overall process productivity
is under development. The material being evaluated is aluminum AlSi10Mg. Parts
are being separated in hull and core segments with layer thicknesses of 50 µm in the
hull and 200 µm in the core area. Compared to state of the art LAM machines, an
increase of the buildup rate of the factor 4 to 5 was realized [24, 25].
Moreover the optimization of the process repeatability and quality assurance by a
process control gains more and more attention. Kruth et al. are currently developing
a camera and photodiode based system that is capable of analyzing the melt pool.
First trials with the focus of optimizing the downfacing surface of overhangs were
very promising [24–26].
The rising field of application with differing demands leads to a steady increase
of the available materials. Due to its high geometrical freedom LAM’s potential for
lightweight design is obvious. Commonly available lightweight materials are limited
to titanium and low strength aluminum alloys. Therefore the development of new
lightweight alloys offering a high specific strength is very promising. One important
material development in progress is the aluminum alloy ScalmalloyRP by EADS with
more than 500 MPa engineering strength after a precipitation hardening treatment
thus offering a viable alternative to classical, well-established 7xxx plate material
[18]. Regarding rapid tooling, copper has been evaluated for manufacturing by LAM
due to its good thermal conductivity [24]. For medical applications dental bridges
made of gold and ceramics are already scientifically investigated [24, 27]. The latter
required a new machine concept which incorporated an “in-process” heating system
in order to avoid micro cracks in the ceramic material due to thermal stresses [24, 28].
Examples for the Application of LAM
Medical Tooling Lightweight - Design
Fig. 6.5 Application of LAM: hip implant, tooling insert, lightweight brackets
Other studies focus on virtual material development processes based on analytical

and numerical calculation of the temperature distribution and the related residual
stress analysis versus effective process factors in order to identify and optimize
acceptable operating conditions for the LAM process. This strategy shall lead to
a rather small number of required experiments for developing new materials and
process parameters thus reducing the overall expense [29–31].
6.6 Biomimetic Application Areas of LAM
In general, the application of LAM is feasible if the amortization of fix tool costs
is impeded by small lot sizes. Furthermore, if the parts complexity leads to high
conventional manufacturing costs as they are primarily depending on the parts volume
and not its topology, compare Sect. 6.2 [2, 20, 32, 33]. Additionally, LAM eases
consistent product revisions as the process is tool-less and the need for time as well
as cost intensive adaptations of the manufacturing equipment no longer exists. Thus
LAM facilitates the realization of mass customized products of a high complexity
and a high diversity of variants in the product line-up [1–3].
Beside the field of rapid prototyping several end-use applications manufactured
by LAM are already in service (cf. Fig. 6.5). Currently a major field of application is
the medical sector. Due to the demand for individual solutions for patients this market
is predestined to take advantage of the process specific advantages. Especially the
field of lattice based osseointegrative interfaces conventionally not manufacturable
show an increase in application [34]. Already realized in an industrial scale is the
manufacturing of patient individual dental bridges or implants by LAM [24].
A second major field of application is rapid tooling that takes advantage of the
geometric freedom of LAM by facilitating tool designs with complex internal cooling
Choice of Design
Choice of Material Properties

Aluminium Steel Composites
Topology Optimization
Shape Optimization
Parameter Optimization
Fig. 6.6 Differentiation of structural optimization problems by design variables [38]
ducts conventionally not manufacturable. This results in shorter cycle times and a
reduction of part warpage in the injection moulding process [1, 2, 24].
Especially in the automotive sector LAM is used to manufacture prototype parts
for pre-series cars with mechanical properties identical to their conventionally man-
ufactured counterparts [35]. A part of the liquid oxygen systems tubing for the
Eurofighter has successfully been applied in the military aviation sector. It facili-
tated a reduction of the system leakage and an optimized flow with an only marginal
raise of the parts costs [36, 37].
Moreover LAM facilitates nearly unrestricted geometrical processing and hence
is very promising for lightweight design based on structural optimization and bionics,
which in general require intricate part architectures with a high geometric complexity.
Usually, the resulting geometries are a combination of complex freeform surfaces,
hollow structures and undercuts. Conventional manufacturing processes with their
inherent restrictions do not support the direct conversion of theoretical optimized
structural designs. Therefore deviations from the optimal structures to less optimal
structures imposed by manufacturing issues are required and the fully exploitation
of the lightweight potential is missed.
Methods for structural optimization are manifold, see Fig. 6.6. Therefore just a
brief summary will be given exemplarily with the help of a simple example: a bridge.
The “choice of design” includes the consideration of truss construction or compound
structures. Furthermore it has to be decided whether the parts design shall be integral
or differential. During the “choice of materials” the materials themselves are the
design variables which have to be chosen according to the case specific requirements.
The preceding methods of structural optimization were of an analytical nature. With
the advent of affordable and highly capable personal computers, numerical methods
Discretized
Design Space
FE-Analysis
Optimization- ρi p Ei
xi = , xi = 0
algorithm ρi0 Ei
Modification
of element
density
break-off yes Post-

criteria processing
no fulfilled?
Fig. 6.7 Process of topology optimization according to the SIMP-method [39]
for structural optimization are being increasingly used. The major methods will be
described briefly in the following.
The “topology optimizations” goal is the determination of the fundamental opti-
mum part structure in form of the distribution of the structural relevant material. The
“shape optimizations” basis is the adaptation of local geometry according to the part
load in order to reduce local stress-peaks. In contrast, the “parameter optimization”
is the simplest numerical method. Its goal is the adaptation of wall thicknesses or
profiles according to the parts loads. Because the results of the topology optimization
are the most radical ones, it is the decisive method in combination with LAM and
will be described in more detail.
The applied method of topology optimization is the “solid-isotropic-material-
with-penalization” method, see Fig. 6.7, which will be described in the following
with the help of a simple bar. It is based on an iterative process that begins with the
discretization of design space which includes the modeling of design space and the
definition of the FEM-problem (e.g. forces, mesh, constraints, etc.) [39]. The defi-
nition of the optimization problem is then carried out by the declaration of design
variables, the definition of objective function e.g. weighted compliance or a volume
reduction of 85 %, and the definition of manufacturing constraints. Thereon an
FE-analysis is being performed in order to determine the parts stress distribution.
Basis of the optimization algorithm is the adaption of the element density by a
fictional material law during the iterative optimization process. Elements of high
naturalstructures optimization result as FE

model
definition of optimization
diatom model
bionic design
optimization result as 3D
bamboo bone model
Fig. 6.8 Application of topology optimization and potential bionic lightweight structures
structural relevance will be assigned a density of <1 and elements of negligible struc-
tural relevance >0. During the break-off criteria examination the model is checked
weather the objective functions change lies beneath a specific value, otherwise a
further iteration will start. The consequence of this process is a constant evolving of
the structural relevant volume during the iterations.
Figure 6.8 shows an application of the topology optimization and potential
biological lightweight structures. With the help of the topology optimizations
implementation in the development process of “design-for-LAM” the following part
characteristics can be achieved [40]:
• minimization of weight
• reduction of peak stresses
• homogeneous stress distribution
• reduction of production waste.
Using the explained methods iLAS (Institut für Laser- und Anlagensystemtechnik)
optimized the part design and production of an aluminium bracket in an A380 Airbus,
see Fig. 6.9.
This bracket is a part of the fixation of the crew rest compartment with the primary
aircraft hull. Overall, more than 25.000 brackets fulfil similar functions in a typical
aircraft. In contrast to the shown counterparts manufactured by LAM the majority is
milled with intensive machining load resp. chipping removal. A high material waste
and energy consumption during the part production is the result.
The incorporation of bionic inspired bamboo-beams facilitated a very stiff and
light bracket design that is not manufacturable by any other process, see Fig. 6.9.
An overall weight reduction of 50 % could be realized due to the design freedom of
LAM and a material change to titanium [40].
Even though a simple manufacturing process substitution combined with a
redesign can achieve a tremendous weight reduction, the LAM potential for light-
weight design goes far beyond this and needs far more radical approaches in order
to be fully exploited. In addition to bionic and optimized design further lightweight
potential could be successfully shown by an integration of functions with the help of
Fig. 6.9 Top raw part and conventionally manufactured bracket. Bottom topology optimized bracket
with bamboo structure [41]
another A350 bracket design which was initially directly attached onto the honey-
comb, see Fig. 6.10. The force off-set from the neutral axis generated a momentum
and additional loads that had to be regarded during the design phase. Aiming for an
improved lightweight design and an optimized load input the initial bracket and the
honeycomb insert plate were combined, following the bionic analogy of the tree and
its load transfer from branches to the trunk, see Fig. 6.10. By directly gluing the part
into the sandwich compound a direct load induction into the neutral axis is achieved.
Figure 6.11 summarizes the results of weight saving for the different designs
of the analyzed A380 bracket. The initial design was manufactured by milling and
weighs 330 g, the insert plate including fasteners weighs ca. 1.400 g. In comparison
the bionic bracket designed for a manufacturing process substitution shows a weight
saving of 41 % whereas the radical approach of integrated design saves even more
than 80 %.
For a comprehensive overview over the state of the industry of additive manufac-
turing especially see the regular reports of Wohlers [12, 13].
F
F
M
F
Fig. 6.10 Adapted bracket design incorporating integration of functions and loading description
integrated design
original design bionic design (“bracket” directly glued into
honeycomb)
bracket weight 330 g 195 g 0g
1.400 g
assembly 1.265 g
incl. fiber mount and 300 g
weight incl. fiber mount and HiLocks
HiLocks
dimensioning
35 kN 35 kN 35 kN
load case
135 g per bracket 1.100 g per assembly
weight saving
-41% > -80%
Fig. 6.11 Comparison of different design alternatives of aircraft brackets
6.7 Summary and Conclusion

This chapter gave an overview over LAM of metals which is an emerging additive
manufacturing technology. Outlined were the processes basics, significant process
parameters, influences on the part quality for LAM, a brief summary of basic
design guidelines and current biomimetic application areas of LAM. Primarily being
used as a manufacturing process for rapid prototyping in the past, recent develop-
ments show a trend towards functional parts. Even though it will not make con-
ventional manufacturing superseded, the shown applications underline the potential
of this manufacturing technology for new approaches in product design. Presented
applications show that especially highly complex parts can benefit from the processes
geometrical freedom. Yet, in order to fully exploit the processes potential designers
must leave conventional paths of product development in terms of design for manu-
facturing. As shown in the example parts biomimetic can be a solution for designers
to unlock new approaches for product design and development. In the end costs and
the designer’s creativity will judge weather this manufacturing process will lead to
a new industrial revolution as it is often called [20].
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Chapter 7
Biomimetic Coatings by Pulsed Laser
Deposition
Carmen Ristoscu and Ion N. Mihailescu
Abstract The study of high-intensity laser radiation interacting with solid materials
started at the beginning of laser era, i.e. more than 50 years ago. This interaction was
initially described as vaporization, sputtering, desorption, etching or laser ablation.
Ablation was used for the first time in connection with lasers for introducing mate-
rial expulsion by visible-infrared (VIS-IR) sources. The advent of the short pulsed
sources in visible and especially ultra-violet has made possible laser ablation deposi-
tion, an extremely versatile processing technique. When a high intensity laser pulse
hits a solid material, the photons absorption can initiate the melting and local vapor-
ization of the outer layer. A cloud of substance described as plasma plume, consisting
of photons, electrons, ions, atoms, molecules, clusters, liquid and/or solid particles,
is generated. Next, the plume expands from target surface with high velocity and
can either be used to grow a film on a nearby substrate or to analyze its composition
by using various spectroscopic techniques. In materials science, pulsed laser action
opened a door towards various applications, such as localized melting, laser anneal-
ing, surface cleaning by desorption and ablation, and surface hardening by rapid
quench. After 1988 pulsed laser deposition (PLD) technologies were applied for
synthesizing high quality nanostructured thin films. This chapter reviews important
applications of PLD and recent work in the field of biomimetic coatings. Furthermore,
technical limitations and possible solutions are outlined. The general characteristics
of PLD relevant to solid-state physics, e.g. the initial ablation processes, plume for-
mation and plume characteristics are discussed as well.
C. Ristoscu · I. N. Mihailescu (B)

Lasers Department, National Institute for Lasers, Plasma and Radiations Physics,
409 Atomistilor street, P.O. Box MG-54, RO-077125, Magurele-Ilfov, Romania
I. N. Mihailescu

164 C. Ristoscu and I. N. Mihailescu
7.1 Methods and Biomaterials
7.1.1 PLD Definition and Concept
As a materials processing technique, laser ablation was introduced for the first time
in the 1960s, after the invention of the ruby laser [1]. Nevertheless, as a thin film
growth method it did not attract much research interest until the late 1980s, when it
was applied for growing high temperature superconductor films [2, 3]. Since then,
the development of the pulsed laser deposition (PLD) technique has highly been
accelerated and the research devoted to this topic has increased dramatically. Laser
radiation provides many unique properties such as narrow frequency bandwidth,
spatial and temporal coherence and high power density. Intense laser light is able to
vaporize the hardest and most heat resistant materials. Besides, due to high precision,
reliability and spatial resolution, it is widely used in the industry for controlled
machining of thin films, modification of materials, material surface heat treatment,
welding, micropatterning and nanostructuring [4–10]. Moreover, multicomponent
materials can be ablated and deposited onto substrates to form stoichiometric thin
films. Accordingly, this application of the laser is called pulsed laser deposition
(PLD) [11]. This denomination was finally chosen among many other terms, such
as laser evaporation, laser assisted deposition and annealing, laser flash evaporation,
laser molecular beam epitaxy (MBE), hydrodynamic sputtering, laser ablation, laser
ablation deposition, or photonic sputtering [12].
The concept of PLD is simple. A pulsed laser beam is focused onto the surface
of a solid target. The absorption of the intense electromagnetic radiation by the solid
leads to rapid evaporation of the target material. The evaporated material consists of
neutrals and excited ionized particles, which appear as a glowing plasma plume just
in front of the target surface.
PLD advantages
Two major advantages of PLD are the simplicity and versatility of the experiment. By
using high-intensity pulsed UV-lasers and a vacuum chamber, a stoichiometric film
can be grown in a reactive background gas without need for further processing. PLD
is not limited to special classes of compounds, because nearly any type of material
can be ablated by choosing appropriate irradiation conditions [13, 14].
One key feature of PLD is the retention of the stoichiometry of the target in the
deposited films due to the extremely high heating rate of the target surface (108 K/s)
under short (ns) pulsed laser irradiation. It leads to the congruent evaporation of the
target irrespective of the evaporating points of each constituent element or compound
in target composition. Because of the high heating rate induced by the laser, PLD of
crystalline film requires a much lower substrate temperature than other film growing
techniques [15, 16]. Several important parameters must be controlled during the
PLD-process: incident laser fluence, F = E 0 /Ss (where E 0 is the laser pulse energy
and Ss spot area), ambient gas nature and pressure, deposition geometry, cleaning and
heating procedure of the substrate, possible application of external electric and/or
7 Biomimetic Coatings by Pulsed Laser Deposition 165
magnetic fields. The targets used in PLD are rather small compared to the large size
required for other conventional sputtering techniques. Multilayered films of different
materials can easily be fabricated by subsequent ablation of different targets. Using a
carousel system, where targets of different compositions are loaded, multilayer films
can be obtained without opening the deposition chamber. The material combinations
are nearly unlimited and novel composite materials with improved and challenging
properties can be synthesized [17].
The number of pulses and the sequential nature of the PLD process enable a
very precise control of the processed film thickness (∼10−2 –10−1 Å/pulse) and
determine whether the ablated substance is deposited on the substrate as thin film or
as isolated nanoparticles. By accurately monitoring the number of pulses during the
PLD process, even an atomic monolayer can be achieved [18].
In contrast to sputtering, the material processing by light does not contaminate
the target and the receiving substrate during the deposition procedure. By varying
the deposition parameters, macroscopically and microscopically differing structures
can be obtained regarding the crystalline status and physical-chemical properties.
This feature is treated in detail later in the chapter.
PLD disadvantages
One major concern in case of PLD is the presence of the particulates or droplets
on the surface or embedded into the film [11, 14]. The main physical mechanisms
leading to the formation of particulates are: (1) explosive dislocation of substance
caused by local subsurface overheating of the target; (2) gas phase condensation of
the evaporated material (clustering); (3) liquid phase expulsion under the action of the
recoil pressure of the ablated substance; (4) blast-wave explosion at the liquid (melt)-
solid interface; and (5) hydrodynamic instabilities on target surface [19]. The size of
particulates may reach a few micrometers for ns laser pulses. Such particulates affect
the growth and spoil the quality of the subsequent layers, as well as the electrical
and optical properties of the films. However, for some applications in biomedicine or
chemical catalysis, the presence of particulates is not disadvantageous, since they can
improve the film quality due to extended surface area. This aspect will be discussed
in detail for biomimetic coatings in Sect. 7.3.
The presence of droplets in films could be drastically reduced by properly choosing
the laser wavelength, and/or minimizing the presence of liquid phase inside the crater.
Additionally, electric and/or magnetic fields perpendicular to the expansion direction
are applied in order to deflect the particulates from their trajectory towards the film. A
second laser beam directed parallel to the target surface may intersect and eliminate
particulates [20–22].
With respect to film uniformity on larger substrates, PLD has a fairly narrow angu-
lar distribution of the ablated species, which is connected to the adiabatic expansion
of laser generated plasma plume and the pitting of the target surface. By rotating and
translating the target and the substrate larger uniform films are obtained [23].
PLD cannot be extended to the deposition of organic complex molecules, since
intense laser pulses break the long organic chains and the deposited material is
irreversibly damaged and/or altered as compared to the original target material.
Therefore, matrix-assisted pulsed laser evaporation (MAPLE) was invented as a

complementary method to PLD, adequate for delicate (organic and/or biologic)
material transfer. This technique is presented and discussed with representative exam-
ples for biomimetic coatings in Chap. 5 of this book.
7.1.2 Inorganic Biomaterials
PLD based processes aim for the fabrication of complex oxide thin films for super-
conductors [24, 25], thin films for optical components [26], laser active media [27],
wide band-gap compounds for electronics [28, 29], oxide sensor devices [30–35],
protective coatings and barriers [36–39], and inorganic biomaterial thin films, which
is discussed in detail in the following section.
Inorganic biomaterials are often used to repair and reconstruct diseased or dam-
aged part of the musculo-skeletal system of vertebrates. It is noted that the materials
are considered biocompatible if they exhibit a minimal biological response, i.e. not
being toxic or injurious and not causing immunological rejection [40].
The reason of PLD method applied to inorganic biomaterials is motivated by the
ability to grow high quality, pure, crystalline and stoichiometric films [41–46], com-
bined with a technical implementation that facilitates easy control of morphology,
phase, crystallinity and chemical composition. Generally metal substrates (mainly Ti
or Ti alloys) are used as coated implants. The substrate temperature during biocom-
patible thin films deposition by PLD is typically kept within the range 350–600 ◦ C,
thus ensuring the growth of a highly crystalline and single phase coating on implants
[14]. Depending on the application, a lower or higher substrate temperature is chosen
to grow coatings with a different fine texture and roughness. A thermal treatment
(typically in water vapor) after the deposition process is crucial for restoring the
stoichiometry of the synthesized compound and to improve the overall crystallinity
of the coating.
Biomaterial thin films are nowadays used for medical prostheses to modify the
implant surface. A hydroxyapatite (HA) coating on medical implants deposited by
conventional thermal plasma spraying, a popular and commercially used method, was
intended to function as an intermediate layer between human tissue and the metallic
implant [47]. However, this method produced too thick films, which crack, peel or
dissolve in biological fluids. Because of the very high temperatures reached during
the process, the crystallinity and solubility were also altered [48]. To surpass these
shortcomings it was suggested the use of alternative coating techniques for the depo-
sition of films, such as liquid plasma spraying [49], ultrasonic spray pyrolysis [50],
radio-frequency magnetron sputtering [49, 51], direct current magnetron sputtering
[49], ion implantation [49, 52], ion beam sputtering [49], ion beam-assisted deposi-
tion [49], PLD [49, 52], MAPLE [cf. [53] and Chap. 5 of this book], or combination
of different techniques [49].
A comprehensive review of plasma-assisted methods for calcium phosphate-
based coatings fabrication is available in [49]. Results obtained in the last decade in
synthesizing biomimetic thin films of inorganic biomaterials by PLD comprise e.g.

hydroxyapatite (HA–Ca10 (PO4 )6 (OH)2 ), carbonated HA doped with Mn2+ ions
(Mn–CHA; HA with (0.4–2) % Mn2+ and (2–6) % CO3 2− ), Ce-stabilized ZrO2 -
doped HA (Ce–ZrO2 :HA), Ag-doped HA, Sr-doped HA, octacalciumphosphate
(OCP–Ca8 (HPO4 )2 (PO4 )4 ·5H2 O), and bioactive glasses (BG) for applications as
coatings on metallic implants.
Hydroxyapatite (HA)
HA is a hydrated calcium phosphate with the chemical composition and crystal-
lographic structure similar to the mineral part of bone and teeth [54]. The natural
mineral component of bone (∼50 % weight and ∼70 % volume) basically consists
of HA.
The presence of Mn2+ ions in the HA should increase the ligand binding affinity of
integrins [55]. Manganese is a common structural component of bones and cartilages.
(CO3 )2− ions, also present in biological apatite, enter the (PO4 )3− sites in HA.
The addition of a metal oxide dopant to HA, of the type ZrO2 , has been proposed
to reinforce the biomimetic layer [56] and improve its mechanical performances.
The new compound was stabilized with Ce against stress and wear.
Embedding silver (Ag) into calcium phosphates (CaPs) one could expect the
enhancement of the antimicrobial performances of coatings for load bearing implants.
The drug strontium ranelate has been shown to reduce the incidence of fractures in
osteoporotic patients [57, 58]. In-vitro, it increases the number of osteoblasts and
reduces the number and activity of osteoclasts [59, 60], while in-vivo, Sr inhibits
bone resorption and improves bone formation [61–63].
Octacalciumphosphate (OCP)
OCP is a basic calcium phosphate which hydrolyzes in aqueous solution to the more
stable HA phase [64]. OCP structural resemblance to HA and its higher solubility
[65, 66] recommend it as a promising alternative to HA for metallic implants coating.
Bioactive glasses (BG)
BG are a class of biomaterials that can be used as surgical bone replacement material
in otorhinolaryngology, oral surgery, orthopedics, and dentistry [67]. Silica based
glasses in the system SiO2 –Na2 O–K2 O–CaO–MgO–P2 O5 have active surfaces and
can form mechanically strong bonds with bone. An optimal composition of the silica-
based glass results in a suitable compromise between bioactivity and solubility in
which the percentage of silica content plays a key role.
Table 7.1 Commonly used laser systems in PLD [68]

Laser type Pulse Repetition Wavelength Fluence Intensity
duration frequency range (nm)
Excimer 10–30 ns 200 Hz 308, 248, 193 High Modest
Nd:YAG 5–20 ns 30 Hz 1064, 532, 355, 266 High Modest
Nd:YVO4 5–10 ns 20 kHz 1064, 532, 355, 266 Modest Low
Yb:YAG 10–100 ps 1–5 kHz 1064, 532, 355, 266 Modest High
Ti:sapphire oscillator 10–100 fs 100 MHz 790–820 Low High
Ti:sapphire amplifier 100–150 fs 5 kHz 790–820 High High
Yb:YAG + OPA 10–100 ps 1–5 kHz 200–1500 Modest High
Fig. 7.1 Comparison of ablation craters with Nd:YAG and excimer laser pulses [69]
7.2 PLD Background
7.2.1 Laser Sources
The pulsed laser sources for material processing can be classified according to their
pulse energy and duration, repetition frequency, and wavelength. Table 7.1 summa-
rizes this information for the laser systems commonly used in PLD.
Excimer lasers have a much higher power output and typically a more uniform
power distribution across the beam profile, which is usually described as “top hat”
(Fig. 7.1). Solid-state Nd:YAG systems are mainly employed because of relatively
low investment costs, little maintenance requirements, and easy incorporation into
small commercial PLD systems.
In general, the preferred laser wavelength for the growth of thin films is in the
range 200–400 nm, because most materials for deposition exhibit strong absorption
Fig. 7.2 Typical PLD set-up (a), detail with carousel (b)
bands within this spectral region. The absorption coefficient generally increases at
shorter wavelengths and the penetration depth decreases [70, 71]. Consequently, the
ablation threshold is correspondingly lower.
Therefore, most PLD research involved excimer lasers as well as 3rd (355 nm)
and 4th (266 nm) harmonics of Nd:YAG lasers, which usually generate ns pulses.
Until now, such lasers were commonly used in PLD research for the deposition of
biomimetic coatings [72, 73] and hence most of the considerations and examples in
the following refer to these types of lasers.
For the sake of completeness, it is noted that recently Ti:Sapphire sources were also
introduced in materials processing, in particular for PLD of biocompatible coatings
[74]. For example, HA was deposited by means of a Ti:Sapphire (wavelength around
800 nm) laser, which generated pulses in the range of 50 fs–1 ps at a pulse energy in
the sub-mJ range and a repetition rate of 1 kHz [75].
7.2.2 Targets and Set-Ups
A typical PLD set-up is depicted schematically in Fig. 7.2a.

Presently, most of the PLD targets are commercially available as pressed powders,
sintered pellets, cast materials, single crystals or metal foils, having the shape, size
and purity required by users. The alternative is to manufacture the appropriate targets
from raw powders using moulds and presses. In order to obtain a denser target, it
should be sintered for several hours at temperatures ranging from 300 to 1400 ◦ C,
depending on component materials [76]. If necessary, in order to minimize the pres-
ence of the redeposited particulates, the targets are to be grinded or polished before
each deposition. A uniform deposited layer without target piercing is achieved by
rotating it or scanning the laser over the irradiated surface. Usually, the target is
mounted in a holder which can be part of a carousel system. A carousel typically
houses several different targets (see Fig. 7.2b). Before each deposition, the target is
generally cleaned with a series of laser pulses. A shutter, placed between target and
substrate, prevents deposition on the collecting surface during cleaning.
Fig. 7.3 Combinatorial PLD

setup. Reproduced with
permission from [78]
One recent development in the field is the Combinatorial-PLD (C-PLD) [77, 78].
In C-PLD, the targets are located in two different positions and ablated (Fig. 7.3).
The combinatorial depositions have been performed at room temperature by alter-
native ablation of the two targets of HA and Ag using a KrF* laser source with a
repetition rate of 10 Hz in a continuous flow of O2 at 10 Pa dynamic pressure. The
laser fluence was set to 1 J/cm2 . After splitting, the two laser beams are incident on
the targets and the separation distance between the two laser spots is D = 50 mm
(see Fig. 7.3). As depicted in Fig. 7.3, positions A and B on the substrate correspond
to mirror positions of the laser spots on the target 1 and target 2, respectively. All
coatings were grown at a target-substrate separation distance of 5 cm by applying
5000 subsequent laser pulses on each target. The films were deposited on typical
microscope glass slides (26 × 76 mm2 ). In order to obtain comparable results, the
positions of the targets and substrates in respect to the laser beam focus points were
identical in all experiments. Positions A and B are correspond to the substrate coordi-
nates 0 and 50 mm, respectively. With this C-PLD geometry, films with a well-defined
composition gradient across the length of the substrate were deposited.
7.2.3 Plasma Plume
Laser ablation, plasma ignition and expansion

Absorbed photons of a high intensity laser beam can initiate the fusion and local
vaporization of the outer material layer. A cloud (plasma plume) is then generated
in front of the surface, consisting of photons, electrons, ions, atoms, molecules,
clusters, liquid or solid particles. The material ejection under the action of a laser
beam is known in literature as laser ablation. With respect to the predominant physical
phenomenon, the laser ablation can be classified as [79]:
• thermal ablation: the heating induced by the laser pulse and the thermal vaporiza-
tion are prevalent;
• photo-physical ablation: the non-thermal excitations directly influence the ablation
rate;
• photo-chemical ablation: the laser beam breaks chemical bonds by photo-dissocia-

tion or by indirect energy transfer via defects and impurities.
Several theoretical models have been proposed to describe material removal from
a solid target by laser irradiation [80–84]. A current description involves several
successive stages:
• coupling of the laser energy to the target material;

• melting of the surface;
• vaporization, ionization and formation of a plume consisting of material from the
thin upper layer of molten surface;
• photon absorption from the laser beam by vaporized species, which reduces the
laser fluence reaching the target surface;
• propagation of the plume in the direction perpendicular to the target surface;
• return to the initial state at the end of the pulse, to a resolidified surface.
The laser-matter energy transfer is described by the heat equation. For a one dimen-
sional case and if heat losses are neglected, the target enthalpy as a function of the
local temperature is:
d H (T ) ∂ K · ∂∂zT
= + f (z, t) (7.1)
dT ∂z
where T denotes the temperature, H(T) is the enthalpy which accounts for the phase
changes (melting and boiling), z is the coordinate normal to the sample surface, K
is the thermal conductivity of the target material and f(z,t) represents the volumetric
laser energy absorption. f(z,t) acts as a volumetric heat source and is determined by
the incident laser intensity and optical properties of the target:
f (z, t) = (1 − R)I0 (t)αe−αz (7.2)
where α = 1/δopt = 4π k/λ is the reciprocal of the optical penetration depth, δopt , λ
is the laser wavelength, k is the imaginary component of the complex refractive index
(also known as extinction coefficient), I0 (t) is the laser pulse intensity at z = 0 and
R is the optical reflectivity.
The laser pulse duration and the corresponding intensity profile, the attenuation
of the incident beam by the vaporized species and the target characteristics (surface
roughness, porosity and density) have a drastic influence on the coupling of the
laser energy to the target surface. The fusion and vaporization processes appear only
when the laser beam intensity reaches a threshold value. The ablation threshold is
quantified by the threshold fluence, Fth , defined as the minimal energy of the laser
pulse per surface unit that initiates plasma ignition.
As a rule, high intensity laser pulses congruently ablate small volumes of material
[85]. Congruent is referred to as the same chemical composition of the deposited film
and the irradiated target. By contrast, incongruent transfer of material form target to
collector can appear because of insufficient laser intensity, film sputtering induced
by incoming ablated species or different sticking coefficients [86].
Fig. 7.4 Schematic of the

gas cloud expansion after
target irradiation by a laser
pulse with energy superior
to the ablation threshold.
Reproduced with permission
from [87]
The angular distribution of the expulsed material is centered around the normal
direction to the target surface (Fig. 7.4). The ablated material can be collected on a
nearby substrate with the same chemical composition as the irradiated target.
This distribution is reasonably described by a law h(θ ) ∼ (1 + k 2 tg 2 θ )−3/2 ,
where θ (also called deposition angle) is the angle between the normal to surface and
the ablated species propagation direction. For θ around the normal, h(θ ) ∼ cos n θ ,
with n being an integer. The larger the laser fluence, the closer is the distribution
of the expulsed material flux to the orthogonal direction. Z 0 it is defined as initial
length of the plasma, R0 is initial width of the plasma (which practically coincides
with the laser spot dimension) and h(z s , θ ) is the profile of the deposited film [87].
Correspondingly, at deposition, z = z s and R = Rs (the dimension of the deposition
spot).
If the laser heating of the target is at equilibrium or quasi-equilibrium, the target
surface is melted and vaporized similar to conventional thermal processes. The evap-
orated matter is strongly excited and ionized and forms a very dense plasma. The
plasma is fed with energy from the laser pulse. It starts to heat via the absorption of
photons by electrons and collisions between atoms. After becoming more and more
ionized, the main mechanism of plasma heating is the collisions between electrons
and ions. The ablation plasma reaches typical temperatures of 104 K. The absorption
coefficient of plasma, α p , was approximated by Singh and Narayan [88] as:

n i2 hν
− kT
α p ≈ 3.7 · 10 8
Z 3
1−e p (7.3)
T p0.5 ν 3
where Z is the mean ion charge, n i the ionic density and T p the plasma temperature.
− hν
The term (1 − e kT p ) corresponds to losses by stimulated emission. For UV laser
pulses, this term is approximately equal to unity when T p < 4 × 104 K and it can
be approximated by hν/kT p for T p > 4 × 104 K. Accordingly, the temperature
dependency of α p is T p−0.5 for the generated plasma and T p−1.5 for the two plasma
temperatures regime [89–91]. For excimer lasers (see Table 7.1), the plasma temper-
atures reach values of 7 × 103 − 2 × 104 K, meaning a dependence of the plasma
absorption coefficient according to T p−0.5 .
The charge density rapidly decreases with the distance from the target surface
because the plasma expansion takes place with velocities of 105 –106 cm/s. Con-
versely, the plasma is very dense (1019 –1020 cm−3 ) and extremely absorbent in
a thin area close to target surface, known as Knudsen layer [92, 93], which is a
continuous fluid. Thus, an exponential attenuation of particle density and plasma
pressure along the z direction (i.e. perpendicular to target surface) is expected.
Because the initial plasma dimensions are much larger on target surface (up to a
few mm) as compared to the z direction (sub-micron), the anisotropic plasma expan-
sion evolves mainly in the z direction according to the respective pressure gradients.
At the end of the ns laser pulse, the particle evaporation and plasma feeding stop
[85]. Conversely, ultrashort laser pulses (fs) are usually terminated before the first
particles are ejected from the target. In this case, photons are mainly absorbed by
free electrons, which are thermalized within femtoseconds through electron-electron
scattering. The energy transfer to the lattice through electron-phonon coupling occurs
on a larger timescale, typically from a few ps to some hundred ps. Thus, the time
required for the electron-lattice thermalisation is much larger than the laser pulse
duration [89, 90, 94].
The plasma expands rapidly in an adiabatic regime. The heat is gradually converted
into kinetic energy. Species acceleration depends on temperature, plasma dimension,
and atomic mass. The maximum velocity is reached along the smallest dimension of
plasma. Consequently, the expansion continues mainly in the z direction.
For intensities exceeding 108 W/cm2 , plasma becomes strongly ionized and its
characteristic frequency, ω p is larger than the frequency of the incident laser beam.
Then, plasma absorbs the laser beam in a very thin layer, the temperature reaches
values of 105 K and the propagation becomes explosive. In this regime, the absorp-
tion wave is called
√ detonation wave, the propagation velocity,vd being approxi-
mately vd ∼ 3 I . The front of the detonation wave compresses the surrounding
gas, determining the generation of a shock wave. If the laser intensity I, is aug-
mented (109 W/cm2 ) over the threshold value of plasma initiation Ith , a decoupling
of the plasma from the target can occur. This phenomenon is due to an absorption
wave determined by the difference between the energy absorbed in plasma and the
energy losses by thermal conduction and radiative emission of particles. Absorption
waves propagating with subsonic velocities are behaving like combustion waves.
The propagation velocity of √the combustion wave, vc varies with the laser intensity
according to the law vc ∼ 3 I [85].
Fig. 7.5 Photograph of plasma generated when ablating a HA target with an KrF* excimer laser
source (25 ns, 248 nm) in 50 Pa H2 O
If plasma expands in a gaseous medium, the propagation is attenuated. Plasma

is influenced by the gas pressure and the interaction mechanism (elastic or inelastic
collisions) between the ejected and gas atoms. In a reactive ambient atmosphere new
compounds can be formed in plasma. Their concentration depends on the reactivity
of the target atoms and the ambient pressure.
By placing a collector parallel and at a distance of a few centimeters in front of
the target (see Fig. 7.2a), adherent inorganic thin films can be obtained, with possible
applications in many fields. The thin films synthesis method commonly associated
to laser ablation is PLD. In PLD plasma exerts the role of a piston, pushing the
expulsed substance from target to substrate and is therefore essential for the entire
process [12].
Plasma diagnostic
The plasma generated from a HA (Ca10 (PO4 )6 (OH)2 ) target under the action of abla-
tive laser pulses (Fig. 7.5) allows for a better insight into the fundamental mechanisms
of the laser-matter interaction [72, 95–98]. The characteristics of the deposited films
depend crucially on the properties of the ablation plume, e.g. the degree of ionization,
and the velocity distribution of the various species present in the plume. The plume
characteristics can be analyzed by wavelength, time- and spatially-resolved optical
emission spectroscopy (OES). This technique allows quantitative determination of
the velocity distribution of the various emitting species in the plume, and permits
estimations of the relative degree of ionization of the ablated material.
In case of laser ablation in vacuum of a HA target at 3 J/cm2 using a Ti–Sapphire
laser source (100 fs, 800 nm), the imaging data show a quasi-symmetric expansion
of the plasma [99]. Four typical images of the entire plasma plume for different
delays between the ablating laser pulse and the observation gate of 10 ns duration,
are given in Fig. 7.6. The target position is indicated by a black bar. Beside the
Fig. 7.6 Plasma images recorded during HA ablation in vacuum with 3 J/cm2 using a Ti–Sapphire
laser source (100 fs, 800 nm). The target position is indicated by a black bar. Reproduced with
Fig. 7.7 Computed density of the plasma species for the obtained electron temperatures within the
range 0.2–0.5 eV
expanding plume, a strongly luminous zone around the laser impact spot and the
photoluminescence of the entire target was visible for times t ≥ 1µs.
Expansion velocities in the range (1.1–4.7) × 105 cm/s are deduced from Fig. 7.6,
in good agreement with the theoretical considerations in the previous section. Assum-
ing the local thermal equilibrium (LTE) and using Boltzmann equation for excitation
equilibrium and Saha equation for ionization equilibrium [85], the inferred electron
temperatures at a distance of about 0.1 mm apart from the target are of about 3,500 K
(0.30 eV) for 20 ns, and of 2,500 K (0.21 eV) for 50 ns delay time after the laser pulse.
Time- and space-resolved emission spectroscopic analyses showed that lines of
neutral Ca dominate the spectra. Ca+ ionic lines and very weak emissions from O
and H neutral atoms were also detected. N or P (neutral or ionised) neither ionised O
lines were identified. Figure 7.7 is a simulation of the density of the species present
in the plasma, within the range of the obtained electron temperatures, (0.2–0.5) eV.
These values were computed taking into account the ionization and dissociation
potentials and the chemical reactions [100]. It has to be mentioned that PO group
has no spectral lines within the range 350–800 nm.
The plasma plume generated by ArF* excimer laser (20 ns, 193 nm) ablation of
a HA target was studied in ambient water vapor at a pressure of 20 Pa [101]. A
velocity of the plasma front of 1.75 × 106 cm/s close to the target was measured,
which decreases to ∼2 × 105 cm/s at a distance of about 25 mm from the target. The
electron density was of ∼1.2 × 1018 cm−3 near the target and of ∼4.5 × 1015 cm−3 at
about 18 mm apart from the target. The electron temperature was of 11500 K close to
the target and decreased to 4500 K at a distance of 29 mm from the target. The authors
inferred from plasma front velocities the kinetic energies of Ca, P and O atoms of
64, 49 and 25 eV, respectively. These energies dropped to 0.47, 0.3 and 0.19 eV only,
at a distance of 25 mm from the target. It was concluded that the required energy
to deposit crystalline structures must be sustained by heating of the substrate. As
known, HA and other CaPs phases should be at least partly crystalline in order to
boost bone cells growth and proliferation [52, 73].
7.2.4 Thin Films Growth and Characterization
The laser wavelength, pulse duration and fluence determine whether the target mate-
rial will be thermally or non-thermally evaporated. Whichever process rules the ratio
between neutral and ionized species in a plume is different. The repetition rate of
the laser fixes the degree of supersaturation of the evaporated material on the sub-
strate surface. As known, one can control crystallization process and product quality
by carefully monitoring the level of supersaturation. Supersaturation is therefore a
critical parameter because it is the driving force for crystal nucleation and growth.
Nucleation represents the formation of new crystal nuclei, which can occur spon-
taneously (primary nucleation) or in the presence of existing crystals (secondary
nucleation). These two mechanisms are in competition during growth process and
eventually determine the final crystal size distribution [102]. High levels of super-
saturation can often lead to a nucleation-dominated crystallization with small crystal
growth. Accordingly, the supersaturation has a direct influence on the growth mode
of the deposited film.
There are four different growth modes for films on a substrate: 2D layer-by-layer
growth (Frank-van der Merwe); 3D island growth (Volmer-Weber); layer-by-layer
followed by an island growth (Stranski-Krastanov); [103] and step-flow growth [15].
The substrate temperature is important to ensure a sufficient surface mobility of
the arriving species to support crystalline growth and influence on the deposition
rate during pulsed laser deposition in ambient gases [104]. To obtain the desired
film composition and structure, the background gas, nature and pressure should be
controlled [12].
After deposition, the biomimetic inorganic biomaterial films are submitted to var-
ious complementary physical-chemical and biological characterizations, amongst
which are: optical microscopy (OM), atomic force microscopy (AFM), scanning and
transmission electron microscopy (SEM and TEM); profilometry; Fourier Transform
Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR); X-ray diffraction (XRD); X-ray photoelectron spec-
troscopy (XPS); energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS); tribological, electrical

and magnetical measurements; in-vitro biological assays (toxicity, viability, prolif-
eration, cells growth); and eventually in-vivo tests.
7.3 Biomimetic Inorganic Biomaterial Thin Films
Biomaterials are currently used for the repair and reconstruction of diseased or
damaged parts of the musculo-skeletal system of vertebrates. Metals, ceramics, car-
bon, glasses, and composites have so far emerged among biocompatible/biomimetic
materials [105], and they can be used in the form of powder, single crystals, poly-
crystalline, glass, glass-ceramics, and/or composites, thin films or multistructures.
7.3.1 Ca Phosphates (CaPs)
Nanostructured biomimetic CaP coatings demonstrated a significant potential for

improving the performance of titanium implants in bone. The composition and struc-
ture of the CaP layers have a considerable influence on their biological effects.
In a recent work, thin HA films were deposited at a constant temperature of 400 ◦ C
in 13–50 Pa water vapors [106]. The deposition substrates were heated / cooled with
a constant rate of 6 ◦ C/min. The samples were allowed to cool down in the same
atmosphere that had been used for deposition. In order to improve hydroxylation and
crystallinity status, all coatings were subjected to 6 h post-deposition heat treatment
in water vapor enriched atmosphere at the deposition temperature. The dark field
images in Fig. 7.8 clearly show the presence of microcrystalline domains. It appeared
that the deposition parameters which control the obtaining of an adherent HA-based
layer on Ti are (i) the vapour pressure of water during ablation and (ii) the annealing
temperature of ∼400 ◦ C to avoid the delamination and cracking.
The film surface is covered with droplets, some of them filled with nano-crystalline
material as visible in the two dark field images (Fig. 7.8a, c). The presence of par-
ticulates seems to be beneficial for the growth and proliferation of cells because
they favor the better anchorage of cells roots or cytoplasmatic extensions [73]. More
details are visible in Fig. 7.8b, which shows the 211 ring, while in Fig. 7.8d 002
spots are visible, which reveal a microcrystalline spherical layer of HA wrapping
nano-crystalline material.
Figure 7.9 presents a high resolution XTEM micrograph of the HA–TiN inter-
face. The image shows the succession of the (100) atomic planes characteristic to
crystalline network of HA. The interplanar distance measured from the image was
0.812 nm, a value very close to the theoretical one for the (100) HA plane (0.817 nm).
The image also shows that a very thin film of amorphous HA is growing on the TiN
buffer layer. This amorphous layer, of about 7 nm thickness, facilitates the transi-
tion from the cubic TiN structure to hexagonal HA. The appearance of the coatings
Fig. 7.8 TEM dark field images of droplets (a, c) with the corresponding SAED patterns (b, d) for
a HA/TiN/Ti sample deposited at 400 ◦ C in 13 Pa H2 O vapour
Fig. 7.9 HRTEM micrograph

showing the interface HA
film-TiN buffer layer
consisting of HA nanocrystals embedded in an amorphous matrix is quite similar to

the bone structure [107].
EDS results were consistent with the data provided by the structural analyses. The
Ca/P atomic ratio varied in the range (1.66–1.85) ± 5 % for HA films, depending
on substrate temperature during deposition (Fig. 7.10), which is very close to the
theoretical value 1.67 for the Ca/P ratio.
Fig. 7.10 Evolution of the Ca/P atomic ratio of films versus deposition temperature. Values were
obtained by EDS
The films exhibited a hardness H ∼ = (1–1.5) GPa, and a Young’s modulus, E,

between (50–80) GPa. Films processed at high temperature had a larger Young’s
modulus: E ∼ = 70–80 GPa, which can be the result of a better densification of the
structure.
In-vitro tests indicated that primary human osteoblasts cultured on the surface
of PLD CaPs thin films for up to 21 days, had a normal morphology, a very high
proliferation rate, and a significantly improved viability as compared with those
growing on uncoated Ti [45, 73, 104]. Consequently, the functionalized biomimetic
titanium implants coated with nanostructured CaP layers were tested in-vivo [106].
Eight weeks after implantation in the tibia bones of 6-month-old New Zealand White
female rabbits the attachment between bone and implants was investigated by a
pull-out test. The pull-out force was found to increase about twice in the case of
CaPs-coated Ti coins, in respect with the uncoated ones. Furthermore, compared
with the commercial HA-coated implants, the pull-out force increased by 25 % for
implants with Mn2+ -doped carbonated HA, and 10 % for octacalcium phosphate-
coated implants.
7.3.2 Multistructures
In multistructures, a buffer bio-inert layer is introduced in order to enhance the

adhesion onto substrate and improve the crystallinity of the HA outer coating.
Recently, functional multistructures of HA and bioactive glasses (BG) were
obtained by PLD in water vapor and low pressure oxygen, respectively, onto Ti
substrates [108]. BG in the system SiO2 –Na2 O–K2 O–CaO–MgO–P2 O5 containing
61 wt. % (BG61) or 57 wt. % (BG57) silica and nanosized HA raw powders were
used to prepare the targets. Two series of multistructures were prepared: HA/BG61/Ti
denoted HA-BG61 and HA/BG57/Ti denoted HA-BG57.
Fig. 7.11 GIXRD pattern at 2.58 incidence angle for the coatings HA-BG61 (a) and HA-BG57 (b).
Modified with permission from [108]
The crystallinity of samples was analyzed by grazing incidence XRD (GIXRD).

The diffraction peaks at 25.88◦ , 28.98◦ , 31.88◦ , 32.28◦ , 32.98◦ , and 34.08◦ were
assigned to HA (Fig. 7.11), while peaks belonging to the Ti substrate are visible
at 35.18◦ , 38.48◦ , and 40.28◦ . At deposition temperatures of 400 ◦ C, the diffraction
lines intensity is higher for HA-BG57 than for HA-BG61 samples. One can therefore
assume that the crystallization process is favored for the structures with a buffer layer
of BG57.
Figure 7.12 shows typical FTIR spectra for samples HA-BG61 and HA-BG57.
All spectra contain the bands characteristic to the PO3− 4 group. More precisely, the
band at 1200–1000 cm−1 is assigned to the asymmetric stretching mode, the band
around 960 cm−1 corresponds to the symmetric stretching vibration and the band
around 560 cm−1 is attributed to the asymmetric bending vibration. Based on the
resemblance between the FTIR spectra of the HA-BG61, HA-BG57 samples and the
original HA powder, it was concluded that the coatings have the same structure and
composition with the starting HA material.
Representative SEM micrographs of the sample surface of the two multistructures
are given in Fig. 7.13. An important note is that both films mainly consist of spherical
droplets of different size within the range (0.2–5 µm). Another observation is that the
geometrical shape of the deposited layers generally follows the surface microrelief
of the chemically etched Ti substrate. Thus, the pinholes that are sometimes visible
on the coatings originate from the pitting of Ti surface. The deposited structures very
strongly adhered to the Ti substrates, and the high density of particulates is expected
to enhance cell growth and proliferation.
Fig. 7.12 Typical FTIR spectra of the coatings HA-BG61 (a) and HA-BG57 (b). Reproduced with
Fig. 7.13 Representative scanning electron micrographs of the surface of coatings HA-BG61 (a)
and HA-BG57 (b) (scale 5 µm, magnification 3000X). Reproduced with permission from [108]
7.3.3 Composite Nanostructures
Recent studies revealed the necessity to reproduce not only the composition in per-
fectly compatible and active layers but also the structure, morphology, and eventu-
ally the functionality of the hard tissues [73]. The use of composite multistructures
appeared to be the most appropriate solution with respect to combining the biocom-
patibility of CaP thin coatings and the strength of substrate.
The influence of porous Al2 O3 substrates on Ce-stabilized ZrO2 -doped HA
(Ce–ZrO2 :HA) thin films morphology pulsed laser deposited on their surface was
studied [109, 110]. The Al2 O3 substrates were sintered at 1400 ◦ C (substrate A),
1500 ◦ C (substrate B) or 1600 ◦ C (substrate C). The deposition was conducted at
Fig. 7.14 AFM images of substrate A (a) and C (d) before PLD and of Ce–ZrO2 :HA thin films
deposited on A substrate with 5000 (b) and 10000 (c) laser pulses and on C substrate with 5000 (e)
and 10000 (f) pulses
a water vapor pressure of 50 Pa. The surface morphology of synthesized compos-

ite nanostructures was investigated by AFM (Fig. 7.14). Ce–ZrO2 :HA thin films
deposited with 5000 laser pulses generally copy the surface microrelief of the sub-
strates, while the ones obtained after 10,000 pulses exhibited no differences between
surfaces. A Ca/P atomic ratio within the range 1.67–1.70 was found by EDS.
The films were seeded with mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) for in-vitro tests.
Deposited coatings proved compatible with MSC growth: cells attached, spread and
covered uniformly the whole surface (Fig. 7.15).
Differences have been observed in the efficiency of developing long filopodia in
order to ensure an optimal intracellular organization. On substrates B and C large stem
cells colonies were visible, while the substrate A exhibited uniform cell coverage.
This can be indicative for enhanced cells division. The exact number of cells covering
the Ce–ZrO2 :HA films was therefore quantified via a DNA content assay 90 min
after seeding. It resulted that around 6000 cells were attached to the film deposited
on substrate A, while 10000 were present on the coating on the substrate C [109].
The difference was attributed to the pore size effect rather than to porosity of the
substrate [111]. Apparently, the surface structure and the open porosity play a key
role in cell attachment and next proliferation and differentiation.
It was recently reported on the antibacterial properties of Ag-doped HA layers
obtained by PLD [112]. HA layers doped with 0.06 at %, 1.2 at %, 4.4 at %, 8.3
at % and 13.7 at % silver were prepared. The antibacterial in-vitro measurements
were carried out for Escherichia coli and Gram-positive Bacillus subtilis [113]. It
was observed that the antibacterial efficacy increased with Ag doping from 71.0 to
Fig. 7.15 MSCc 48 h after seeding on Ce–ZrO2 :HA thin films deposited with 5,000 laser pulses.
Cells were labeled with MitoTracker Red (I), and NBD C6 Ceramide (II): a-film on A substrate,
b-film on B substrate and c-film on C substrate (10X). Scale bar = 100 µm. Reproduced with
99.9 %. The best results were obtained for doped HA layers with silver concentration
higher than 1.2 at %. For E. coli, it was noticed that 2 h of treatment were sufficient
irrespective of the Ag doping. Moreover, no difference in antibacterial efficacy was
found for amorphous or crystalline layers.
C-PLD technique was used to evaluate whether the cellular morphology is influ-
enced by the variation of Ag content, as well as by the topological features of Ag-
doped HA coatings [114]. To this aim, compositional libraries of Ag-doped HA films
were deposited using the set-up depicted schematically in Fig. 7.3. Sample proper-
ties were analyzed along the AB direction (see Fig. 7.3). In order to establish the
Ag content profile, EDS measurements were carried out (Fig. 7.16). The Ag content
was the highest in position “A” (0 mm) with value of 0.88 at % and the lowest in “B”
(50 mm apart) with a value of 0.14 at %.
AFM and SEM analyses revealed differences in surface topography along the AB
direction, with distinctive features. An increase of particulates density from A to
B was observed. This specific topology consisting of grains of tens or hundreds of
nanometers in size combined with the presence of irregular particulates with dimen-
sions in the sub-micronic and micronic range is considered beneficial for adhesion
and proliferation of MSC cells. An Ag content of no more than 0.6 at % into HA
coatings was proved nontoxic for MSCs [114].
One should therefore chose for the best compromise between good antibacterial
activity (1.2 at %) and toxicity (0.6 at %) against tissue cells when designing the most
appropriate coatings for biomimetic metallic implants.
Fig. 7.16 Ag content profile determined by EDS for film areas between A and B points on the
surface of Ag-doped HA sample obtained by C-PLD. Reproduced with permission from [114]
Pulsed laser deposited HA thin films with different extent of Sr substitution

for Ca (0, 1, 3, or 7 at %) [115] were synthesized on Ti substrates. The XRD
spectra evidenced the presence of HA as the sole crystalline phase. The slight
broadening of the diffraction peaks was consistent with a shortening of the per-
fect crystalline domains when strontium concentration was increased. The presence
of Sr significantly improved osteoblast adhesion in early culture phases, while cell
adhesion was increasing with Sr content in the coatings. Appreciably higher values of
alkaline phosphatase (ALP), osteocalcin (OCN), collagen type I production (CICP),
and osteoprotegerin (OPG)/Trance ratio were found in case of thin HA films with
relatively high Sr content (of 3 and 7 at %). The increased values of the OGP/Trance
ratio in case of coatings with 3 and 7 at % Sr indicated that strontium concentration
larger than 3 at % inhibits osteoclast production and differentiation. Accordingly, the
investigation of osteoclast proliferation at 21 days after seeding on deposited layers
showed a significant reduction in cells number, in correlation with the Sr content
increase in the HA coating (Figs. 10.17a–d).
These findings suggest that the presence of strontium in HA thin films can enhance
the positive effect of hydroxyapatite biomimetic coatings on osteointegration and
bone regeneration, and prevent undesirable bone resorption, and can prove efficient
in the treatment of osteoporosis.
Fig. 7.17 Phalloidin staining and proliferation (WST1 test) of osteoclast culture 21 days after seed-
ing on a HA (3.285 ± 0.021); b 1 at % Sr in HA (3.252 ± 0.047); c 3 at % Sr in HA (3.211 ± 0.008*);
and d 7 at % Sr in HA (3.193 ± 0.019*). * (p<0.05). Bars: 50 µm. Reproduced with permission
from [115]
7.4 Conclusions and Outlook
Biomimetic thin films and multistructures were synthesized by pulsed laser depo-
sition from simple or composite inorganic biomaterials. They proved identical in
composition, structure and morphology with the starting material, very likely preserv-
ing their functionality and biological activity. The doping and substituting elements
were neither eliminated nor segregated after PLD, and films with a uniform com-
position could be deposited. The recent developments of combinatorial PLD open
the door towards synthesizing compositional libraries between different compounds,
thus offering the chance of rapid and consistent tests for drugs dosage and delivery
and for the development of advanced coatings for a new generation of implants.
It may be concluded that PLD technique is now well renowned to be applied for
biomedical scale-up.
Acknowledgments The authors acknowledge with thanks the financial support of UEFISCDI
under the contract ID304/2011 and of the European Social Fund through the contract POS-
DRU/89/1.5/S/60746.
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Chapter 8
Laser Assisted Bio-printing (LAB) of Cells
and Bio-materials Based on Laser Induced
Forward Transfer (LIFT)
Bertrand Guillotin, Sylvain Catros and Fabien Guillemot
Abstract Laser assisted bio-printing (LAB) is an emerging and complementary

technology in the field of tissue engineering envisaging biomimetics applications.
LAB allows to print cells and liquid materials with a cell-level resolution, which is
comparable to the complex histology of living tissues. By giving tissue engineers
control on cell density and organization, LAB potentially holds promise to fabricate
living tissues with biomimetic physiological functionality. In this chapter, the phys-
ical parameters related to laser induced forward transfer (LIFT) technique, which is
implemented in the LAB, are presented. These parameters, such as laser pulse energy
and bio-ink viscosity are critical to control the cell printing process. They must be
tuned according to each other in order to print viable cell patterns with respect to cell-
level histological organization. Processing time is a concern when addressing tissue
engineering involving living material like cells. Therefore, concerns regarding the
design and technical implementation of LAB based rapid prototyping workstation
are discussed. Experimental requirements are described in order to fabricate tissues
using LAB. Some typical multi-component printing, 3D printing approaches and
bio-printing in vivo are presented.
8.1 Laser Assisted Bio-printing for Biomimetic

Tissue Engineering
There are several ways for the technological generation of three-dimensional bio-
logical structures. As an alternative to the rather straight forward scaffold-based
approach of cell seeding on porous templates [1], some authors have suggested that
B. Guillotin · S. Catros · F. Guillemot (B)

Bioingénierie Tissulaire, INSERM U1026, 146 rue Léo Saignat, Bordeaux 33076, France
B. Guillotin · S. Catros · F. Guillemot
Université Bordeaux Segalen, 146 rue Léo Saignat, Bordeaux 33076, France

194 B. Guillotin et al.
Fig. 8.1 A typical LIFT experimental set up is generally composed of three elements: a pulsed laser
source, a target or ribbon coated with the material to be transferred, and a receiving substrate. The
ribbon is a three layer component: a support, transparent to the laser radiation wavelength, coated
with a thin absorbing layer (50 nm), coated itself with a transfer layer (50 μm), named bio-ink that
contains the elements to be printed like biomaterials, cells or biochemical factors
three-dimensional biological structures can be built from the bottom up by means

of the bio-printing. This technology addresses the automated and computer-aided
deposition of cells, cell aggregates and biomaterials [2–7]. Ink-jet printers have suc-
cessfully been applied to pattern biological assemblies [8–10]. Pressure-operated
mechanical extruders were used to handle living cells and cell aggregates [3]. At the
same time, laser-assisted printing technologies have emerged as alternative methods
for assembling and micropatterning biomaterials (i.e. bio-compatible materials) and
cells. Laser printing of biological material in general, and living cells in particular,
is based on the laser-induced forward-transfer (LIFT) technique (Fig. 8.1), in which
a pulsed laser is used to induce the transfer of material from a source film [11–13].
Several set-ups of LIFT have been implemented to print living cells, the main differ-
ence being on the choice of the laser source and the hardware (automated or manual)
used to positioning the laser beam or the substrate [14, 15]. In this chapter the gen-
eral term of Laser Assisted Bio-printing (LAB) is used. Under suitable irradiation
conditions, and for liquids presenting a wide range of rheologies, the material can be
deposited in the form of well-defined circular droplets with a high degree of spatial
resolution [16–18].
This chapter introduces the conceptual challenges related to living tissue com-
plexity in the field of tissue engineering and the technical properties that make LAB
a suitable tool for biomimetic tissue engineering. It will be discussed that the under-
lying physics imposes limitations to the tuning range of technical parameters for
8 Laser Assisted Bio-printing (LAB) of Cells and Bio-materials 195
printing viable cell patterns at cell-level spatial resolution. LAB-based tissue engi-
neering applications for basic research in biology as well as for regenerative medicine
are presented.
Living tissue is characterized by its cell types, the biochemical and mechanical
properties of the extracellular matrix and the organization of these components. The
organs are composed of multiple cell types, which are assembled and interfaced at
the micrometer scale. In the liver for example, columns of hepatocytes are inter-
faced with biliary capillaries on the apical side and with sinusoidal blood vessels
on the basal side to form lobules. There are two functional outcomes related to
such high density, compartmentalized and integrated cellular organization: (i) home-
ostasis, in particular metabolic exchange, is optimized; and (ii) functional units are
packed together to form organs with a physiological efficiency that is compatible
with living tissues. Consequently, miniaturization of tissue engineering processes
(i.e. microscale organization of cells) might be necessary to fabricate organotypic
structures that compare favorably with the functionality of living organs.
Tissue engineering approaches can be divided into three strategies based on the
scale of spatial organization. First, macrosopic strategy can be likened to traditional
tissue engineering in which cells are seeded onto a macroporous scaffold. Cells are
expected to colonize the inner volume of the scaffold by cell mobility and prolif-
eration, and fluid flow. However, scaffolds do not present the ability to mimic the
functional multicellular anisotropy and density of the host tissue. Second, mesostruc-
tures or modular blocks, also termed organoids [4, 19, 20], are based on the ability
of the cells to self-assemble and their capacity to maintain viability and function,
when located within the diffusion limit of nutrient supply. The modular approach
enables the production of 3D modules in a variety of shapes (e.g. cylinders) with a
lateral diameter between 40 and 1000 μm and cell densities of 105 –108 cells/cm2 .
Furthermore, it allows fabrication of multicellular constructs (e.g. bone-mimicking
construct including osteoblasts, osteoclasts and endothelial cells). However, both
macroscopic and mesoscopic approaches have not demonstrated the ability to mimic
the functional multicellular anisotropy and density of the host tissue. Consequently, it
is also conceptually challenging to design an efficient perfusion system that is phys-
iologically interfaced with the engineered tissue and that will branch to the host’
vasculature at implantation.
The third strategy is to reproduce the local cell microenvironment. It can be
thought as the ultimate target for tissue engineering and cell patterning. It could
be defined as the capacity of positioning a single cell into its most suitable envi-
ronment. Coordinated interactions between soluble factors, different cell types and
extracellular matrices (i.e. mechanical and biochemical cues) should be taken into
account. Such a cell niche manufacturing approach is unique in its purpose of deal-
ing with tissue complexity and engineering a desired tissue from the bottom up.
A microscopic scaffold-free, bottom-up approach to tissue engineering has been
proposed [21]. Accordingly, computer-assisted design/computer-assisted manufac-
turing (CAD/CAM) LAB workstations have been designed and used to print viable
cells and to organize them with cell-level resolution, in two dimensional and three
dimensional tissue constructs with the aim of mimicking the functional histology of
live tissues.
Virtually all cell types can be printed by LAB. Numerous studies have shown suc-
cessful laser assisted printing of a fairly broad range of prokaryotic cells and eukary-
otic cell, which is comprehensively reviewed in [14]. Indeed, the literature does not
report altered cell proliferation, cell differentiation or DNA damage due to LAB as
compared to conventional cell seeding. Considering human primary cells in particu-
lar, the following types have been printed by LAB: human umbilical vein endothelial
cells (HUVEC) and human umbilical vein smooth muscle cells (HUVSMC) [22, 23],
human mesenchymal stem cells [23–25], adipose-tissue derived stem cells (ADSC)
and endothelial colony-forming cells (ECFC) [26], as well as human bone-marrow
derived osteo-progenitors (HOP) [27].
8.2 Technical Implementation of LAB for Cell

and Biomaterial Printing
Major requirements must be considered in order to design a LAB workstation regard-

ing the laser treatment of living cells and the capability for rapid prototyping of bio-
materials (Fig. 8.2). An evaluation of the laser source in terms of cell viability and
printing resolution leads to the following conclusion:
The wavelength λ should not induce alteration of biological materials. Due to the
potential denaturation of DNA by UV exposure, and despite short pulse duration and
the presence of the light absorbing metal layer, near IR lasers might be preferable to
UV lasers.
The laser repetition rate must be considered with respect to high throughput
processes. First, to keep energy per spot constant, successive laser spots should not
overlap with each other onto the laser-absorbing layer. Moreover, in combination
with scanning velocity, the laser repetition rate has to be taken into account to avoid
coalescence of vapor bubbles within the thickness of the bio-ink, and reciprocal per-
turbation of consecutive jets. Moreover, the jet hydrodynamics need to be considered
in order to avoid perturbations between two contiguous jets since droplet formation
onto substrates occurs in a 100 μs timeframe (Fig. 8.2). In that context, most of the
LAB set-ups use a nanosecond laser, operating at repetition rates from 1 to 10 kHz.
The beam quality, including divergence, spatial mode, and pulse-to-pulse stability
has to be taken into account to ensure the reproducibility, stability and high resolution
of the system (Fig. 8.4).
A laser-based workstation dedicated to tissue engineering applications should
be designed with the purpose of executing various tasks rather than solely bio-
printing. Consequently, the mean laser power should be high enough to perform
additional processes like photolithography, photopolymerization, machining, sinter-
ing and foaming [28–30].
Fig. 8.2 View of the high-throughput LAB (a). High resolution positioning system placed below
the carousel holder with a loading capacity of 5 different ribbons (b)
8.2.1 Droplet Ejection Mechanism
A set-up for a LAB process, which takes advantage of LIFT, comprises three ele-
ments: a pulsed laser source, a target coated with the material to be printed and a
receiving substrate (Fig. 8.1). The generation of microdroplets by LIFT proceeds
through three consecutive steps [12, 31–33]: First, the laser energy is deposited into
the skin depth of the absorbing layer, which heats the absorbing layer in its skin
depth. Secondly, the heat is transferred to a very thin film of the bio-ink on top of
the absorbing layer. Third, at sufficient laser intensity a vapor bubble is generated,
which expands and leads to a bio-ink-air interface deformation. Finally, it has been
shown that depending on the laser energy, three LIFT regimes can be observed:
the subthreshold, the jetting and the plume regime (Fig. 8.4 and [12]). Initially, it
was found that the volume of deposited material depends linearly on the laser pulse
energy, and that a minimum threshold energy must be exceeded for the occurrence
of droplet ejection [31]. As numbered in Fig. 8.1, microdroplet ejection depends on
numerous parameters, in order to print viable cells with high printing resolution and
high throughput (Fig. 8.3).
A major shortcoming of common LAB is the use of metallic absorbing layers,
which are vaporized together with the printed material and may spoil the final tissue
engineering product. Recent promising solutions to this issue include the use of a
polyimide membrane as the laser-absorbing layer, which is capable of dissipating
Fig. 8.3 Mechanism for laser-induced droplet ejection. A vapor bubble is generated (see II) by
vaporization of the absorbing layer and/or the first molecular layers of the liquid film. At given
bio-ink viscosity and film thickness, jetting is observed for intermediary values of laser fluences:
T1 < T < T2 (see IIIb). For a lower fluence T < T2, the bubble collapses far from the free surface
without generating a jet (see IIIa). For a higher fluence T < T1, the bubble bursts to the surface,
generating sub-micrometer droplets (see IIIc). Increasing film thickness or bio-ink viscosity leads
to increased threshold T values
Fig. 8.4 Time-resolved image obtained 30 μs after the laser spot deposit showing how a droplet is
generated onto a substrate which is positioned face to the bio-ink film
shock energy through elastoplastic deformation [34], or the use of femtosecond laser
sources, which enable the generation of the cavitation bubble directly into the bio-ink,
and hence avoid the use of a laser-absorbing layer [35].
8.2.2 Printing Resolution
The printing resolution and the associated droplet size are mainly determined by
the viscosity of the bio-ink and the deposited laser energy. Printing resolution is
defined as the number of printed droplets on a given length (e.g. dpi-dots per inch),
implying that droplet size decreases as droplet number per length increases. The
highest resolution is obtained by printing droplets as small as possible and adjacent
to each other on the same length. LAB can print liquids with droplet size in the
order of 10 μm. Laser energy deposit can be modulated by tuning the energy of
the laser source and/or by cutting the laser beam with a diaphragm aperture stop.
The higher the viscosity and/or the lower the energy, the smaller is the droplet diam-
eter (Table 8.1). It is possible to achieve a similar droplet size, with a 0.1 % (w/v)
alginate ink (leading to a 27 cps viscosity) printed with a 6 μJ laser energy of (droplet
size: (49±3.5) μm, n = 15), and with a 1 % alginate (w/v) ink (leading to an 110 cps
Table 8.1 Diameter (in μm) of droplet ejected onto the substrate, depending on alginate concen-
tration in the ink, and laser energy
Alginate (w/v) (%) Energy (μJ)
4.5 6.0 7.5 9.0
0.1 49 ± 4 (n = 15) 69 ± 4 (n = 15) c c
0.5 38 ± 3 (n = 15) 55 ± 5 (n = 15) 64 ± 5 (n = 15) 62 ± 6 (n = 15)
1.0 n.t. 48 ± 4 (n = 15) 46 ± 3 (n = 15) 51 ± 4 (n = 15)
The different inks were composed of purified water supplemented with 30 % (v/v) glycerol, with
varying concentration of alginate. c coalescence of contiguous droplets onto the substrate, n.t. no
transfer of the ink onto the substrate
viscosity) printed at a pulse energy of 12 μJ (droplet size: (51 ± 4.2) μm, n = 15).
As a consequence, a wide viscosity range of extracellular matrices can be printed at
a comparable resolution.
8.2.3 LAB Parameters for Cell Printing
8.2.3.1 Bio-ink Composition
LAB requires cells to be suspended in a liquid bio-ink prior to being printed onto
the substrate. In order to print a 3D material containing cells, the bio-ink should
gel post printing onto the substrate. With respect to the layer-by-layer 3D building
strategy, the gelling process is necessary to stabilize the printed 2D pattern and to
support subsequent ink layer for 3D constructs using the layer-by-layer approach
(see Sect. 8.2.3.4). Furthermore, the gelling should not harm the cells. Specifically
for LAB applications, the bio-ink should harbor properties similar to the physio-
logical extracellular matrix, which is critical for cell homeostasis in vivo [36, 37].
Accordingly, the cells have successfully been printed using various solutions: culture
medium alone [22], in combination with sodium alginate [38], thrombine [18], com-
bination of hyaluronic acid and fibrinogen [26] or a combination of blood plasma
and sodium alginate [24, 39]. Culture medium supplemented with sodium alginate,
or hydrogels like Collagen type I and Matrigel™ can be used as well. Using slightly
different laser assisted printing techniques, mouse embryonic stem cells have suc-
cessfully been printed using gel form of Matrigel™ or 20 % gelatin [40, 41].
Evaporation of the bio-ink is critical because it is typically spread into the target
as a 50 μm thin layer. Hence, Othon et al. have proposed to use methyl-cellulose in
the bio-ink to help prevent evaporation [42].
8.2.3.2 Requirements for High Cell Density Printing with Cell-Level

Resolution
In order to achieve microscale cell printing precision, cells should be printed with
a minimal volume of surrounding extra-cellular matrix (ECM) or bio-ink. However,
because LAB is a LIFT based and nozzle free device, the number of cells in each
ejected droplet and hence the printed cell number is statistic [16]. LAB nozzle free set
up precludes the cell printing process from clogging issues. Thus, it is possible to use a
bio-ink loaded with cell densities in the order of 1×108 cells/ml, which is comparable
to the cell confluence observed in living tissue like a parenchyma. To print one single
cell in one droplet, bio-ink with a low cell concentration, e.g. 5 × 107 cells/ml has
been used. However, if the cell density is too low on the ribbon, the ejected droplet of
ink may not contain any cell [18]. To overcome this problem, at least two strategies
can be proposed. (1) Increased laser energy deposit leads to the ejection of bigger
droplets. As a result, cells are more likely to be dragged off by draining/capillary
effect. (2) Cell density can be increased up to the point cells are touching each other
at the surface of the ribbon, i.e. 1 × 108 cells/ml. In such a condition, the probability
of printing droplets that contain cells is as high as possible. If successive droplets are
close enough, they may coalesce, thus drawing a continuous line of cells. While larger
droplets lead to a higher number of printed cells, the resolution of the cell printing
process decreases. If a high resolution (as for single cell printing) is required, the
smallest possible droplet must be ejected, which is generally achieved at laser energy
just above the cell printing threshold. Accordingly, the LAB virtually prints cells one
by one from a high cell concentration bio-ink (1 × 108 cells/ml), thus enabling the
fabrication of a tissue engineered product with comparable organization and cell
density with living tissues in which multiple cell types are in physical contact with
each other.
8.2.3.3 Viscosity and Laser Energy Influence Cell Viability
Printed cells may not survive the printing process due to exaggerated laser energy
deposition or mechanical shock upon impact on the receiving substrate. It has pre-
viously been shown that a minimum shock absorbing receiving hydrogel substrate
(like MatrigelTM ) is required for the mechanical shock absorbance of the printed cells
[43, 44]. Alternatively in case of insufficient substrate shock absorbing capability, the
increase of the bio-ink viscosity by means of sodium alginate improves cell viability
[38]. Beside the bio-ink viscosity and the shock absorbing properties of the receiving
substrate, the laser energy must be observed and adapted to the maximum radiation
dose that the cells may survive. So far, no LAB-induced alteration of cell biology
(in terms of phenotype and DNA nicks) has been detected at suitable parameters
[25, 41, 42, 45]. According to actual knowledge, the LAB-process is validated for
engineering cell containing tissues, however, further studies must be implemented
to rule out any genotoxicity in cell based clinical applications of the LAB-process.
Fig. 8.5 Schematic principle of the layer-by-layer assembly of complex tissue constructs. These
complex tissues feature micropatterns of cells [e.g. mesenchymal stem cells (MSC)], biochemi-
cal cues [e.g. growth factors (GF)], physical cues (e.g. stiffness gradients), and defined shapes
(e.g. holes). Holes can be processed by laser micro-machining to favor fluid diffusion through the
structure, and could also be seeded with endothelial cells
8.2.3.4 3-Dimensional Printing: The Layer-by-Layer Approach
Three-dimensional printing of tissue is a challenging task. Tissue engineering appli-

cations including hybrid structures for tissue repair demand the management of
perfusion and histological complexity. Such applications require a sophisticated
architecture with defined properties throughout its entire volume (Fig. 8.5 and
[4, 46]). At first sight LAB seems not well suited for building large volume (cm3
size) tissue structures, since the characteristic droplet volume is in the order of 1 pL
[47]. Some materials can be used in a layer-by-layer approach to provide volume
and or biochemical properties that the bio-ink may not supply, to stabilize the pattern
of the printed cells, and support the construct 3D structure in its whole. The layer-
by-layer approach is commonly used by the bio-printing approach. The following
paragraphs focus on different materials that were used in combination with LAB
for the generation of 3D structures, which have potential applications in biological
and/or medical fields.
Hydrogels as Substrate Layers
For the most part of the literature, hydrogels have been used as substrate to receive
cells and to build 3D constructs. Hydrogels have been used for layer-by-layer inkjet
printing of cells using fibrin 12, 13 or type I collagen [48]. Sprays of collagen were
also used for layer-by-layer cell printing using micro syringe [49, 50]. More recently,
LAB was used for the fabrication of a 3D structure with Adipose-tissue Derived Stem
Cells in a mixture of blood plasma and sodium alginate [39]. The final structure was
then solidified by spraying the CaCl2 cross linker. Using a bio-ink composed of
fibrinogen and hyaluronic acid, two arrays of spatially organized ECFC and ADSC
were stacked successfully [26]. To each layer of the array, thrombin solution was
added, either by wetting or spraying, which resulted in a stable construct made of
fibrin.
Fig. 8.6 Simulated conven-

tional seeding of stacked PCL
bio-papers with MG63 cells
printed by LAB (a), compared
to layer-by-layer organization
using LAB of MG63 cells and
PCL electrospun bio-papers
(b). The same amount of
cells and the same amount
of PCL scaffolds have been
used in both conditions. PCL
polycaprolacton
Other Bio-Papers
It has been proposed to support the layer-by-layer assembly of biological elements
like cells and extracellular matrix, with bio-papers, which are thin films (few hundred
microns) of solid biomaterials inserted between successive layers of bio-printed
cells (Fig. 8.6). Bio-papers provide the entire structure with mechanical support and
may offer to the cells a specific microenvironment (e.g. specific rigidity, porosity)
that may not be provided by the liquid bio-ink. The idea of using a bio-paper in a
layer-by-layer approach instead of a bulk biomaterial (mm size) is to pattern cells
within the material with respect to the diffusion limit of oxygen (200 μm in living
tissues). Each layer of the assembly should have a blood supply so that cells within
the entire volume of the structure may not suffer from hypoxia. The behavior of
three-dimensional hybrid materials built layer-by-layer has been evaluated using
electrospun scaffolds of polycaprolacton (PCL) and cells printed by LAB [51]. The
electrospinning parameters were adjusted to obtain 100 μm thick films of PCL bio-
papers. This study shows that the position of the cells in a three-dimensional tissue
engineered product, using a sandwich combining PCL bio-papers and osteosarcoma
cell line MG63 printed onto them by LAB, had a significant effect on cell proliferation
in vitro and in vivo. PLGA/hydrogel (type I collagen or Matrigel™) bio-papers have
been used to print HUVEC [52].
This material is stackable and might be useful for 3D printing. Such bio-paper
may be patterned itself, to provide additional control on possible cell migration
and differentiation. Alternatively, two different cell types have been co-cultured to
stabilize each other in the initial printed pattern [22, 23].
8.3 Applications
The micro scale resolution of cell printing by LAB has the potential to deal with the
histological complexity of living tissues as shown in the four following examples.
Since no clear application of the high resolution cell printing of LAB (as for any
other bioprinting technology) has been demonstrated so far, this section is rather
speculative. A tradeoff between high resolution cell printing and living tissue
complexity and density is postulated. Accordingly potential applications for basic
research in cell biology are proposed. Since biological tissues are composed of multi-
ple components in close interactions with each other (cells of different types, proteins
and other components of the extracellular matrix), not only three dimensional struc-
tures but also multiple cell types and other biological components like extracellular
matrix should be considered in a tissue engineered product. Together with the high
resolution printing capability of the LAB, it is possible to print different types of cells
in close contact with each other, with a high cell concentration, according to a desired
spatial organization. The printing resolution achievable by the LAB for multiple cell
types and materials is consistent with the study of cell-to-cell, or cell-to-material
interactions as well.
8.3.1 LAB Engineered Stem Cell Niche
Printing chemical factors onto bio-papers in order to control cell fate (in terms of
migration, proliferation and/or differentiation) or to force cells at the desired site
of the structure is achievable by LAB. Another approach is the use of LAB for
printing patterns of material itself prior to printing cells onto the patterned material
[18]. Other studies deal with generating artificial cell niches by co-depositing a
suitable combination of stem cells with extracellular matrix components [53]. Indeed,
embryonic stem cells have successfully been printed by matrix assisted LAB and
have formed embryoid bodies with retained pluripotency [41]. The determinants
of stem cell niche renewal, and more generally the biochemical factors that control
cell fate and tissue morphogenesis (e.g. hypoxia, ECM rigidity, cell-cell interactions,
molecular relationship between adjacent tissues) are still under study. Mechanical and
topological determinants of morphogenesis and homeostasy could be studied using
bottom-up approaches for engineering tissues with controlled geometric patterns of
different types of cells. Future studies may focus on organizing multiple elements
like cells, ECM-like materials, and growth factors at different scale of histology.
8.3.2 Modelling Capillary Formation
The main limitation especially of thick cellular tissue structures is the time required
for the assembly and morphogenesis of a perfused vascular network throughout the
entire tissue engineered structure. In certain cases, the assembly and maturation time
might be longer than the cell survival time. Micropattern-guided vasculogenesis
might help quicken vascular lumen formation as well as branching between the
host and the tissue construct. To this aim, endothelial cords have auto-assembled
consecutively to endothelial cell alignment with cell-scale accuracy by LAB [22].
Such an approach to modeling endothelial tube formation might be fruitful in the
field of vasculogenesis and angiogenesis related research.
8.3.3 Laser Assisted Bio-printed of Tissue Engineering Products
In vivo transplantation of LAB engineered tissue constructs was demonstrated:

Gaebel et al. have used LAB to fabricate a cardiac patch for cardiac regeneration in a
rat model of acute myocardial infarction [23]. LAB was used to pattern a co-culture of
HUVEC and HMSC onto a 300 μm thick, 8 mm diameter disk of Polyester urethane
urea. Healing potential of patterned patch compared similarly to the unpatterned
patch, demonstrating the suitability of the LAB procedure for tissue regeneration,
and suggesting that patterning may favor faster vasculogenesis and grafting.
Another study hypothesized that the layer-by-layer bio-printing would make the
seeding more efficient than the conventional seeding of porous materials. The influ-
ence of the three-dimensional organization of MG63 cells and PCL electrospun
scaffolds was evaluated regarding cell proliferation in vitro and in vivo. For this
purpose, a layer-by-layer sandwich model of assembly was compared to a control
hybrid material made of the same amount of material with an alternative 3D arrange-
ment (Fig. 8.6 and [51]). These structures were both evaluated in vitro and in vivo
in mouse calvarial defect reconstruction model. These results emphasize the ben-
efit of the layer-by-layer approach to encapsulate cells within a sandwich of PCL
bio-papers, either in vitro or in vivo, as far as cell viability and cell proliferation are
concerned.
Until now, cell patterning at cell-level resolution has not been studied. Increasing
the resolution may help guide faster tissue specific organization like faster vasculo-
genesis, which may support faster morphogenesis or healing process of vascularized
tissues.
8.3.4 In Vivo Printing
Generally, LAB based studies report on in vitro fabrication, but some preliminary
results for in vivo printing exist [54]: Two bone defects were drilled symmetrically in
mice calvariae under general anesthesia and the animals were placed inside the LAB
workstation. A specific mouse holder was designed in order to position the surface
of mice dura mater instead of the quartz substrate (Fig. 8.7a). Then, one defect was
refilled by printing thirty layers of a hydroxyapatite slurry. The contra-lateral defect
was used as a negative control for bone healing. Three groups, each comprising 10
animals were studied. Animals were sacrificed after 1 week, 3 weeks or 4 weeks.
The histological results have shown that the printed material was present in the test
defects of all groups (Fig. 8.7b). However, bone repair was inconstant, probably due
to the displacement of the printed material after surgery. As a conclusion, in vivo
bio-printing has been demonstrated. Future experiment in this model should improve
both the sealing procedure of the reconstruction and the biological properties of the
printed material for a faster healing process.
Fig. 8.7 In vivo printing reconstruction of calvarial bone defect in mouse (a). Histological section
of mouse calvarial defect (b). Complete bone repair on the test side (star) was observed in one
sample after 3 months. The bone defect control site remains unrepaired (arrow)
8.4 Conclusions and Perspectives
Laser assisted bio-printing of cells requires taking into account that the droplet ejec-
tion mechanism is mainly governed by vapor bubble dynamics. Consequently, the
bio-ink should be designed accordingly and spatio-temporal proximity of consecu-
tive laser-induced jets should be considered for optimal printing resolution. Several
studies taken together demonstrate the capability of the LAB to print virtually all
cell types although many human cell types remain to be validated. These cells can
be printed onto numerous biomaterials, either solid or gel, like polymers and nano-
sized particles of hydroxyapatite. The potential of the LAB to fabricate functional
cell containing transplants for tissue repair has been demonstrated, together with the
possibility to shunt the transplantation process by operating LAB directly in vivo.
In our opinion, the main issues over the next 5-10 years will concern biologi-
cal and developmental studies for fundamental research and tissue engineering and
repair. Developing tools such as LAB would allow us to create and manipulate the
in vitro cell micro environment on demand by controlling intensity and shape of
cell patterns and morphogen gradients [55, 56]. Combining LAB with other laser-
assisted processes, such as machining and polymerization, should be addressed with
specific attention on integrating these different processes in the same workstation to
guarantee subcellular resolution. As a direct write method of living cells, the LAB
can be combined with other tissue engineering methods [46].
Concerning the layer-by-layer microfabrication of functional tissues that mimic
in vivo counterparts, it remains to be determined whether the exact reproduction
of the histoarchitecture of living tissue is crucial; in other words, to what extent
and resolution cellular self-assembly has to be guided [46]. Future studies involv-
ing pattern formation in morphogenesis, specifically the relationship between form
and function, should advise this aim. Moreover, the engineering of realistic tissue
constructs will help further understanding of tissue physiology and function; this, in
turn, will refine tissue engineering strategies and optimize blueprints. To this end,
coupling mathematical modeling [57] to the design of micropatterns of cells and

morphogens by the abovementioned technologies could be fruitful. Cell-patterning
techniques could be promising tools for the fabrication of organotypic tissues, which
could elucidate basic cell biology mechanisms, further drug evaluation and toxicity
testing in vitro, and become useful platforms within the clinic.
Finally, while cell chip fabrication using LAB can be envisaged, other original
applications such as medical robotics should be developed in the coming years,
allowing LAB workstations to leave physics laboratories for biological benches.
Acknowledgments We acknowledge financial support from GIS-AMA (Advanced Materials in

Aquitaine), ANR (Agence Nationale pour la Recherche), and Région Aquitaine.
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Chapter 9
Laser-Based Biomimetic Tissue Engineering
Abstract Tissue Engineering is defined as the technology aiming to apply the

principles of engineering and life sciences towards the development of biological
substitutes that restore, maintain, or improve tissue function or a whole organ. Its
eventual goal is the creation of 3D artificial cell culture scaffolds that mimic the
natural extracellular environment features sufficiently, so that cells function in the
artificial medium as they would in vivo. Cells in tissue are surrounded by a dynamic
cell type-dependent extracellular matrix that provides instructive cues at both the
micro- and the nanoscale needed to maintain cell phenotype and behaviour. Cells are
thus, inherently responsive to their environment, receptive to micro- and nanoscale
features and patterns of chemistry and topography. Lasers are increasingly proving
to be promising tools for the controlled and reproducible structuring of biomate-
rials at micro- and nanoscales. This chapter reviews current approaches for laser
based fabrication of biomimetic tissue engineering scaffolds. These include laser
processing of natural biomaterials synthesized to achieve certain compositions or
properties similar to those of the extracellular matrix as well as novel laser fab-
rication technologies to achieve structural features on artificial materials mimick-
ing the extracellular matrix morphology on various levels. The chapter concludes
E. Stratakis (B) · A. Ranella · C. Fotakis

Institute of Electronic Structure and Laser, Foundation for Research and Technology-Hellas,
(IESL-FORTH),P.O. Box 1527, 711 10 Heraklion, Greece
A. Ranella
C. Fotakis
E. Stratakis
Department of Materials Science & Technology, University of Crete, 71003 Heraklion, Greece
C. Fotakis
Department of Physics, University of Crete, 71003 Heraklion, Greece

212 E. Stratakis et al.
with the wealth of arising possibilities, demonstrating the excitement and signifi-
cance of the laser based biomimetic materials processing for tissue engineering and
regeneration.
9.1 Introduction
Tissue Engineering is defined as the technology aiming to apply the principles of

engineering and life sciences towards the development of biological substitutes that
restore, maintain, or improve tissue function or a whole organ [1]. Its primary research
aim is, therefore, to provide scaffolds that are biocompatible and capable of integrat-
ing living cells that function in the artificial medium as they would in vivo. In this
respect, the ideal artificial material for in vitro cell growth is a scaffolding structure
that closely mimics the native environment in the body and thus the characteristics
of the natural extracellular matrix (ECM).
Biomimetic tissue engineering usually involves four steps: (i) identifying a nat-
ural or synthetic material suitable for the fabrication of a scaffold for a specific
tissue, (ii) biomimetic structuring of the material to attain an ECM-like architecture,
(iii) Further functionalization of the scaffold towards identifying the optimal com-
bination of morphology and chemistry, i.e. surface energy for each specific type of
regenerated tissue and (iv) cell seeding into the scaffold for cell culturing in vitro or
in vivo.
Regardless the material type used, natural or artificial, of primary importance is
the realization of an ECM-like architecture that complies with and provides attach-
ment sites comparable in size and morphology to the ones found in vivo: as presented
in Fig. 9.1a, 2D substrates do have limitations, considering that cells in tissue are sur-
rounded by a 3D dynamic cell type-dependent ECM that provides instructive cues at
both micro- and nano-scales needed to maintain cell phenotype and behaviour. Cells
are thus, inherently responsive to their environment, and receptive to micro/nanosized
features and patterns of chemistry and topography [2, 3]. The structural geometry and
morphology are thus important parameters for designing artificial cellular scaffolds
and a specific scaffold structure has to be tuned for each tissue engineering applica-
tion. In this context, manufacturing schemes enabling the controlled and reproducible
structuring of biomaterials at micro- and nano-scales are very desirable [4]. Lasers
are increasingly promising tools for 3D structuring of scaffolding materials with
micro-, submicro- and nano-scale resolution. Further advantages of laser structur-
ing include its very high fabrication rate, non-contact interaction, applicability to
many types of biomaterial substrates and reproducibility. Furthermore lasers can
be easily incorporated into computer-assisted design (CAD) based fabrication sys-
tems for complex and customized 3D matrix structure manufacture. Such systems
gave rise to a versatile class of scaffold production techniques which are laser-based
solid-free-form (SFF) fabrication techniques [5]. The SFF fabrication is a rapid pro-
totyping (RP) technique which facilitates the control over macroscopic properties,
such as scaffold shape and microscopic internal architecture.
9 Laser-Based Biomimetic Tissue Engineering 213
Fig. 9.1 a The role of scaffold’s length scales on cell behavior. As geometric features become
smaller, changes in cell morphology and response can be observed. Cells attached to scaffolds
with microscale architectures flatten and spread as if cultured on flat surfaces. On the other hand,
cells are more spatially interactive on scaffolds with nanoscale architecture. Nano-featured scaffolds
exhibit larger surface areas to adsorb proteins, presenting many more binding sites to cell membrane
receptors. Adapted from: Stevens MM, George JH (2005) Science 310:1135–1138. b Hierarchical
organization of bone over different length scales. Adapted from: Dunlop JWC, Fratzl P (2010) Annu
Rev Mater Res 40:1–24
This chapter reviews the state of the art of laser-based fabrication of tissue
engineering scaffolds exhibiting biomimetic micro- and nano-topography. Different
emerging methodologies are presented comprising laser processing of natural bio-
materials synthesized to achieve certain compositions or properties similar to those
of the ECM, as well as novel laser fabrication technologies to achieve structural
features on artificial materials mimicking the ECM architecture on various length
scales. Notwithstanding, further functionalization of the laser structured scaffolds
is required towards identifying the optimal combination of biomimetic morphology
and chemistry, i.e. surface energy for each specific type of regenerated tissue. Con-
trolling surface energy is a key factor in biomimetic tissue engineering and ECM
components should be integrated within scaffolds through covalent conjugation to
the scaffolding biomaterials [6–9].
9.2 Laser Processing of Biomaterials for Biomimetic Tissue

Engineering Scaffolds
9.2.1 Overview of the Biomaterials Used for Laser-Based Tissue

Engineering Applications
Biomaterials synthesis and development have played a key role in the advancement of
tissue engineering applications. Different biomaterials utilized for tissue engineering
scaffolds can be artificial or natural and are typically designed with a variety of
properties in mind (including chemical, physical, and mechanical). In the following
the different biomaterials used for the laser-based biomimetic structuring of tissue
engineering scaffolds are presented.
Artificial scaffolds development initially relied upon employing traditional engi-
neering materials, including metallic, semiconducting, ceramic and polymeric ones.
For example, titanium, silicon, hydroxyapatite, polyethylene and silicone-based
polymers have been used for a wide variety of tissue engineering applications. In
general, these materials are designed to be biologically inert to minimize negative
consequences of biomaterial-tissue interactions.
Polymeric artificial biomaterials were readily synthesized for tissue scaffolds
applications. Initial developments focused on satisfying various criteria, including
nontoxic monomers, application-specific polymer chemistry and optimal biocom-
patibility. Polyesters including poly(α-hydroxy esters) such as poly(D,L-lactide)
(PLA), poly(glycolide) (PGA), and their copolymers (PLGA) have been used exten-
sively as tissue engineering biomaterials because of hydrolytically and enzymati-
cally cleavable ester linkages and monomers that can be readily metabolized [10].
Synthetic biodegradable elastomers are also a class of biomaterials allowing sig-
nificant control over various synthesis parameters including monomer feed ratios
and curing methods. Further advantages are the ability of rapid, facile and scalable
synthesis of biomaterials with a potentially wide range of properties [11, 12]. Ini-
tial work focused on synthesizing elastomeric scaffolds using naturally occurring
monomers that were thermally cross-linked to form polyester networks [13]. How-
ever, the aggressive conditions required for polymerization of thermally cross-linked
elastomers have hindered their use, especially for tissue engineering strategies that
encapsulate growth factors or cells directly into the network. Photo-crosslinkable
biomaterials offer significant advantages compared to their thermally cross-linked
counterparts, such as (i) rapid and mild cross-linking conditions, (ii) the potential
to pattern structures on thin films through photolithography, and (iii) the ability to
precisely control cross-linking through chemistry, that provides an additional tool to
finely tune physical, mechanical, and chemical properties of polymer scaffolds. Most
synthetic routes to obtaining photo-crosslinkable biomaterials begin with a polymeric
precursor that is chemically modified through the addition of photoactive groups such
as acrylates or methacrylates [14]. For example Poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG), and
Poly(α-hydroxy esters) have been extensively used in soft-tissue engineering appli-
cations. Moreover, ring-opening polymerizations of PLA and poly(ε-caprolactone)
(PCL) monomers have been used to produce photo-crosslinkable networks. Other
types of synthetic photo-crosslinkable polymers have been explored for tissue engi-
neering, including acrylated forms of poly(vinyl alcohol) and poly(glycerol-co-
sebacate).
Hybrid materials obtained from the integration of biocompatible polymer with
bioactive inorganic material is an emerging class of biomaterials used for the fabri-
cation of scaffolds via laser processing. Among the advantages is that such materials
might provide tunable mechanical properties, strength and toughness via inorganic
(e.g. ceramic) part, plasticity and elasticity via organic (e.g. polymer) part. The sol-gel
method has been employed for the synthesis of hybrid organic-inorganic composite
materials [15, 16] and particularly sol-gel derived bioactive glass foams have been
synthesized in order to be used in bone regeneration [17, 18]. In vitro cell studies in
the presence of these foams have shown an increase in osteoblast proliferation and
collagen production [19] as well as the stimulation of the formation and mineralisa-
tion of bone nodules [20] reinforcing their potential.
Finally, recent biomimetic strategies have focused on the design of biomateri-
als that mimic and integrate favourably with host tissue in an effort of minimizing
the potentially deleterious effects of this interaction. Accordingly, natural biopoly-
mers have been adopted either in pure form or after being modified with various
reactive side groups to create synthetic analogues that can be cross-linked by pho-
toinitiation. Natural biopolymers that have been widely used for laser-based tissue
engineering applications include proteins, i.e. collagen, gelatine and polysaccharides,
i.e. alginate, chitosan, hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulphate etc. Although naturally
occurring biomaterials are most closely simulating the native cellular environment,
large batch-to-batch variations upon isolation from biological tissues is the main
limitation for their wide application. Poor mechanical performances is also a draw-
back for transplantation scaffolds made from natural polymers, such as collagen and
chitin, which cannot be easily melted upon heating but require the presence of special
solvents [21, 22].
9.2.2 Laser-Based Methodologies for Biomimetic Tissue

Engineering
The primary aim of tissue engineering is the realization of cell culture scaffolds that
mimic the 3D architecture of the ECM at different length scales and complies with
and provides cellular attachment sites comparable in size and morphology to the ones
found in vivo. A multi-scale approach to scaffold structure is especially important in
mimicking living systems, because nature often derives properties from multi-scale
or hierarchical structures [23]. For example, bone has multiple organizational scales
that yield superior mechanical properties, from interacting nanoscale collagen and
hydroxyapatite crystals to micro-scale lamella and osteons (Fig. 9.1b). Multiple levels
of structural control allow for engineering of unique properties including scaffold
size and shape, pore size and geometry, porosity, pore interconnectivity, and surface
topology. In this respect, the fabrication of, precisely controlled, porous structures
in complex 3D anatomical shapes exhibiting hierarchical surface roughness at meso
(10−1 –10−3 m), micro (10−3 –10−6 m) and nano (10−6 –10−9 m) scales is, ideally,
required. “Hierarchical” reflects the property that morphological features at scales
from the nanometre to millimetre level will determine how well the scaffolding
surface mimics the ECM structure, facilitates cell adhesion, growth and proliferation
and guides cells to form functional tissue.
Lasers are increasingly proving to be a suitable tool for laser biomaterials process-
ing at multiple length scales. Although, in the far optical field, the minimal achievable
structure size is limited by diffraction to the order of wavelength (microscale), the
optimal interplay between the laser and material parameters may allow the fabrica-
tion of features with dimensions beyond this diffraction limit (nanoscale). In the last
decade, this has been accomplished via the application of femtosecond (fs) lasers
in biomaterials’ processing, which has been increasingly proving to be a powerful
approach to overcome the diffraction limit and improve the lateral structure resolu-
tion in the fabricated tissue scaffolds [24]. One of the most useful properties of fs
laser induced modification is the limited size of the affected volume. Material struc-
turing with laser pulses is induced by optical breakdown, which generates plasma at
the focal point of the laser. Because the plasma recombines before thermal diffusion,
shock wave propagation and cavitation set in, ablation of the substrate is confined,
at least initially, to a small volume. Although the intensity required to initiate break-
down is fairly high the short duration of the pulse allows the threshold intensity to
be achieved with a modest fluence. The combination of localized excitation and low
threshold fluence can greatly reduce the extent of collateral damage to surrounding
areas, so that the size of the affected material can be beyond the diffraction-limited
focusing volume. Another key advantage of the use of fs lasers is that due to high peak
powers attained nonlinear absorption effects can be driven. This opens new channels
for direct nanowriting of transparent scaffolding materials, while three-dimensional
structuring becomes feasible. As a consequence, non-linear absorption laser process-
ing techniques provide excellent control over 3D micro- and submicron materials’
structuring. Finally, fs lasers allow the unique possibility for hierarchical dual scale,
micro- and nanostructuring, which is important for tissue engineering applications
[25].
Modern laser-based techniques for biomimetic tissue scaffold fabrication take
advantage of the unique features of fs laser-biomaterials interaction and are summa-
rized in Table 9.1. Such techniques rely on different modification processes induced
upon absorption of laser photons and subsequent electronic excitation of the irradi-
ated biomaterial. For incident fluences above the material’s damage threshold, energy
transfer leads to nearly instantaneous mass removal and ablation occurs either by
thermal vaporization or by photochemical degradation. At lower fluences, the bonds
remain intact and laser energy is converted into heat, while localized heating can
be used to sinter or melt the material. On the other hand, photopolymerization takes
place when photoinitiator molecules absorb photons and form radicalized species that
can initiate polymerization reactions. By moving the laser focus three-dimensionally
through the photosensitive biomaterial, complex 3D structures, in some cases with
resolution beyond the diffraction limit, can be fabricated. Depending on the princi-
pal modification process, laser-based scaffold fabrication methods include selective
laser sintering (SLS), stereolithography (SLA), non-linear, two-photon photopoly-
merization (2PP) and laser ablation texturing (LAT).
It should be emphasized that laser structuring techniques can be readily
incorporated to computer aided design and manufacture systems (CAD/CAM sys-
tems) for complex and customized 3D scaffold structure design and subsequent
Table 9.1 Laser-based fabrication methods for biomimetic tissue engineering: Current state of the art
Fabrication method Selective laser sintering Stereolithography Direct writing via Direct writing via laser Laser bio-printing
(SLS) (SLA) two-photon ablation micro/nano (LBP)
polymerization (2PP) texturing (LAT)
Advantages Microporosity induced in Rapid response rate; Simple;fast; true 3D Simple and fast (high Controlled
the scaffold; A broad range high-form precision; process; high resolution; fabrication rate); High Cell/Biomaterials
9 Laser-Based Biomimetic Tissue Engineering
of materials can be used; Simple; No special Control of external and resolution; Enhanced positioning; High cell
High mechanical strength; equipment needed; internal morphology; range of materials can densities possible;
No support structure Conductive and Precise geometries and be used; Geometry
needed; Fast processing; mechanical stable; pattern; Computer- Control; Double-scale
Potential for double-scale Enables the controlled; Can roughness; High aspect
roughness incorporation of incorporate biological ratio; Can process
bioactive molecules /bioactive materials natural polymers
(continued)
217
218
Table 9.1 continued

Disadvantages Material must be in powder Limited choice of Low fabrication rate; Top-down; Limited Scale up is difficult due
form; High temperatures photopolymerizable and Multisteps involved; control over to stacking of 2D layers;
during process (eliminates biocompatible liquid Material has to be nanoroughness 2.5 D; Not suitable for
the possibility of polymer materials; 2.5 photosensitive; Lack of 3D only at certain constructs in the mm
incorporating biological D; Lack of roughness double-scale roughness architectures; Can be range
/bioactive materials); control upgraded in 3D using
Powdery surface finish; multiple steps
Trapped powder inside
scaffold; Lack of
double-scale roughness.; 3D
(continued)
E. Stratakis et al.
Table 9.1 continued
Features Porous Networks; Nano-roughness; Micro and submicron Cones or crater arrays; 2D Cell/Biomaterials
Microporous - Complex Micropores; Nanopores; pores; Complex 3D Micro/Nano-roughness; patterns;
architectures Craters; Needle like architectures Grooves; Micropores; Cell/Biomaterials
nano-peaks; Pillar or Nanopores; Complex seeding into scaffolds
9 Laser-Based Biomimetic Tissue Engineering
well arrays; Grooves architectures

Resolution 50 µm 1 µm 100 nm 100 nm 10 µm
Materials Ceramics(HA); Synthetic Polymers; Ceramic Resins; Synthetic Metals; Ceramics; Biomolecules; Cells;
Polymers (PEEK, PCL); Composites; Polymers; Semiconductors; Biopolymers;
Metals; Different Biomolecule Biodegradable polymers; natural
combinations of the above composites; Metals; Polymers; polymers; scaffolds;
Semiconductors Organic-inorganic implants
hybrids; Ceramic
composites
219
Fig. 9.2 Image-based procedure for the fabrication of a scaffold fit on anatomic defect site. a A
coherence tomography (as shown here) or magnetic resonance imaging scan serves as starting point
for designing scaffold exterior. b The scaffold exterior shape is created with additional features
for surgical fixation. c Architecture image-design is created using computational topology design.
d Global anatomic and architecture design are integrated using boolean image techniques. e SFF
is used to fabricate design from degradable biomaterial. f Final fabricated scaffold fits well on the
intended anatomic reconstruction site. Adapted from: Hollister SJ (2005) Nat Mater 4:518
reproducible and cost-effective fabrication. SFF methods use a triangular facet sur-
face representation of a structure and build three-dimensional objects layer-by-layer,
via structuring or consolidating mater in precisely selected regions. Figure 9.2 sum-
marizes the essential steps followed for SFF-assisted scaffold fabrication. Consid-
ering that the SFF methodologies have been reviewed in detail by many articles
[26–29], this chapter will only present the most important scaffold architectures
prepared via laser-based SFF techniques, without focusing on how computer aided
design of those scaffolds had been performed. It is important that such techniques
enable the rapid investigation of a wide range of scaffold geometries with a high
degree of dimensional control and with fewer limitations on the scaffold exterior
shape or the porous architecture [5]. This can give rise to a versatile class of laser-
based rapid prototyping SFF scaffold fabrication systems that could potentially be
commercialised for mass production and thus attract considerable attention in the
following years.
9.2.3 Laser Processing of Artificial Biomaterials
The selective laser sintering (SLS) technique employs a high-power laser to sinter thin
layers of powdered materials to form solid 3D objects. It has been used for the fabri-
cation of bioceramic scaffolds that can aid the regeneration of hard tissues. Accord-
ingly, pure biopolymer powders such as polyetheretherketon (PEEK) [30], ultrahigh

molecular weight polyethylene [31], hydroxyapatite (HA) and physically blended
mixtures of PEEK and HA powders have been used [32]. Furthermore fabrication
of scaffolds from biodegradable polymers, such as PCL and PLLA has been also
been demonstrated. For example, Fig. 9.2 presents PCL a scaffold for replacement of
skeletal tissues that mimic mandibular condyle anatomic designs [33]. The scaffolds
were seeded with bone morphogenetic protein-7 (BMP-7) transduced fibroblasts. In
vivo results show that these scaffolds enhance tissue in-growth, on top of possess-
ing mechanical properties within the lower range of trabecular bone. Compressive
modulus (52–67 MPa) and yield strength (2.0–3.2 MPa) were in the lower range of
properties reported for human trabecular bone. Other in vivo radiographic studies
performed by Kanczler et al. demonstrated that SLS-fabricated polylactic acid scaf-
folds supported regrowth and bridging of bone gaps in mice [34].
Recent research efforts have been focused on performing SLS with composite
nontoxic biocompatible materials that are used in artificial tissues. Several compos-
ites, including bioactive ceramics, thermoplastic biodegradable polymers, polymer-
coated metals and metals have been processed by means of selective laser sintering.
By combining biodegradable polymers and bioactive ceramics, such as HA and
b-tricalcium phosphate (b -TCP), composite scaffolds such as HA/PCL, HA/PLGA
and b-TCP/PLGA were processed by SLS [35–37]. Duan et al. studied the use of
bio-nano-composite microspheres, consisting of carbonated hydroxyapatite (CHAp)
nanospheres within a PLLA matrix to produce scaffolds. PLLA microspheres and
PLLA/CHAp nanocomposite microspheres of a size of 5–30 µm, suitable for the
SLS process, were prepared by emulsion techniques. Finally, biomimetic, SLS-
fabricated bionano-composite scaffolds comprising bioactive Ca-P nanoparticles and
biodegradable polymers, have been demonstrated to offer a promising approach for
bone tissue regeneration [38].
SLA produces computer-designed 3D solid objects in a layer by layer procedure
through a selective photo-polymerization of a liquid resin containing precursor and
photoinitiator molecules. Polymerization relies on the release of free radicals upon
interaction of photoinitiator molecules with UV light. SLA has been initially used to
provide HA ceramic scaffolds for orbital floor implants. The building material was
a suspension of fine HA powder into a UV-photocurable resin, acting as a binder to
hold the HA particles together [39]. Using a UV laser, the resin is burnt out while the
HA powder assembly was sintered for consolidation. A similar approach was used
by Griffith and Halloran [40] that produced ceramic scaffolds using suspensions of
alumina, silicon nitride and silica particles with a photo-curable resin. SLA had also
been used for the direct fabrication of 3D biopolymeric scaffolds [39]. Matsuda et al.
used a custom made SLA setup to produce computer-aided 3D microarchitectures
made of an epsilon-caprolactone biodegradable photopolymer [41]. In another study,
Cooke et al. used a biodegradable resin mixture of diethyl fumarate, poly(propylene
fumarate) and bisacylphosphine oxide as photoinitiator to produce scaffolds for bone
tissue engineering [42]. It has also been successfully utilized to build bone tissue scaf-
folds from photo-crosslinkable poly(propylene fumarate) with highly interconnected
porous structure and porosity of 65 %. The scaffolds were coated by applying acceler-
Fig. 9.3 Poly(D,L-lactide) (PDLLA) scaffolds with a gyroid architecture fabricated by SLA. Scale
bars represent 500 µm. Adapted from: Melchels FP et al (2009) Biomaterials 30:3801
ated biomimetic apatite and arginini-glycine-aspartic acid peptide coating to promote

cell behaviour. The coated scaffolds were seeded with MC3T3-E1 pre-osteoblasts
and their biologic properties were evaluated using an MTS assay and histologic
staining. Later, Dharwala et al. reported the rapid prototyping of tissue engineering
constructs using photopolymerizable hydrogels [43]. A more biomimetic complex
polymeric scaffold fabricated by SLA is presented in Fig. 9.3. It exhibits a porous and
gyroid architecture structured in a resin based on poly(D,L-lactide) macromonomers
and non-reactive diluent [44]. It was observed that pre-osteoblasts readily adhered
and proliferated well on these scaffolds.
Contrary to SLS, SLA does not involve high processing temperatures, therefore,
biological materials such as proteins, antimicrobial agents and viable cells may be
directly incorporated within scaffolds following the SLA process. This capability is
beneficial for biomimetic tissue engineering applications, in which incorporation of
cells or other biomimetic ECM entities into the starting materials may enable the
development of more functional scaffolds. For example, Lee et al. fabricated 3D scaf-
folds for tissue engineering containing poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) microspheres,
which incorporated the growth factor bone morphogenetic protein 2 [45]. Further-
more, Arcaute et al. incorporated dermal fibroblasts within poly(ethylene glycol)
that was processed using SLA, and demonstrated cell viability of at least 87 % [46].
However, it should be noted that UV light, monomers, oligomers or photoinitiator
molecules may cause damage to deoxyribonucleic acid molecules, cell components
or biological materials; these concerns must be addressed before incorporation of
cells during the SLA process is translated into clinical use.
2PP has been demonstrated as a technology for the fabrication of 3D structures
with submicrometer resolution [47, 48]. When the beam of a fs infrared laser is tightly
focused into the volume of a photosensitive biomaterial, the polymerization process
can be initiated by two-photon absorption within the focal volume. By moving the
laser focus three-dimensionally through the biomaterial, 3D scaffolds with nanomet-
ric features can be fabricated. The first materials employed in scaffolds fabrication via
2PP were photocurable commercially available sol-gel hybrid materials such as the
SU-8, ORMOCER , Ormocomp and the polymer AccuraTM SI10 [49–51]. These
studies demonstrate the great potential of 2PP technology for the fabrication of 3D
scaffolds with submicron resolution with high reproducibility and at a good speed,
based on a digitized model. Different cell types such as granulosa cells, endothelial
cells and primary hepatocytes cultured within these methods for tissue engineering.
Recently, there have been a series of publications on the application 2PP for the devel-
opment of scaffolds based on specifically designed organic/inorganic hybrid sol-gel
materials [48, 52]. Custom made organic/inorganic hybrid materials has been synthe-
sized from some groups, enabling the fabrication of three-dimensional scaffolds with
tunable mechanical properties. According to this biocompatible and/or biodegrad-
able hybrid materials have been applied. Particularly, for the fabrication of bioactive,
non-biodegradable 3D scaffolds with tuneable shape, size, porosity and mechanical
properties, methacryloxypropyl trimethoxysilane (MAPTMS) and methacrylic acid
(MAA) were used as the organic photopolymerizable monomers while zirconium n-
propoxide or titanium (IV) isopropoxide and the alkoxysilane groups of MAPTMS
served as the inorganic network forming moieties. The photopolymerization was
occurred due to the addition of the photoinitiator (Irgacure 365) [53, 54]. Alter-
ing the metal-MAA molar ratio, Psycharakis and co-workers studied the fibroblasts
adhesion and growth in scaffolds with different topologies and mechanical properties
[55]. Additionally, hybrid materials such as poly-caprolactone based photopolymers,
that are not only biocompatible and biodegradable, but also degrade on a similar time
scale as tissue formation [56–58] have been used for the investigation of relationship
between scaffold topology and of neuronal cells on 3D scaffolds fabricated using
2PP femtosecond direct laser writing (Fig. 9.4a, ii) [59]. These studies indicate the
structuring of reliable microporous scaffolds of complex 3D geometrical shapes that
can be used for guided neuronal growth and cell delivery vehicles.
LAT is based on small amount of mass removal from bulk material via laser
ablation. Contrary to the use of long laser pulses, where the resolution depends on
the micron-sized beam, sub-microscale features may be achieved when texturing
with fs lasers. Furthermore, laser micromachining of structures with interior geome-
tries could be performed with fs laser ablation of optically transparent materials
[60]. Most important, fs LAT provides the unique possibility for single-step simul-
taneous structuring at both micro and nanoscales [61]. Cellular scaffolds exhibiting
dual scale, micro and nano-dimensions, important for biomimetic tissue engineer-
ing applications, can therefore be realized [62]. Finally, LAT can be employed in
a two-step process for controlled modification of scaffolds produced by other tech-
niques. Depending on the particular scaffold and process parameters, it may involve
texturing at additional length scales, gradient texturing, grain refinement and other
functional modification including phase transformations, alloying and mixing of
multiple materials and formation of composite layers on the surface without actu-
ally affecting the pristine scaffolding material itself. Gradient scaffold morphologies
exhibit a continuous spatial change in a given property and allow a continuum of
these property values to be tested on a single biological substrate. Therefore, gradient
textured scaffolds enable high-throughput screening of cell-biomaterial interactions
and enhance traditional tissue engineering techniques. Gradient morphologies could
also replicate in vivo physical and chemical gradients in vitro for tissue-engineered
Fig. 9.4 (Top) i SEM photographs of 3D cell cultures on woodpile microstructures fabricated via
two photon polymerization technique. Fibroblast cell cultures on zirconium-based scaffolds after
3 days of culture. ii PC12 neuronal cell cultures on biodegradable photocurable PLA scaffolds.
Different magnifications are shown. (Bottom) Scaffold seeded with cells by means of laser-induced
forward transfer (LIFT): i dark field image. The white hexagon indicates the border between the
two scaffold areas seeded with vascular smooth muscle-like cells (vSMCs) (A) and endothelial cells
(ECs) (B), respectively; (ii) fluorescence image indicating the location of different cell types after
the LIFT procedure; (iii) detailed image of the border area. The insets demonstrate that a sharp
transition from vSMCs to EC-seeded regions is present along the entire thickness of the scaffold.
Adapted from: Ovsianikov A et al (2010) Biofabrication 2:014104
constructs. This is an important capability provided by LAT in view of the fact that
currently, most studies on cell-biomaterial interaction are performed on scaffolds
with spatially homogeneous properties.
LAT of a large range of biocompatible materials has been used to create scaffolds
with controlled pore size and porosity. However, most studies were focused on the
application of the fabricated scaffolds for investigating and controlling cell adhe-
sion, orientation and proliferation [63–66]. LAT of electrospun polymers had been
also considered in order to improve cell proliferation within the interior regions of
such scaffolding materials [67]. Using a fs LAT methodology, Ranella et al. have
demonstrated the realization of 3D biomimetic micro/ nano rough textured scaffolds
on Si [62]. Tailoring of the morphological features of such scaffolds can be advanta-
geously achieved by tuning the laser structuring parameters resulting in scaffolds of
different micro and nanoscale roughness, 3D porosity and surface energy. In partic-
ular, the scaffolds prepared at high laser fluences can quantitatively mimic both the
structure and the water repellent characteristics of the natural Lotus leaf [61]. This
work demonstrated that it is possible to preferentially tune fibroblast cell adhesion
and growth, through choosing proper combinations of topography and chemistry of
the 3D micro/nano scaffolds. Most important, it is shown that such scaffolds enable
primary neurons to grow in 3D, without the use of synthetic ECM coatings or other
chemotropic growth factors [68]. Indeed, only few cells survived on a flat Si substrate
Fig. 9.5 (left) (a) Neuronal cluster on the Si spikes area; (b) Detail corresponding to white lined inset
of (a), showing a long neurite that has attached and grown over the spikes; (c) Detail corresponding
to white lined inset of (b), showing protrusions of neurolemma growing over and engulfing the
top of the spikes; (d) Detail corresponding to black lined inset of (a), showing the 3D web of
cytoplasmic processes growing along the direction vertical to the culture plane. The arrows indicate
how multiple processes may initiate from one neurite. (Right) (i) Primary neuronal culture on
Si spikes area, immunostained for neuron-specific immunohistochemistry using beta III tubulin
primary antibody (red) at 5 days in vitro. The phenomenal neuritic sprouting and extension on the
substrate surface is clearly illustrated; (ii) Some of the neurons showed extraordinary extension.
(iii) Examples of different neuronal types and the formation of varicosities were placed on the right.
Adapted From: Stratakis E et al (2011) Biomicrofluidics 5:013411
used as a control that verified the role of microstructures in absence of synthetic ECM.
On the contrary, neuron cells developed into a dynamic cellular aggregate, with long
neurites sprouting throughout the microstructured scaffold area (Fig. 9.5). Moreover,
a 3D neuron network of nanoscale thin neuritic extensions was formed along the third
dimension (perpendicular to the culture plane) utilising the space towards the base
of the structures.
LAT has been recently employed for the microfabrication of a 3D biomimetic scaf-
fold for myocardial repair applications [9]. Anisotropy in structural and mechanical
properties is a prominent feature of many native tissues and gives rise to unique
structure-function relationships that are crucial to maintaining healthy organs. For
example, ventricular myocardium is a hierarchical, quasi-lamellar tissue in which
functional syncytia of cardiomyocytes (cardiac muscle fibres) are interwoven within
collagen. Such structure ultimately results in directionally dependent mechanical
and electrical properties, collectively termed cardiac anisotropy. Using excimer laser
ablation of a synthetic bioresorbable elastomer (poly(glycerol sebacate)), 3D bio-
mimetic scaffolds with anisotropic structural and mechanical properties were fabri-
cated [9]. The resulting scaffolds were accordion-like, honeycomb-shaped cellular
structures with closely matched mechanical properties compared to native adult rat
ventricular myocardium, including structural features roughly 200 µm in size and
stiffness on the order of 2.1 MPa (Fig. 9.6). Neonatal rat heart cells were seeded on
these scaffolds and cultured in vitro for up to one week. It is observed that the laser
Fig. 9.6 (a), (b) Schematic diagrams illustrating the accordion-like honeycomb scaffolds exhibit-
ing anisotropic mechanical properties similar to native myocardium. Preferred (PD) and orthogonal
cross-preferred (XD) material directions, respectively corresponding to circumferential and longi-
tudinal axes of the heart are indicated. Scale bars: 1 mm (a) and 200 µm (b); (c) Scanning electron
micrographs of the artificiaal accordion-like honeycomb scaffold made by LAT of poly(glycerol
sebacate). Scale bar 200 µm; (d) Neonatal rat heart cells were cultured for 1 week on accordion-like
honeycomb scaffolds, fluorescently labelled for F-actin (green), counterstained for nuclear DNA
(blue) and imaged by confocal microscopy. Scaffold is indicated by the white asterisk. Adapted
from Engelmayr GC Jr et al (2008) Nat Mater 7:1003
textured 3D scaffolds promote heart cell alignment and created a tissue morphology
that is similar to native cardiac tissue. Furthermore, tissue constructs formed from
these scaffolds exhibited directionally dependent electrophysiological properties as
well. The same methodology has been lately applied for the development of scaffolds
for heart valve tissue engineering [69].
Classical tissue engineering refers to seeding isolated cells on fabricated scaffolds.
A disadvantage of this approach is that cells cannot be placed in defined locations of
the scaffold. Moreover, when considering organs the various cell types are not ran-
domly distributed within the tissue but specifically arranged to comply with certain
function. In this respect, controlled positioning of cells on the scaffold is therefore
desirable. Bioprinting is an emerging technology referring to manufacture complex
3D scaffolds, tissues and organs by printing [70]. It allows cells to be positioned in a

controlled way onto scaffolds and/or together with biomaterials. The ultimate aim of
such RP approach is building three dimensional biological structures or functional
organs, layer-by-layer, from the bottom up [71, 72]. Laser based biomaterials printing
methods have been found to be promising in patterning biomolecules and cells onto
a substrate. All different techniques work with the Laser Induced Forward Transfer
(LIFT) principle that allows printing biomaterials, including cells, with micrometer
resolution [73]. Recently, a unique combination of two laser based methods, 2PP
for scaffold fabrication and LIFT for cell seeding, has been demonstrated [74]. It
is shown that LIFT can be used to deposit multiple cell types precisely within the
volume of the 2PP-fabricated scaffold (Fig. 9.4b). Combinations of laser based scaf-
fold fabrication with laser-based bioprinting techniques present a promising approach
for the realization of complex biomimetic tissue scaffolds.
In addition to direct scaffold fabrication, laser structuring techniques have been
used to fabricate scaffold master moulds for casting biomaterials that are not com-
patible with such techniques [5, 75]. In this case end scaffolds are fabricated by
means of replica moulding methods. This is a simple approach to overcome limi-
tations with regard to scaffolding materials selection. For example, Chu et al. [76]
developed a lost-mould technique to produce implants with designed channels and
connection pattern. SLA was used to create epoxy moulds designed from negative
image of implants. A HA-acrylate suspension was initially cast into the mould. Then
the mould and the acrylic binder were removed by pyrolysis while the HA scaffold
submitted to a sintering process. The finest channel size achieved was about 366 µm
and the range of implant porosity between 26 and 52 %. Moreover, the application of
laser-textured solid scaffolds as a template to controllably transfer gradient micro-
morphologies on different types of polymeric materials, including bioerodible ones,
has been recently demonstrated [77]. The original master-substrates were fabricated
using ultrafast laser structuring of solid surfaces featured by high-resolution control
over the 3D topography at micro-length scales. Microreplication of laser patterned Si
surfaces gave rise to 3D polymeric scaffolds, exhibiting controlled gradient rough-
ness, porosity and rigidity. Culture experiments demonstrated that such scaffolds,
with the capacity to exquisitely control the pore size, the surface hydrophilicity and
rigidity might enable a multi-parametric assessment of the various factors that affect
cell behaviour with far-reaching implications for tissue engineering and biomedicine.
9.2.4 Laser Processing of Natural Biomaterials
There are several definitions of natural products and the common trend is that a nat-
ural product is a chemical compound or substance produced by a living organism.
Natural biomaterials are regard as chemical substances that are produced by living
organisms with the intent of their application as bio-medical materials. Natural bio-
materials provide excellent environments for tissue regeneration, since the different
components that make up the extracellular matrix provide a starting point for devel-
oping biomimetic scaffolds. The in vivo multiple roles of ECM proteins (collagen,
elastin, laminin, fibronectin etc.) and polysaccharides (e.g hyaluronic acid, chitosan,
agarose etc.), their biocompatibility and the relative abundance and commercial avail-
ability, make these materials attractive for tissue engineering applications [78].
Laser material processing has become increasingly important for the fabrication
of scaffolds from natural biomaterials [79–81]. The aim is to achieve an ECM-like
morphology complemented by a biomimetic stoichiometry. In the following, the
application of laser engineering techniques for biomimetic modification of natural
materials will be presented.
The 2PP technique was applied to develop biodegradable 3D scaffolds using
natural biomaterials. To this end, there has been some recent studies referred to
the synthesis and structuring of biodegradable polymers [56, 59] (Fig. 9.4a, iii),
hydrogels and proteins [82]. Specifically, Seidlits and her colleagues reported the
use of multiphoton excitation to photocrosslink protein microstructures within
three-dimensional, optically transparent hydrogel materials, such as those based on
hyaluronic acid [83]. It has also been demonstrated the use of a picosecond pulse
green laser for the formation of microfabricated pure protein (bovine serum albumin)
microstructures using multiphoton lithography [82]. Besides that the fabrication of
sub-micrometer scale 3D structures of bovine serum albumin, avidin and biotiny-
lated bovine serum albumin has been achieved using a femtosecond Ti:Sapphire as
well as a picosecond Nd:YAG laser [84]. The authors of this study denote that quite
similar grain characteristics and comparable feature sizes were achieved with both
laser sources, which demonstrates the utility of the low-cost Nd:YAG microlaser for
direct laser writing of protein microstructures [84].
The 2PP technique was also applied to develop precisely defined biodegradable 3D
tissue engineering scaffolds fabricated via photopolymerization of gelatine modified
with methacrylamide moieties. These studies indicate that the modified gelatine pre-
serves its enzymatic degradation capability after photopolymerization and besides
that the developed scaffolds support porcine mesenchymal and primary adipose-
derived stem cell (ASC) adhesion, proliferation and differentiation into the antici-
pated lineage [85, 86].
Recent works have reported on the nanostructuring induced by LAT of collagen
[87, 88], gelatine [89] and chitosan [87, 90] with single UV pulses (25 ns, 248 nm)
and with 90 fs pulses at 800, 400, and 266 nm [89, 91] (Fig. 9.7). The created foamy
layer with nanofibrous properties mimics the nanostructure of the fibrillar network
seen in many living tissues and could be developed to construct artificial nanocellular
biomimetic materials and for tissue engineering and reconstruction [92]. The micro-
foaming transition of biopolymer films was discovered [87] during the study of laser
ablation of collagen. In these experiments the absorption of one KrF excimer laser
pulse produces a layer of foamy material on the surface of the collagen film. In
the foaming process, whose mechanism has been studied and modelled [93] since
the discovery, a more selective combination of laser-induced forces is involved to
explain the sudden expansion of the laser-excited polymer. It is shown that, for the
laser-induced foaming to occur, the target polymer must be moderately absorbing
in order to generate a strong pressure wave and the laser absorption must provide
Fig. 9.7 Examples of LAT induced foams on the surface of (a) collagen film; (b) gelatin (macro-
scopic view); (c) gelatin (cross-section); (d) chitosan (fine nanofibers network). Adapted from:
(2009), Journal of Laser Micro/Nanoengineering 4:152
enough gas pressure produced by the ablation products. Irradiation of self-standing

films of biopolymers results in the formation of a modified layer with submicrometric
structures whose size can be controlled by wavelength selection in the case of fs
irradiation [89, 91].
Gaspard et al. have reported on time resolved investigations regarding the effects
of transient fs laser-induced foaming by measurements in situ and in real time of the
change in the transmittance of a continuous-wave probe HeNe laser through films
of collagen and gelatine irradiated with single 90 fs pulses at 800, 400, and 266 nm.
Results are compared with those obtained upon irradiation with 25 ns, 248 nm pulses.
In this work the temporal evolution of the light transmission through laser irradiated
biopolymers collagen and gelatine has been determined in order to separate in time the
different processes that lead to the observed nanofoaming structures [92]. KrF laser
treatment of collagen and collagen/PVP films caused significant damages on their
surfaces leading to the formation of “microfoam” structures as a result of an explosive
thermal mechanism assisted by the negative part of laser induced photoacoustic
pressure [94]. In the above-mentioned mechanism, the authors considered a purely
thermal pathway although the eventuality of reactions of electronic excited states
(photochemical pathway) cannot be ruled out. Both collagen and collagen/PVP films
behave very similarly. Based on obtained results, has been affirmed that the addition
of PVP to collagen causes its resistance to increase the ablation process in a small
extent only [94]. KrF laser irradiation was also been used for the generation of
microfoam structures on chitosan films [87]. The influence of UV irradiation on the
surface of chitosan films has been investigated by Sionkowska et al. who declared
that KrF laser treatment caused a significant changes of the surface of chitosan
film (forming of the foam) in comparison with UV radiation emitted by incoherent
lamp. The deacetylation degree of chitosan calculated from FTIR- ATR data slightly
decreases after both, laser irradiation and of UV irradiation from low-intensity lamp
[90].
It has been mentioned that gelatine presents some advantages over collagen as its
physicochemical properties can be suitably modulated. For instance the thermal and
mechanical properties of gelatine, of key importance in the possible applications as
a biomaterial, can be enhanced by crosslinking. It is also a much cheaper material
than collagen and easier to obtain in concentrated solutions [8]. So, in a number of
studies has been reported pulsed laser submicron foam formation in gelatine using
single laser pulses of nanosecond (ns) and femtosecond (fs) duration [8, 80, 87, 92,
93]. What seems to be generally accepted is that the morphological characteristics of
this layer strongly depend on the biopolymer and on the irradiation wavelength. In
collagen, a material of higher mechanical strength, superior internal organization and
also of higher water content than gelatine, a nanofibrous network of filaments and
interconnected voids is created. In gelatine a nanofoamy layer with uniform bubbles
and pores appears as a result of laser irradiation [89].
All these results allow developing the understanding of mechanisms involved
in the fs laser processing of biopolymers, of interest in biomedical applications
as the obtained laser foam could be used as scaffold to mimic the supramolecular
structure and biological functions of the extracellular matrix for three-dimensional
tissue regeneration and for development of artificial organs [92].
9.3 Conclusions and Outlook
Tissue engineering is an interdisciplinary field involving the combined efforts of

biologists, engineers, materials scientists and medical doctors, to achieve biomimetic
functional scaffolds. By far, the most challenging aim of tissue engineering is the
design of large-scale artificial systems in which biomimetic approaches lead to arbi-
trary and increasing levels of complexity. This aspect remains in its infancy, so there
is a corresponding demand for developing creative solutions. Progress in understand-
ing of the living organisms and their complex functions becomes the inspiration for
biomaterials scientists to learn from nature and to advantageously mimic the biolog-
ical systems on multiple levels. On the other hand, the exciting developments in the
fields of nanoscience and micro/nano fabrication technology indicate a revolution
in materials design, synthesis and engineering. These emerging technologies will,
no doubt, enable the design and fabrication of novel scaffolds incorporating vari-
ous biomimetic characteristics at the genetic, molecular, nanometer and micrometer
scales.
Advanced RP technologies have the potential to incorporate biomimetic
approaches in the materials processing and design towards manufacturing of com-
plex artificial scaffolds. In particular, the optical nature of laser direct-write RP tech-
niques provides the unique opportunity to combine machine vision and CAD/CAM
automation with non-contact, optically selective, high-throughput precise processing
and fabrication. As presented in this chapter, research in this field has shown much
progress, considering that laser based RP technologies allow control over the fabri-
cation of 3D porous scaffolds with submicrometer resolution, in a convenient, rapid
and cost-effective manner. Despite the remarkable progress, this effort is still far from
the ultimate goal of realizing scaffolds that sufficiently mimic the complexity and
functionality of natural ECM matrix and there are still many challenges to overcome.
Firstly, intense efforts will be required for scaling up the overall processing proce-
dure to include multiple length scales. Although current production techniques are
valuable within a limited range of resolutions, future fabrication methods must inter-
lace multiple-scale structures with exceptional controllability. For example, multiple

size scales, i.e. nanofeatures imprinted on the surface of a 3D micro-feature, will
be required towards mimicking the native extracellular environment. Current laser-
based RP methods can manufacture features at scales larger than 100 nm, but there
is a need for controllable fabrication at nanometer scale. This is one of the biggest
challenges of these technologies towards engineering truly biomimetic hierarchi-
cal structured scaffolds and to take full advantage of the potential of nanofeature
incorporation.
Another key issue is related to the minimization of thermal damage effects such as
melting, burr formation and cracking which are of concern for laser-based processes
and limit the functionality of the fabricated scaffolds. As pointed out above, fs lasers
present unique capabilities in this respect and should essentially be part of the future
laser-based RP schemes for tissue engineering applications. It is encouraging that
recent significant improvements in the types of fs sources available have accelerated
the acceptance of such lasers as a strong option for large-scale and high-throughput
fabrication. On the other hand, research efforts will be necessary for a complete
evaluation of the effects of fs laser-biological material interaction. Those studies
may include investigation of breakdown products, biological, chemical, corrosion
and mechanical properties of the biomaterials processed by fs laser direct write
techniques.
In terms of the 3D structural properties aspect, most artificial scaffolds are rela-
tively homogeneous and do not comply with the graded physiochemical properties
found in vivo. Therefore, a design challenge for future laser-based tissue engineer-
ing lies in development of RP techniques capable of fabricating biomimetic scaffolds
with gradient architectures that would encourage heterotypic cell interactions essen-
tial to the constructive remodelling process.
Furthermore, there are currently a limited number of biomaterials that are compat-
ible with each laser direct writing technique. The development of novel laser process-
able and compatible organic and inorganic precursor materials as well as functional
biomaterials is thus required for efficient laser based biomimetic tissue scaffold
fabrication. Materials development and subsequent fabrication should always be
accompanied by detailed in vitro, in vivo and clinical studies to evaluate the func-
tionality of each scaffold.
It should also be mentioned, that the natural ECM contains multiple support
proteins and biochemical factors that maintain cell phenotype and response. Incor-
porating such compounds synergistically within the scaffold architecture is critical
for a successful biomimetic scaffold. For this purpose, laser based RP schemes may
be complemented with laser assisted biomaterials transfer techniques. Such com-
bined schemes may potentially evolve into future multifunctional RP systems.
Finally, there are other emerging aspects of laser based fabrication techniques
which may be exploited for expanding the complexity and novelty of tissue engi-
neered scaffolds. For example, the use of temporally shaped ultrafast pulses may
provide an additional route for controlling and optimizing the outcome of process-
ing [95]. Also, the exploitation of filamentation effects [96] which may be produced
by using ultrafast lasers open the way for the optimization of sophisticated and
demanding processing applications. No doubt, all these techniques require further

development before they can become competitive. However, the wealth of aris-
ing possibilities in laser based micro and nanofabrication and the number of new
approaches to biomaterials synthesis prescribe a future where biomimetic control
of artificial biomaterial structure and subsequent functionality can be accomplished
with a level of sophistication that we cannot presently envisage.
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Chapter 10
Laser Processing of Natural Biomaterials
Wande Zhang, Peter H. Chung, Aping Zhang and Shaochen Chen
Abstract Natural biomaterials have been extensively employed in biomedical

applications because of their superior biocompatibility and biodegradability. Among
the large family of techniques to process natural biomaterials, laser techniques have
been rapidly developed to fabricate biomimetic artificial organs, tissue engineer-
ing scaffolds, and other biomedical constructs. Compared to other techniques, laser
processing allows more precise control over the geometry and is able to fabricate
smaller features with minimal debris generated. The laser processing techniques
are generally grouped by three categories: polymerization, ablation, and activation.
This chapter introduces several widely used natural biomaterials, including collagen,
agarose, hyaluronic acid, and MatrigelTM as well as the recent development in laser
processing techniques of those natural biomaterials.
W. Zhang (B)
Department of Bioengineering, University of California,
San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
P. H. Chung
Department of NanoEngineering, University of California,
San Diego, Atkinson Hall, Room 2314, 9500 Gilman Drive #0448,
La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
A. Zhang
Department of Electrical Engineering, Photonics Research Centre,
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Kowloon (Hong Kong SAR), China
S. Chen
Department of NanoEngineering, University of California,
San Diego, SME Building 245B, MC-0448, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA

238 W. Zhang et al.
10.1 Introduction
The rapid development of laser processing techniques has generated much excite-
ment within the field of biomaterials—particularly for those that are naturally
derived. Various natural biomaterials, such as collagen, agarose, hyaluronic acid,
and MatrigelTM , have been treated through polymerization, ablation, or activation.
Both in vivo and in vitro experiments have been conducted to demonstrate that bio-
materials processed by lasers are effective and efficient for biological applications.
Natural biomaterials comprise biologically- and medically-applied materials
derived from living organisms. Natural biomaterials can generally be categorized into
three groups: proteins, polysaccharides, and extracellular matrix (ECM)-derived bio-
materials. Proteins, including collagen, gelatin, elastin, fibrin, and silk, are composed
of amino acid chains bonded by covalent peptide bonds. Polysaccharides, including
agarose, hyaluronic acid, and chitin, are composed of sugar chains bonded by gly-
cosidic bonds. ECM-derived biomaterials, such as MatrigelTM and small intestinal
submucosa (SIS), contain a large variety of proteins and growth factors and thus
are ready for cell culture. Natural biomaterials have been used in medical practice
for thousands of years. As early as in ancient Egypt, animal sinew was used as
sutures. Compared with synthetic biomaterials, natural biomaterials provide two key
advantages: First, since natural biomaterials can be readily recognized by the biolog-
ical environment, they are more biocompatible and do not invoke an inflammatory
response. Second, since natural biomaterials can be recognized by the metabolic
system and enzymes, they are more biodegradable and can be beneficial in certain
situations where biomaterials are only needed for a temporary amount of time [1–4].
Laser processing of natural biomaterials has been investigated for decades
[2, 3, 5–7]. Research in this field can be categorized into three subfields: (1) laser-
induced polymerization, where a laser is used to induce cross-linking between natural
biomaterial polymer chains; (2) laser ablation, where a laser is used to selectively
remove part of the natural biomaterial through thermal or chemical effects; and (3)
laser activation, where a laser is used to activate certain moieties on the polymer
chains for specific applications. Laser-induced polymerization and laser ablation
has been used to make biomimetic artificial organs, tissue engineering scaffolds,
and other biomedical constructs. Compared with other material processing meth-
ods based on material addition such as inject-printing, laser-induced polymerization
allows for more precise control over the geometry and dimensions of the processing
area with resolution down to the nanometer scale. Meanwhile, compared to other
processing methods that are based on material subtraction, such as etching, the laser
is able to completely remove material with minimal generation of debris, thereby
minimizing any material property changes that could be caused by the processing
tools.
This chapter deals with several natural biomaterials that have widely been investi-
gated, including collagen, agarose, hyaluronic acid, and MatrigelTM , which represent
all three categories of biomaterials. Each natural biomaterial is described in a separate
section with the first part providing background information (such as material prop-
10 Laser Processing of Natural Biomaterials 239
erties and current biomedical/biomimetic applications) and the second part featuring
a review of the current literature describing the state -of-the-art in laser processing
of the biomaterial.
10.2 Natural Biomaterials
10.2.1 Collagen
The collagen family is composed of over 20 types of proteins and accounts for
approximately 25 to 35 % of the human body’s total protein weight. Collagen is
the most widely used natural biomaterial in biomedical applications. Functionally,
collagen serves as an essential component of the connective and supporting tissues
that maintain the body’s structure and resistance to stretching [8]. Collagen is a fibrous
protein whose basic unit is composed of a triple helix–two identical α1 chains and one
α2 chain [9]. Collagen offers many properties that make it an excellent candidate for
biomedical applications: (1) excellent biocompatibility, as it is biologically derived;
(2) availability at a low cost, due to its abundance in tissues; (3) biodegradability
(via enzymes such as collagenase) that can be finely tuned by adjusting the degree of
cross-linking; (4) ease of functionalization, as a variety of molecules can be attached
to the collagen chain to modify its property for different biomedical applications;
and (5) formability, as the shape of collagen is easily changed into beads, sheets, or
bands for different applications.
Collagen has extensively been used in clinical applications as well as basic bio-
medical research. In particular, collagen has been used widely in tissue regenera-
tion. For cardiac tissue regeneration, Shi et al. cultured Sca-1 positive stem cells
in a collagen scaffold and transplanted the scaffold into C57/BL6 mice to promote
cardiac tissue regeneration [10]. To investigate bone tissue regeneration, Lee et al.
used collagen/polycaprolactone hybrid fibrous scaffolds in their experiments and
found that the collagen-enhanced scaffolds exhibited better mechanical strength and
bioactivity than pure polycaprolactone scaffolds [11]. For bladder tissue regenera-
tion, Engelhardt et al. have demonstrated the potential of using collagen/poly(lactic
acid-co-epsilon-caprolactone) hybrid scaffolds to promote bladder growth [12]. Kew
et al. have shown that collagen fibrous scaffolds are promising candidates for tendon
and ligament regeneration [13].
Additionally, collagen has broadly been used as a delivery vehicle for drugs, genes,
and cells. Hong et al. attached collagen on polylactide microspheres to promote cell
adhesion and proliferation for chondrocyte delivery [14]. Park et al. have shown
that collagen/calcium phosphate hybrid structures can promote bone cell adhesion
and bone regeneration. Proteins, such as bovine serum albumin, were encapsulated
in the hybrid structures and released in a controlled fashion for over a month [15].
Collagen assisted gene delivery experiments were conducted by Adachi et al. They
240 W. Zhang et al.
used a collagen/poly(Pro-Hyp-Gly) hybrids as a reliable method to deliver siRNA

into cells while preventing fast degradation of the genetic payload [16].
Collagen has also been used in cell culture research. Lam et al. have demonstrated
that arachnoid cells isolated from rat brainstems exhibit the same phenotypes in three-
dimensional collagen scaffolds as in the in vivo environment, which suggests that
collagen structures can be developed as in vitro arachnoid granulation models [17].
Yuan et al. have shown that a 3D collagen microsphere culture system was superior
to traditional monolayer cultures [18] in preserving the phenotypic characteristics of
rabbit nucleus pulposus cells.
10.2.2 Agarose
Agarose is a polysaccharide derived from agar–a cellular component of algae. The

agarose molecule is a single or double helix composed of repeating units of agaro-
biose [19]. Two distinct advantages of agarose make it an excellent candidate for
various biological and medical applications. First, the hydroxyl groups in agarose
facilitate modifications with a variety of ligands, while other parts of the agarose
chain are biologically inert and thus do not interact chemically with nucleic acids
and most proteins. Second, the cross-linking of agarose gel extremely enhances its
chemical and physical stability, which makes it an ideal candidate for experimental
substrate. Due to these main benefits agarose is an ideal source material for different
specific biological applications.
In biomaterial research, an important application of agarose is in the field of tissue
engineering. Agarose can be blended with various biomaterials to modify its mechan-
ical and biological properties for different applications. Hybrid fibers of agarose and
carbon nanotubes have been used as scaffolds for neural tissue engineering [20].
Chitosan-agarose-gelatin hybrid hydrogels and agarose/poly (ethylene glycol) mix-
tures have been used in cartilage tissue engineering [21, 22]. Hydroxyapatite/beta-
tricalcium phosphate/agarose hybrids have been used in bone tissue engineering
[23]. In biological research, agarose is widely used as growth media for various
microorganisms, such as bacteria, yeast, and fungi [24–27]. Agarose is also one of
the primary stabilizing media used in electrophoresis of DNA, polymers, protein,
and other macromolecules [28–32].
10.2.3 Hyaluronic Acid
Hyaluronic acid (HA), also known as hyaluronan, has been employed as the bioma-
terial of first choice for numerous biomedical applications [33] from wound heal-
ing [34] and tissue engineering [35] to drug delivery [36] and cosmetic products
[37]. HA is a naturally occurring biopolymer prevalent throughout the body as
an essential constituent of the extracellular matrix (ECM). The only non-sulfated
glycosaminoglycan, HA is an unbranched, large molecular weight (∼104 –107 Da),

anionic polysaccharide composed of repeating disaccharide units of D-glucuronic
acid and N-acetyl-D-glucosamine. Within the ECM, HA interacts with cells via the
CD44 antigen and RHAMM (=receptor for hyaluronan-mediated motility) surface
receptors and plays a vital role in numerous functions, such as angiogenesis, wound
healing, morphogenesis, and tissue reorganization [38–40].
HA features numerous properties particularly attractive for biomedical applica-
tions, such as biocompatibility, biodegradability, and non-immunogenicity. Addi-
tionally, due to its hydrophilic nature, HA is not protein- or cell-adhesive [41]. This
property can be modulated easily via introduction of various moieties at func-
tional sites (e.g. carboxyl and hydroxyl groups) along its polymer backbone. The
approaches for chemical modification are extensive and can be used to confer a
broad range of functionality to HA [42]. Finally, from a clinical point of view, HA
has a well-established history as an FDA-approved biomaterial and continues to be
explored across a wide range of developing biomedical applications, particularly
within tissue engineering and regenerative medicine [33].
10.2.4 MatrigelTM
MatrigelTM provides a natural cell growth environment and was first derived in the
1980s from murine Engelbreth-Holm-Swarm (EHS) tumors [43]. Since MatrigelTM
contains a large number of basement membrane proteins (e.g. collagen IV and
laminin) as well as a variety of growth factors and angiogenic factors, it can been
used without further treatment in a variety of applications, such as stem cell differen-
tiation, tissue regeneration, cancer metastasis and angiogenesis. Asakura et al. found
that muscle stem cells could differentiate into myocytes, adipocytes and osteoblasts
when they were cultured on MatrigelTM [44]. Embryonic stem cell differentiation
has also been demonstrated in MatrigelTM [45]. Since MatrigelTM was derived from
tumor tissue, many groups used it as platform for cancer cell invasion research.
Kramer et al. demonstrated migration and invasion of HT 1,080 cells in MatrigelTM
[46]. Later, Fridman et al. found that several cancer cells lines that could not survive
in mice were able to generate tumors in MatrigelTM [47].
10.3 Laser Processing Methodologies for Biomaterials
10.3.1 Laser Processing System Setup
A typical laser system for biomaterial processing consists of a laser source, laser
optics, an automated stage, an imaging system, and a computer (Fig. 10.1). A laser
source with specific energy level, wavelength, pulse duration, and repetition rate
is selected according to the requirements of the application. Generally, a pulsed
242 W. Zhang et al.
Fig. 10.1 Schematic of a typical laser processing system for natural biomaterials
solid-state laser with the pulse duration in the range of femtoseconds to nanoseconds
is employed in the processing of natural biomaterials. The laser beam is magnified
by a beam expander after leaving the laser head. The power of the laser beam can
be tuned by an attenuator to accommodate various applications. The beam is then
reflected by a dichroic mirror into an objective lens, which is generally mounted in a
microscope. The sample holder, usually a piece of coverslip, is fixed on an automated
stage above the objective lens. The natural biomaterial is placed on the sample holder
and the laser beam is focused into the biomaterials through the objective lens. Being
controlled by a computer program, the automated stage is able to locate the laser
beam to any position in the biomaterial following an arbitrary scanning path. An
imaging system is used to facilitate laser focusing and monitor the entire process
in situ.
Laser based three-dimensional patterning is achieved either by (1) using a three-
axis piezoelectric translator to move the hydrogels across the laser path or (2) raster-
scanning the laser beam across a digital micromirror device (DMD) that acts as a
dynamic reflective photomask (based on the method described in [48]). Using this
method, they were able to pattern proteins within the hydrogel at sub-µm feature
resolutions and thereby guide dorsal root ganglion and hippocampal neural progen-
itor cells through paths of arbitrary three-dimensional configuration as described in
section hyaluronic acid below.
The DMD-based approach is of particular interest due to its versatility (cf.
Fig. 10.2). The key advantage of this approach–particularly in comparison to tra-
ditional photolithographic techniques–is the ability to generate any pattern rapidly
and in a dynamic fashion. By incrementally moving the servo-controlled stage, com-
Fig. 10.2 Fabrication process using the DMD microfabrication system. Schematic of the DMD
microfabrication system for the layer-by-layer fabrication of scaffolds (a). After fabricating a layer
(b), the stage moves down 0.5 mm and pulls the structure away from the glass window. After the
curing process, PBS (phosphate buffered saline) is pumped into the gap to rinse away any partially
polymerized glycidyl methacrylate hyaluronic acid (GMHA) (c). To build a new layer above the
just-formed structure after the rinsing step (d), the stage is moved to bring the just-formed layer
200 µm below the glass slide. Fresh monomer is pumped into the 200 µm gap, and the next layer is
then created by UV curing followed by PBS purging again (e). Reprinted from Fig. 7 in reference
[49] with kind permission from Springer Science+Business Media, LLC
plex structures can be generated layer-by-layer using a set of user-defined images.

Additionally, the DMD is amenable to light projection via either a coherent UV or
multiphoton laser source [48]. Han et al. demonstrated also the use of a standard
(non-coherent) UV lamp source in the DMD-approach [50, 51].
10.3.2 Laser-Induced Cross-Linking
In typical applications of photopolymer technology, light induces cross-linking of

monomers or oligomers via photopolymerization by the agency of the photoinitiator.
The photoinitiator is added to the monomer solution and generates upon illumination
free radicals, which stimulate the cross-linking of the monomers. Thus, photopoly-
merization transforms short-chain liquid-state monomers with low molecular weight
to long-chain solid-state polymers with high molecular weight by light. Especially
laser light has distinct advantages with respect to photopolymerization due to its spa-
tial and temporal coherence. Since a laser beam is spatially coherent, it can be focused
down to a sub-µm spot size to fabricate micro and nanostructures. Meanwhile, due
to its temporal coherence, secondary polymerization induced by polychromic effect
is eliminated so that the size of focal point is further reduced. Because of its three-
dimensional microscale fabrication capability, the laser has been widely used in the
cross-linking of natural biomaterials [52–59].
244 W. Zhang et al.
10.3.2.1 Processing of Collagen for Biomedical Applications
Although widely used in biomedical applications, native collagen has not exten-
sively been employed as a base material for tissue engineering scaffolds due to its
low mechanical strength. Upon in vivo implantation, collagen scaffolds typically
collapse under internal pressure. To solve this problem, Chan et al. used an argon
laser to enhance the mechanical strength of natural collagen [52]. In their approach,
0.01 % (w/v) Rose Bengal was added to collagen as a cross-linking agent. A 0.2 W
pulsed argon laser beam (wavelength 514 nm) with a spot size of 1.5 cm was used to
induce cross-linking. Upon characterizing relevant properties, such as elasticity, ther-
mostability, and water-binding capacity of cross-linked collagen, it was found that
laser cross-linking was able to strengthen, stiffen, and stabilize collagen membranes
without compromising water-binding capability. Furthermore, it was observed that
laser scanning was able to generate microscale interconnected pores, which were
not present in unprocessed collagen. Iosin et al. have investigated microscale pat-
terning of collagen I based on one and two photon absorption using two different
laser systems for the experiments, a Nd:YAG laser at 532 nm and a mode-locked
near infrared Ti:Sapphire laser at 740 nm [53]. Eosin Y or Rose Bengal were used
as photosensitizers for polymerization. They characterized the relationship between
laser power and line width of polymerized collagen. Collagen lines as narrow as 1 µm
were fabricated in this study. The line width depends on the size of the laser beam, the
laser power, and the concentrations of proteins and photosensitizer. Additionally, the
photochemistry of the processes strongly depends on photosensitizer characteristics,
but is independent on the excitation mechanisms (one- or two-photon absorption).
Biocompatibility was demonstrated by growing cells on the collagen structures.
Laser induced cross-linking is able to induce conformational changes in a variety
of collagen-rich tissues. This mechanism has been used in tissue regeneration, such as
in the treatment of the varicose veins. Traditionally, diseased vessels were removed by
surgical operation. However, vein damage frequently occurred during the operation.
Frullini et al. have developed an alternative treatment that uses just a blue light emit-
ting diode (LED) to cross-link the collagen in veins [54]. In this approach, riboflavin
was used as a cross-linking agent and the blue light from the LED (wavelength range
450–480 nm) was used to activate the polymerization. Venous shrinkage was evident
in this study a few minutes after illumination. Additionally, no histological evidence
of venous endothelial damage was discovered after the treatment. Similar approaches
have also been used outside of the clinical setting in basic biomedical research. Wen-
zel et al. evaluated the effect of a ruby laser on remodeling of the collagen in the
mouse cochlea [55]. Both low (15 J/cm2 ) and high laser fluence (180 J/cm2 ) were
used in this study. The results revealed that the auditory brainstem response thresh-
old of the cochlea was increased moderately after irradiation at low laser fluence
and dramatically at high laser fluence, whereas the increase of auditory capability
was linearly related to the increase of laser fluence. Furthermore, collagen density
increased after laser irradiation, and a large amount of new collagen fibers was found.
This study represents a potential approach for laser-assisted treatment of hearing loss.
Since most biomaterials and tissue are transparent to near infrared (NIR) light, NIR
femtosecond lasers can be used to induce two-photon polymerization in collagen/cell
mixtures without impairing cell viability. Kuetemeyer et al. used a femtosecond laser
to induce two-photon polymerization of collagen in bioartificial cardiac tissue [6] to
increase its stiffness, which is necessary for in vivo implantation. In this study, they
mixed murine embryonic fibroblasts or neonatal rat cardiomyocytes with collagen I
to generate bioartificial tissue. After addition of 0.01 % riboflavin cross-linker, the
mixture was raster-scanned by a femtosecond laser beam. Stress-strain measurements
one day after laser-scanning showed that the tissue stiffness was increased by 40 %,
as compared with control samples, while maintaining cardiomyocytes viability.
10.3.2.2 3D Patterning of Agarose for Tissue Engineering
As more research effort has been focused on 3D patterning of biomaterials for tissue
engineering applications, 3D patterning of agarose also has been explored. Agarose
is well suited as base biomaterial because cells do not adhere to natural agarose
and additionally its abundant hydroxyl groups can bond with amino groups and can
therefore be easily functionalized. As an example, Wylie et al. patterned agarose,
which was modified with coumarin-caged amines, three-dimensionally with a fem-
tosecond laser [7]. In this approach, 6-bromo-7-hydroxy-coumarin, a photocage for
amines, was used to functionalize agarose. The femtosecond laser was employed to
scan a series of micrometer sized squares at a depth of 40 µm underneath the sur-
face of the agarose gel. Since the two-photon absorption based femtosecond laser
patterning depends non-linearly on the laser intensity, only the laser power in close
vicinity to the focal point is high enough to induce chemical modification and to
enable three-dimensional structuring, even below the surface of a polymer matrix.
A fluorogenic probe was used to verify the production of amines after modification.
Fluorescent cross-section images were taken at different depths. It was found that
the laser reaction region was from 20 to 60 µm below the surface when the laser was
focused at 40 µm below the surface. The authors proposed that this approach could
provide a means of achieving cell guidance for tissue engineering and regenerative
medicine applications, because functionalization can promote cell adhesion in an
agarose matrix.
10.3.2.3 Laser Patterning of Hyaluronic Acid (HA) for Hydrogel

Based Applications
Due to its available functional groups, HA can be easily modified to be photore-

sponsive. Smeds et al. were among the first groups in the late 1990s to employ
this strategy for synthesizing HA hydrogels via laser-initiated photo cross-linking
and were able to form hydrogels of various geometries (microcapsules, blocks, and
films) [56]. In this early approach, an argon ion laser source (wavelength 514 nm)
was used to cross-link a pre-polymer HA solution composed of methacrylated HA
246 W. Zhang et al.
(via methacrylic anhydride) and a water-soluble photoinitiator that generated free

radicals upon light activation (Eosin Y in the presence of triethanolamine). Since
then, this cross-linking approach has broadly been adopted as a method for syn-
thesizing HA hydrogels [57–59] including other light sources such as UV lamps
and several commercial photoinitiators. However, laser-based photo cross-linking is
still a very specific and unique approach for generating and/or modifying hydrogels
where high resolution patterns are required. Musoke-Zawedde and Shoichet used
a UV laser to micropattern a hydrogel matrix composed of HA modified with S-2-
nitrobenzyl cysteine [60]. UV exposure was used to cleave the 2-nitrobenzyl group to
expose thiol groups at patterned locations within the hydrogel. Subsequently, the thiol
groups were functionalized with GRGDS (glycine-arginine-glycine-aspartic-acid-
serine) oligopeptides (a cell receptor binding sequence) to form patterned gradients
to guide neurite outgrowth. Similarly, Seidlits et al. described a general method to
three-dimensionally pattern proteins within hydrogels for cell guidance of neuronal
cultures [61]. A femtosecond Ti:Sapphire laser at 780 nm wavelength was applied
to photoinduced cross-linking of protein microstructures via multiphoton excitation
within hyaluronic acid hydrogels.
A DMD approach as described in the laser setup section has been used specifically
with HA by Suri et al. to construct three-dimensional scaffolds that can function as
nerve conduits (Fig. 10.3) [49]. Authors affiliated with this work (Zhang et al. ; Chen
et al.) are now adopting a similar approach that employs a femtosecond laser in place
of the UV lamp not only for modification of hydrogels post-polymerization but also
for the complete freeform fabrication of an entire HA scaffold.
The use of photocrosslinked HA within a clinical context presents an excit-
ing opportunity, and early demonstrations of this approach have yielded promising
results. Smeds et al. extended their initial photocrosslinking investigations to clinical
applications that would necessitate in situ polymerization. As described in references
[62, 63], a solution of methacrylated HA was applied to corneal lacerations in rabbit
models and polymerized in situ using an argon laser beam of low intensity. The
lacerations had sealed completely within 6 h, and reformation of the anterior cham-
bers of the treated eyes was observed. Additionally, inflammatory response was
minimal based on clinical and histological evaluations, and stromal cell proliferation
along with ECM generation was observed at the wound edges.
Due to the native prevalence of HA within cartilage tissue, the in situ polymer-
ization approach was similarly applied in an articular cartilage repair model [57]
using the same formulation as described in [62]. In this study, methacrylated HA
was used initially to encapsulate chondrocytes in vitro. The chondrocytes remained
viable within the polymer and were able to produce significant amounts of carti-
laginous matrix. Subsequently, when in situ polymerization of methacrylated HA
was performed in osteochondral defect models, cell infiltration into the hydrogel,
integration with the native tissue, and cartilaginous matrix generation was observed
2 weeks post-operatively.
More recently, HA has been explored for use in the clinical environment for
laser tissue welding. These applications have been investigated by Cohen et al.
across various repair models [64–67]. In this approach, HA serves a constituent
Fig. 10.3 Three-dimensional HA-based nerve regeneration scaffolds fabricated using a DMD-
based dynamic mask system and a UV light source. Branched structures, (a) and (b), as well as
multi-lumen scaffolds, (c) and (d), can be fabricated. (e) and (f) demonstrate the viability of Schwann
cells seeded inside the scaffold. Reprinted from Fig. 7 in reference [49] with kind permission from
Springer Science+Business Media, LLC
of a biomaterial-based solder with the formulation of the solder generally consisting

of a 2:1:2 mixture of albumin, indocyanine green dye, and sodium hyaluronic acid.
A diode laser module (wavelength at 808 nm) coupled to a quartz silica fiberoptic
cable is used for soldering. Exposure time is determined by the color change of the
indocyanine dye from green to tan.
This technique has been investigated across animal models for laser facial nerve
welding [67], tracheobronchial repair [65], and transluminal repair of esophageal
perforations [64]. In the facial nerve and esophageal applications, laser tissue weld-
ing yielded comparable or superior outcomes when compared against traditional
suture-based closure techniques. In the tracheobronchial model, laser tissue weld-
ing demonstrated bond strengths twice that of standard fibrin glue treatments. This
approach has recently been explored in human trials for endonasal repair of cere-
brospinal fluid leaks with positive outcomes [66].
248 W. Zhang et al.
Fig. 10.4 SEM images of microdots array fabricated with PEGDA/MatrigelTM : a an array of
microdots, the dot size is about 2 µm and the distance between adjacent dots is 20 µm, b dose test
of microdots fabrication, the laser power was increased from 15 mW (bottom row) to 40 mW (top
row)
10.3.2.4 MatrigelTM
To better understand cell behavior, researchers have been patterning natural biomate-
rials with precisely controlled geometries and dimensions. Especially, micro/nano-
scale patterns have been attracting more research interest because the biological
and chemical stimulations in extracellular matrix often occur at the micro/nano-
scale. Despite the wide application of MatrigelTM in biomedical research, litera-
ture describing the microscale patterning of MatrigelTM is currently lacking. The
authors have explored this niche by micropatterning MatrigelTM using the fem-
tosecond laser-induced two-photon polymerization technique. They used the laser
to fabricate microdots arrays to investigate cell migration guided by growth factor
gradients. Because MatrigelTM does not have cross-linking groups, poly (ethylene
glycol) diacrylate (PEGDA) was incorporated into MatrigelTM to provide a cross-
linkable solution. Different ratios of MatrigelTM and PEGDA were tested, and a 1:9
(v/v) ratio of MatrigelTM and PEGDA was found to be the optimum to make fine
structures. When the ratio is higher than 1:9 (v/v), aggregation of MatrigelTM was
observed in the solution. The aggregation interfered with fabrication due to scatter-
ing of the laser beam, which causes uneven cross-linking of the polymer chain. A
photoinitiator (Irgacure 819) was added to the solution to facilitate polymerization.
By changing the laser power and exposure time, microdots arrays with various sizes
were fabricated (Fig. 10.4).
10.3.3 Laser Ablation
Natural biomaterials can also be patterned by laser ablation, which is the selective
removal of natural biomaterials by vaporization of the material. Due to the Gaussian
distribution of the laser energy, only the energy in the center of the focal point is high
enough to induce vaporization. Thus, laser ablation is a precise tool in patterning
materials. In addition, a laser is able to remove materials without generating debris

upon laser induced bond-breaking, which minimize the impact from the ablation
tools on the biomaterials. In order to modify the structures underneath of the surface,
lasers with near-infrared or infrared wavelength are typically used since most natural
biomaterials are almost transparent in the near-infrared spectrum.
10.3.3.1 Laser Induced Removal of Collagen
In addition to laser-induced cross-linking of collagen, laser removal has also been

extensively explored. Kawata’s laboratory was among the first groups to investi-
gate collagen removal using a femtosecond laser [68]. They used the ultrafast laser
to create a 3D array of micro-cavities in collagen to a depth of 30 µm below the
surface without damaging the material on top of the microdot. As the laser power
was increased, a shorter exposure time, which corresponds to a smaller number of
laser pulses, was needed to create the dots. Accordingly, using lower laser pow-
ers requires an increased number of pulses or correspondingly a longer exposure
time. More importantly, by using larger pulse numbers, they were able to induce the
same effect at a laser power well below the ablation threshold of individual pulses,
indicating a dose accumulation during the exposure.
Femtosecond lasers are widely used in in vivo applications for the removal of
intrastromal collagen due to their excellent capability to penetrate various tissues
and their high precision. The treatment of a severe post operational complication,
which is called “post-laser in situ keratomileusis ectasia” may be necessary due
to removing of central epithelial. In order to investigate the corneal morphologic
change after laser treatment, Dong et al. used a femtosecond laser to remove a piece
of tissue and successfully created a pocket with a diameter of 7 mm and depth of
80 µm in rabbit corneas. Subsequently, they injected a 0.1 % riboflavin solution as a
collagen cross-linking agent into the corneal pockets and used a UVA beam with a
power density of 3 mW/cm2 to irradiate the pocket for 10 min. They evaluated the
topography and pachymetry of the cornea after irradiation and demonstrated that the
femtosecond laser was safe and effective in removing collagen-based tissue [69]. It
is shown, that the femtosecond laser irradiation minimized epithelial removal during
the process.
Other groups have created a variety of three-dimensional microscale structures
in collagen by femtosecond laser ablation. Liu et al. used a femtosecond laser to
generate microscale holes, grids, and parallel lines in collagen [70] with line widths
of about 20 µm, as depicted in the differential interference contrast (DIC) images
shown in Fig. 10.5. The relationships between hole size, laser power and exposure
time were characterized. During laser ablation, the thermal effect on the biomaterial
may become an issue, because it may impair cell adhesion and proliferation. It
was found that only a negligible thermal effect occurred during femtosecond laser
ablation, which was demonstrated by culturing mesenchymal stem cells and human
HT1080 fibroblasts in the collagen structure resulting in cell viability up to 10 days.
250 W. Zhang et al.
Fig. 10.5 Various patterns fabricated by a femtosecond laser on collagen surface. Microcraters (a);
lines (b); grids (c). Scale bar: 20 µm. Reproduced from Fig. 1 in reference [70] with kind permission
from Elsevier
Femtosecond lasers have also been used as cell guidance tracks. Ilina et al. created
three-dimensional microtracks in collagen for studying how 3D tracks guide cancer
cell invasion and for characterizing the dependence of cancer cell migration on matrix
metalloproteinases (MMPs), such as collagenase [71]. A femtosecond laser was
chosen in this study due to its three-dimensional microscale patterning ability in
collagen due to two-photon polymerization, which is required to develop an in vitro
model mimicking the in vivo connective tissue. Furthermore, the laser was able to
create structures with minimal debris. Microtracks of various widths and depths were
created, and mammary tumor breast cancer cells were then seeded in the collagen
3D microtracks. The results revealed that the cancer cell invasion guided by the
microtracks were independent of collagenase degradation. It is suggested that the
laser-generated 3D microtrack is a useful model to investigate spatial and chemical
requirements of cell migration.
10.3.3.2 Laser Ablation of Agarose
Agarose was used as the base material for the fabrication of microchannels in
microfluidic systems through ablation by a CAD/CAM based ArF laser fabrica-
tion system (wavelength at 193 nm) [72]. The width of the channels ranged from
60 to 400 µm. Since agarose does not support cell adhesion, extracellular matrix
gel was filled in the channels and polymerized. Neuroblasts were then seeded
in the channels, adhered onto the extracellular matrix gel and proliferated. After
72 h the neuroblasts differentiated into nerve bundles demonstrating the laser as an
excellent tool for patterning agarose gel. The use of the laser facilitates an easy
and precise control over the geometry, dimensions, and depth of the structures.
Fig. 10.6 a Schematic drawing of infrared laser fabrication of microchannels in agarose. b Steps
to fabricate microchannels to connect each pair of microchambers. Reproduced from Figs. 4 and 5
in reference [73] with kind permission from Wiley
Moriguchi et al. also used laser-ablated agarose microstructures in combination with

imprint lithography for neural cell research [73]. Prior to laser structuring an array of
agarose microchambers was fabricated by imprinting a SU-8 mold into an agarose
substrate. Subsequently, a 1064 nm Nd:YAG laser was used in order to fabricate
microtunnels between two neighboring chambers (Fig. 10.6). The width of the tun-
nels was approx. 10 µm and could be controlled by the size of the focused laser
spot. One neural cell was seeded in each chamber and was cultivated for 48 h. It was
observed that the neural cells trapped in the chambers made connections to the neural
cells in their adjacent chambers through the microtunnels proving that all fabricated
tunnels were open. Similar laser-fabricated agarose structures may serve as a useful
platform for the study of cell migration and communication.
252 W. Zhang et al.
10.3.3.3 Laser Ablation of Hyaluronic Acid
Barbucci et al. have demonstrated the use of laser ablation to pattern HA modified
substrates [74, 75]. HA along with its sulfated derivative (HyalS), was photoimmo-
bilized to aminosilanized glass surfaces via functionalization of the HA and HyalS
with a photoreactive group and subsequent UV light treatment. After photoimmobi-
lization, the homogeneous HA and HyalS layers were ablated using an excimer UV
laser (wavelength at 248 nm) to create striped patterns with widths ranging from 10 to
100 µm and heights of 800 nm. Cells were cultured on the patterned surfaces to prove
the preferential adhesion and proliferation along the ablated patterns for both 3T3
fibroblasts and bovine aortic endothelial cells (BAECs). Results from such studies
could provide better understanding of cells interaction with microenvironments.
10.3.4 Laser Activation
Activation of natural biomaterials is a unique application of the laser source, though

it is currently not being widely used. By attaching or releasing various function
groups from the chemical structures of natural biomaterials, the laser beam is able
to selectively alter the material surface properties on the microscale. To enhance the
laser energy absorption during the laser-induced activation of biomaterials process,
Au nanoparticles are commonly encapsulated in natural biomaterials.
10.3.4.1 Laser Activation of Agarose
Agarose might be selectively activated for biomolecule immobilization for instance

using a He-Cd laser (wavelength at 325 nm) [76]. Vertical chemical channels were
created in agarose to guide the growth of axons. Bulk agarose was mixed with
S-2-nitrobenzyl-cysteine (S-NBC), and the mixture was irradiated first by UV light
to release free nucleophiles. The mixture was then irradiated by the laser to fabricate
channels with free sulphydryl (thiol) groups. It was found that at least the exposure
duration of 1 s is required for laser activation. The diameter of the channels was
about 150 µm, controlled by the size of the laser beam. The cell adhesive peptide
fragment glycine-arginine-glycine-aspartic-acid-serine (GRGDS) was conjugated to
those channels. The density of conjugated GRGDS was not increased as the laser
irradiation time increased further. Ganglia cells were then seeded in the bulk agarose
with GRGDS channels. The cell culture results revealed the capability of laser acti-
vation to incorporate molecules within agarose for guiding cell migration.
10.3.4.2 Laser Activation of Hyaluronic Acid
Recent developments in nanobiotechnology have allowed for more sophisticated

functionalization of HA towards a variety of applications. Gold nanoparticles (gold
nanorods–GNR) are particularly attractive for laser-based treatments due to the tun-
ability of their absorbance spectra relative to the desired light source. The GNR
exhibit an interesting feature, which is their thermally-induced shape change upon
laser irradiation. This shape change results in a shift of the spectral absorbance off the
resonance with the light source, which in effect self-limits the heat generated by the
gold nanorod due to reduced light absorption [77]. Beside this engineering of mater-
ial properties Matteini et al. demonstrated the incorporation of poly(ethylene)-glycol
(PEG) encapsulated GNR within HA for use in in vivo carotid artery closure. This
approach provides an improvement over the commonly used indocyanine dye based
solders, which are less stable and susceptible to excessive diffusion at the biological
site. After topical application of the HA-GNR composite in a rabbit carotid artery
model, the site is exposed to a near-infrared diode laser (wavelength at 810 nm). Post-
operatively, the arteries demonstrated patency, and integrity of the vascular wall was
maintained. Additionally, there was no microgranuloma formation or dystrophic cal-
cification observed, which demonstrated minimal host reaction to the nanoparticles.
10.4 Summary
The laser is known as a versatile tool and its application is successfully expanded to
the processing of natural biomaterials. Various natural biomaterials, such as collagen,
agarose, hyaluronic acid, and MatrigelTM , have been treated through laser induced
polymerization, ablation, or activation. In vivo and in vitro experiments have been
conducted to demonstrate that the laser is both, effective and efficient in processing
biomaterials for biological applications. While some drawbacks remain for using
natural biomaterials, mainly due to their potential for immunogenic response and their
lack of mechanical strength, there has been progress in the development of techniques
to address these issues, such as the strengthening of natural biomaterials via cross-
linking or the incorporation of other biomaterials [20, 23]. These developments,
along with further improvements in laser processing capabilities, will continue to
expand the potential applications of natural biomaterials in biomimetic approaches.
Acknowledgments Some results in this chapter were supported by Award Number R01EB012597
from the National Institute of Biomedical Imaging And Bioengineering and grants (CMMI-
1130894, CMMI-1120795) from the National Science Foundation.
254 W. Zhang et al.
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Chapter 11
Future Perspectives
Abstract When biomimetics, which involves the translation of mechanisms

developed by nature into manmade technology, meets lasers, which come as an
emerging technology for high resolution materials processing, a technological push
rapidly growing into new and unexplored areas of application in biomimetics is
expected. Besides overcoming one of the biggest challenges of manufacturing below
the 100 nm scale with laser based solid free form methods, the next years may pri-
marily belong to the field of bioinspired multifunctional materials, since intelligent
biological functions and development of responsive biomimetic artificial materials
are still in their infancy. Therefore, more efforts will be dedicated to the integration
of laser based schemes with other processes to make functional devices or sys-
tems and to simultaneously provide unprecedented tools towards understanding the
interactions between nanomaterials and complex biological structures. Research on
intelligent natural architectures combined with evolutionary optimization is expected
to bring up novel bioinspired ideas and approaches for the realization of biomimetic
artificial materials that currently remain beyond our grasp. As laser sources con-
tinue to bedeveloped, a rich range of technical opportunities in laser based micro-
and nanofabrication, nanobiomaterial synthesis and characterization will emerge and
suggest a future where control of artificial biomaterial structure and subsequent func-
tionality can be accomplished with a level of sophistication that, presently, we cannot
imagine.
E. Stratakis (B) · A. Ranella · C. Fotakis

Institute of Electronic Structure and Laser, Foundation for Research and Technology-Hellas,
(IESL-FORTH), P.O. Box 1527, 71110 Heraklion, Greece
A. Ranella
C. Fotakis
E. Stratakis
Department of Materials Science & Technology, University of Crete, 71003 Heraklion, Greece

11.1 Future Perspectives of Biomimetics and Laser Technology
Biomimetics involves the transformation of the ideas, concepts and underlying

principles developed by nature into manmade technology. Biological systems have,
through almost 4 billion years, discovered unique solutions for complex problems
which are smart, energy-efficient, agile, adaptable, fault-tolerant, eco-friendly and
multifunctional. Such solutions came as a direct consequence of evolutionary pres-
sure which typically forces natural species to become highly optimized and efficient.
The adaptation of methods and systems found in nature into synthetic constructs is
therefore desirable and nature provides a unique source of working solutions which
can serve as models of inspiration for synthetic paradigms.
The superior functions found in natural systems are achieved through a sophis-
ticated control of structural properties at all length scales, starting from the macro-
scopic world down to the finest detail, right down to the level of atom. It is therefore
understood that progress in the field of biomimetics should come as a synergy of the
growing knowledge base of biology together with the rapidly developing ability to
synthesize, fabricate and manipulate materials’ properties at multiple length scales.
In this context, several manufacturing technologies have been developed to facilitate
the formation of biomimetic patterns on bioinspired materials. Lasers come as an
emerging technology for high resolution materials and biomaterials processing, that
is rapidly growing into new and unexplored areas of application in biomimetics. A
superior advantage of lasers is their ability to be material independent, non-invasive
and contactless processing tools that can deliver the desired quantum of energy at a
precise location irrespective of the nature and chemical bonding with minimum lat-
eral damage to the immediate environment. Furthermore the possibility of coupling
lasers with modern rapid prototyping engineering practices including computer-
aided design and manufacturing using robot-controlled and pneumatic/mechanically-
driven delivery systems enables creation of 3D components practically of any desired
dimension and geometry. The versatility is further extended in the ability of laser to
create gradient architectures with controlled porosity, composition, and microstruc-
ture, commonly found in natural systems. However, the most distinct advantage of the
applications of lasers in biomimetics is that structural or compositional modifications
can be realized within multiple length scales.
Although lasers has been proven to be a useful tool in biomimetics, new explo-
rations need to be conducted and new achievements in laser processing capabilities
should be realized to prove that this technology can progress future biomimetic arti-
ficial systems beyond the current state of the art. In this concept, intense effort will
be required for scaling up the overall processing procedure. Current laser production
techniques are valuable within a limited range of resolutions, thus future fabrication
methods must interlace 3D multiple-scale structures with exceptional controllability.
Current solid free form methods can manufacture features at scales larger than
100 nm, but there is a need for controllable fabrication at nanometer scale. This
is one of the biggest challenges of these technologies towards engineering truly bio-
mimetic hierarchically structured systems and to take full advantage of the potential
11 Future Perspectives 261
of nanofeature incorporation. Controlled structuring at multiple length scales, in a

series or, ideally, in a single processing step can be achieved via customized far field
fabrication, or through near field optical techniques and/or by sequential application
of the two. Besides this, the low throughput is the common challenge pertaining
to sub-wavelength processing techniques in particular. A possible solution might
be to implement parallel processing by means of multiple optical probes. In such
a case, ability to control each probe independently will enhance the throughput of
the system. A more versatile control strategy for handling a great number of probes
should therefore be developed.
Besides this, though current laser-based fabrication techniques of biomimetic
structures are valuable within a limited range of functions, future engineering meth-
ods must incorporate multiple functionalities within a single construct. Indeed, the
coming years may primarily belong to the field of bioinspired multifunctional mate-
rials, since the topics of understanding of intelligent biological functions and devel-
opment of responsive biomimetic artificial materials are still in their infancy. A major
complexity to overcome is the fact that intelligent natural structures do not always
function in a unique way but they adapt to local functional requirements. Therefore,
more efforts will be dedicated to the integration of laser based schemes with other
processes and components to make functional devices or systems. For example, issues
such as making an integrated device using different materials for various working
parts and effectively incorporating desired amounts of delicate functional molecules
including smart ones or active biomolecules should be addressed. The development
of dynamic feedback-control engineering mechanisms will also be extremely impor-
tant in this respect and may pave the way for sophisticated material processing.
Along these lines, the capability of manipulating small amounts of molecules
including biomolecules, may allow the realization of artificial constructs with excep-
tional complexity and functionality. Optical tweezers and laser trapping techniques
provide innovative, non-contact, means to reach this level of matter control. Laser
printing techniques provide additional capabilities in this respect. The optical nature
of such techniques affords the opportunity to incorporate machine vision and to
employ optically selective material targeting and transfer.
Laser based techniques can be applied not only on synthesis and fabrication of
novel biocompatible and/or biodegradable nanobiomaterials with complex interior
geometries, but also, on instrumentation of diagnostic tools to analyze their toxicity,
to monitor in real time the interactions of biomimetic surfaces with cells/tissues, to
detect but still able to manipulate the dispersion of nanoparticles in the body and so
on. It could also provide unprecedented tools towards understanding the interactions
between nanomaterials and complex biological structures, in strictly quantitative
terms.
On the other hand the development of advanced biofabrication methods should
work in a synergistic manner with the synthesis of novel, bioinspired, starting mate-
rials towards the realization of efficient biomimetic systems. A safe way to ensure the
success of such materials is to mimic effective mechanisms and functions that take
place in living organisms. The utilization of studies in structural features at macro-
as well as at micro- and nano-scales will provide useful information, in this respect.
Nanotechnology has given great impetus forward to the creation of biomimetic

surfaces, interfaces, materials and forms that already find application in the bio-
medical field. Current studies are focused on the modification of chemical behavior,
mechanical, electrical and optical properties at the nanoscale, introducing thus the
concept of the nanobiomaterial. Owing to the modified properties of nanobiomate-
rials compared with the respective bulk materials, especially related to the increased
surface energy and reactivity, there is a need for specific approaches of its adaptation
to existing frames, as well as its biocompatibility and toxicity. In this context, both
the interaction of nanobiomaterials with cell/tissue and the effect of size, shape, and
surface on their biocompatibility, toxicity and immunogenicity, will be an emerging
research field.
Research on intelligent natural architectures, combined with the use of the prin-
ciples of evolution for optimization, is expected to give rise to bioinspired ideas and
approaches for the realization of biomimetic artificial materials that currently remain
beyond our grasp. As ultrafast laser sources continue to be developed, a rich range
of technical opportunities in laser based micro and nanofabrication, nanobiomate-
rial synthesis and characterization, will emerge and suggest a future where control
of artificial biomaterial structure and subsequent functionality can be accomplished
with a sophistication that we cannot presently imagine.
Index
A Biological activity, 47, 185

Ablation plasma, 172 Biological lightweight structures., 158
Absorption coefficient of plasma, 172 Biological nanostructures, 68
Absorption cross section, 17 Biological organisms, 126
Acousto-optical modulators (AOM), 14 Biomaterials, 213
Additive manufacturing techniques, 44 Biomaterial thin films, 166
Adherent HA, 177 Biomedical applications, 91
Adiabatic regime, 173 Biomimetic, 67, 74, 133, 215
Agarose, 240, 245 Biomimetic artificial systems, 260
AlGaAs, 4 Biomimetic coatings, 163, 165
AlGaInP, 4 Biomimetic layer, 167
AlInGaN laser, 9 Biomimetic nanotechnology, 112
Angular distribution, 165 Biomimetic tissue engineering, 212
Antibacterial properties, 182 Biomimetic tissue scaffold, 216
Antireflection coatings, 68 Biomolecules, 102
Ar-ion laser, 4 Bio-papers, 203
Articular cartilage, 246 Bioplotting, 86
Artificial biomaterials, 214 Bio-printing, 196
Artificial biomolecules, 11 Birefringent, 68
Artificial cell niches, 204 Bone graft substitutes, 98
Ascending Voxel method, 30 Bone resorption, 184
Automotive, 156 Bone tissue engineering, 39, 98
Bone tissue regeneration, 239
Bovine serum albumin, 20, 51, 52
B Brønsted acid, 19
Bioactive glasses, 179
Bioapatite layer, 130
Bioceramic scaffold, 220 C
Bioceramics, 92 Ca-P, 99
Biocompatibility, 37, 113 Ca/P atomic ratio, 178
Biodegradability, 113 Calcium phosphate-based coatings, 166
Biodegradable 3D scaffolds, 223 Callophrys rubi, 69, 71, 75
Biodegradable polymer coatings, 126 Cancer cell invasion, 241
Biofabrication, 261 Cardiac tissue regeneration, 239
Bio-ink, 197 Carotid artery, 253
Bio-ink viscosity, 201 Carousel, 169

DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-41341-4, © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013
264 Index
Cascade ionization, 36 Design of experiments, 94

Cationic, 19 Design-freedom, 152
Cavity formation, 35 Detonation wave, 173
CD44 antigen, 241 Diffraction limit, 72
Cell adhesion, 128 Diffractive beam splitters, 41
Cell attachment and growth, 128 Diffusion length, 24
Cell chip fabrication, 207 Digital micromirror device (DMD), 242, 246
Cell culture, 46, 240 Dip-in-lithography, 44
Cell growth and proliferation, 180 Direct laser writing (DLW), 7, 22, 68, 70, 73
Cell guidance tracks, 250 Drug delivery, 101, 113
Cell printing precision, 201 Dwell time, 39
Cellular morphology, 183 Dye laser, 4
Cellular proliferation and differentiation, 132 Dynamic feedback-control, 261
Ceramic porous structures, 97 Dynamic micromirror device, 41
Characteristic frequency, 173
Chess strategy, 149
Chiral, 68, 73 E
Chiral composites, 75, 77 ECM-like architecture, 212
Chitin, 68 Einstein–Smoluchowski, 24
Circular dichroism, 73, 75, 77 Electron beam lithography, 68, 70
Circular polarization, 68 Electron density, 176
CO2 lasers, 3, 4, 87 Electron temperatures, 175
Coatings, 133 Embryonic stem cells, 204
Coating thickness, 129 Enhanced green fluorescent protein, 17
Collagen, 239 Excimer lasers, 4, 168, 173
Combinatorial-PLD, 170 Expansion of the plasma, 174
Combustion waves, 173 Extracellular matrix entities, 46, 128, 195, 222
Complex parts, 145
Composition and morphology, 124
F
Composition gradient, 170
Fibronectin, 51
Compositional libraries, 185
Filling factor, 39
Computer generated hologram, 41
Film assembling, 111
Computer tomography, 88
Frank–Condon, 18, 25
Computer-aided design, 15, 83
Freeform fabrication, 246
Congruent evaporation, 164
Frozen solvent, 120
Copolymer, 73
Fs lasers, 216
Corrosion, 130
FTIR spectra, 180
Cost savings, 145 Functional cell binding domains, 128
Cross section, 23 Functionality, 185
Cross-linked collagen, 244 Fused deposition modeling (FDM), 84, 86
D G
3D neuron network, 225 Galvanometric scanner, 40
3D nanofabrication, 70 GaN, 4
3D protein microstructure, 20 Gene delivery, 239
3D structures, 202 Gold nanoparticles, 253
3D voxel, 72 Gradient architectures, 260
Damaging effects, 35 Gradient biomaterials, 113
Deposition angle, 172 Gradient scaffold, 223
Deposition efficiency, 125 Gradient texturing, 223
Deposition substrates, 119 GRGDS, 252
Design guidelines, 153 Group velocity dispersion, 15
Index 265
Growth modes, 176 Laser based biomaterials printing, 227

Gyroid, 69, 73 Laser biomaterials processing, 216
Laser chemical vapour deposition, 9
Laser fluence, 121, 164
H Laser induced forward transfer (LIFT), 10,
He-Cd laser, 4 193, 197, 227
He-Ne laser, 4 Laser interference lithography, 7
Healing potential, 205 Laser irradiation, 119
Hepatocytes, 53 Laser printing, 116
Hierarchical, 215 Laser radiation, 6
Hierarchically structured, 260 Laser removal, 249
High resolution printing capability, 204 Laser sources, 2
High-intensity pulsed UV-lasers, 164 Laser structuring, 212
Human fibrosarcoma cells, 53 Laser systems, 121
Huygens–Fresnel principle, 31 Laser tissue welding, 246
HyalS, 251 Laser types, 3
Hyaluronic acid, 54, 240, 245 Laser-based solid free form, 212, 220
Hybrid deposition methods, 115 Laser-induced foaming, 229
Hybrid hydrogels, 240 LAT, 223
Hybrid materials, 214 Layer-by-Layer, 200, 202
Hydrogel, 21, 37, 38, 54, 202 Lithography, 70
Hydroxyapatite, 92, 166 Local cell microenvironment, 195
Local thermal equilibrium (LTE), 175
I
Immersion objective, 31
M
Implantable biosensor microdevices, 114
Implants, 92, 97 Magnetic resonance imaging, 88
In vitro tests, 179 Manufacturing restriction, 144
In vivo printing, 205 Material processing, 168
In vivo transplantation, 205 Material removal, 171
Incongruent transfer, 171 MatrigelTM, 201, 241, 248
InGaAsP, 4 Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), 250
Initiation rate, 25 Mechanical properties, 37
Injection moulded, 94 Medical, 154, 155
Inorganic biomaterials, 166 Medical device prototypes, 96
Inorganic-organic multilayers, 132 Medical robotics, 207
Integration of functions, 158 Mesenchymal stem cells, 182
Internal stresses, 144 Methacrylated HA, 246
Iridescence, 68 Microdots arrays, 248
Iterative process, 145 Microdroplet ejection, 197
Micro-explosion, 71
Microfluidic systems, 250
K Microlens arrays, 41
Knudsen layer, 173 Micro lenses, 10
Micro/nano scaffolds, 224
Microparticles, 91, 99
L Micropattern, 246
LAB workstations, 195 Microreplication, 227
Laminin, 52 Micro-stereo-lithography, 7
Large structures, 43 Microstructured scaffold, 225
Laser ablation, 163, 170, 249 Military aviation, 156
Laser additive manufacturing, 143 Mimic hierarchically, 115
Laser assisted bio-printing (LAB), 193 Mimic natural processes, 127
266 Index
Mouse cochlea, 244 Osteointegration, 128

µCT, 99 Osteoporosis, 184
Multifocus, 41 Overhangs, 144, 151, 152, 154
Multifunctional materials, 261
Multilayer deposition, 133
Multilayer films, 165 P
Multilayers, 118 Pachymetry, 249
Multi-photon based laser lithography, 8 Parallel material transfer, 10
Multi-photon ionization, 36 Particulates, 165
Multistructures, 118 Photoactivation, 21, 50
µ-stereolithography, 44 Photobiotin, 54
Photochemical reactions, 22
Photo-crosslinkable biomaterials, 214
Photocrosslinking, 20, 50, 51
N
Photoinhibition, 72
Nano-assembling, 115, 126
Photoinitiator, 19
Nano-bioceramics, 99
Photolithographic techniques, 242
Nanobiomaterials, 261
Photon flux, 23
Nanocomposite, 102
Photopolymer, 221
Nanocomposite scaffolds, 92, 94
Photopolymerization, 19, 50, 71, 243
Nano-crystalline material, 177
Photoreduction, 71
Nanofibrous network, 230
Physical-chemical and biological characteriza-
Nanophotonics, 69
tions, 176
Nanosecond laser, 196
Plasma plume, 163
Nanostructure feature, 126
PLD targets, 169
Nanostructured biomimetic CaP, 177 Pockels cells, 14
Nanostructured thin films, 129 Polarization, 18
Nanotechnology, 262 Polarization sensitive vision, 68
Nanotranslation, 75 Polarization stop bands, 73
Natural biomaterials, 227 Polyethyleneglycol, 37
Natural biopolymers, 11, 215 Poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate, 248
Nd:Glass, 4, 5 Polymer film, 124
Nd:YAG, 4, 5, 9, 20, 91, 169 Polymerization, 19, 27
Nd:YLF, 5 Polymers, 113
Negative type resist, 9 Porous Al2 O3 substrates, 181
Neuroblasts, 251 Powders, 88
NIR femtosecond lasers, 245 2PP, 222
Nozzle free set up, 201 Printing resolution, 199
Numerical aperture, 14, 23, 29 Process speed, 39
Process substitution, 158
Productivity, 154
O Propagation of the plume, 171
Open porosity, 182 Prosthesis, 96
Optical breakdown, 35 Protein, 38
Optical emission spectroscopy, 174 Protein crosslinking, 31
Optical penetration depth, 171 Protein films, 124
Optimization, 157 Protein microstructures, 51
Optimized geometries, 145 Prototypes, 94
Organic/inorganic hybrid, 223 Pull-out test, 179
Ormocer, 48–50, 54, 72, 222 Pulse broadening, 15
Ormocomp, 48, 49, 54, 222 Pulsed laser deposition, 164
Orthoses, 96 Pulsed laser source, 197
Osseointegrative, 155 Pulse duration, 23
Osteoblasts, 130, 167, 184 Pulse energy, 39
Index 267
R Synthetic biomaterials, 97
Radical concentration, 26 Synthetic polymers, 53
Rapid prototyping, 83, 116, 196
Rate equation, 36
Refractive index, 30 T
Repeatability, 154 Thin coatings, 119
RHAMM, 241 Three-dimensional biological structures, 193
Rose Bengal, 244 Three-dimensional design, 126
Roughness, 122 Three-dimensional patterning, 242
Threshold fluence, 171
Ti:sapphire, 4, 14, 169, 244
S Tissue, 37, 46, 97, 193, 205, 213, 215
Scaffold master moulds, 227 Tissue engineering, 46, 89, 97, 112, 240
Scaffolds, 11, 90, 98 Titanium, 97
Scan strategies, 149 Tool, 155
Selective laser melting, 89 Topology optimizations, 157
Selective laser sintering (SLS) technique, 220 TPP, 84
Self-assembling, 70, 73 Transition rate, 23
Shock absorbance, 201 Transplants, 206
Shrinkage, 33 Two photon absorption, 16, 25, 71
Single shot exposure, 8 Two photon transition rate, 17
SLS, 83, 84, 93
Solid free form, 220, 260
Solid frozen target, 120
U
Solid-isotropic-material-with-penalization,
Ultrafast laser, 71
157
Uniform cell coverage, 182
Spatial resolution, 41
Urethane acrylates, 28
Spherical aberration, 30
Srs-networks, 68, 69, 73, 75
Stem cells, 241
Stepwise, 143 V
Stereolithography apparatus (SLA), 84, 221 Vapor bubble, 198
Stimulated emission depletion, 42, 72 Varicose veins, 244
STL, 84 Velocity of the plasma front, 176
Stoichiometric thin films, 164 Virtual material development, 155
Stripe strategy, 149 Viscosity, 32
Structural colors, 2 Voxel formation, 27, 29
Structural optimization, 156 Voxel sizes, 28
SU-8, 34
Superheated, 6
Supersaturation, 176 W
Support structures, 144 Weight saving, 159
Surface microrelief, 182 Wetting behavior, 2
Surface selective laser sintering, 91
Surface topography, 183
Surgical planning, 95 Y
Suspended bridge method, 30 Young’s modulus, 37

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Biological and Medical Physics, Biomedical Engineering

For further volumes:

ISSN 1618-7210 ISSN 2197-5647 (electronic)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2013956322

Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013

Printed on acid-free paper

Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)

Chapter 3 deals with direct 3D laser writing of bio-inspired materials related to

Weiz, Austria Maria R. Belegratis

1 Introduction and Scope of the Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 1

2 Direct Laser Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 13

2.7.2 Photopolymerisation of Synthetic Polymers

3 Biomimetic Photonic Materials by Direct Laser Writing . . . .... 67

4 Selective Laser Sintering and Its Biomedical Applications . . .... 83

5 Biomimetic Assemblies by Matrix-Assisted Pulsed

6 Laser Additive Manufacturing of Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 143

7 Biomimetic Coatings by Pulsed Laser Deposition. . . . ......... 163

8 Laser Assisted Bio-printing (LAB) of Cells and Bio-materials

9 Laser-Based Biomimetic Tissue Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

9.2.2 Laser-Based Methodologies for Biomimetic

10 Laser Processing of Natural Biomaterials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 237

11 Future Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

Maria R. Belegratis Institute for Surface Technologies and Photonics, Joanneum

DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid

LAT Laser ablation texturing

Volker Schmidt and Maria R. Belegratis

1.1 Biomimetics as Inspiration for Laser-Based Methods

The term “biomimetics” commonly defines the understanding of natural structures

V. Schmidt · M. R. Belegratis (B)

V. Schmidt and M. R. Belegratis (eds.), Laser Technology in Biomimetics, 1

1.1.1 Laser Sources

requirements, handling, ease of operation, technical complexity, and automation.

1.1.1.1 CO2 Lasers

1.1.1.2 Excimer Lasers

1.1.1.3 Nd:YAG, Nd:YLF, Nd:Glass Lasers

1.1.1.4 Ti:Sapphire Lasers

1.1.2 Laser Processing

1.1.3 Biomimetic Processes Involving Laser Radiation

moderate high veryhigh

• temperature • melting and • local • local

Fig. 1.1 Mechanisms in solid target material at increasing laser intensity

processes like photocrosslinking, photopolymerization, or photoactivation associated

1.1.3.2 Biomimetic Laser-Based Coating and Deposition Methods

1.1.3.3 Biomimetic Laser-Based Biomaterial Processing and Tissue

1. Steindorfer MA, Schmidt V, Belegratis M, Stadlober B, Krenn JR (2012) Detailed simulation

In his satirical novella “Flatland: A Romance of Many Dimensions”, published 1884,

V. Schmidt and M. R. Belegratis (eds.), Laser Technology in Biomimetics, 13

to understand, or even impossible to analyze if the third dimension is not accounted

2.2 Experimental Setup

Since a mode-locked laser source provides a continuous pulse-train and hence

2.3 Two Photon Absorption

(Franck-Condon principle), the molecule undergoes internal conversion until reach-

described 1931 by Maria Göppert-Mayer through second order perturbation theory

ωk + ωl − ωi − ωe = 0

2.4 Chemical Processes for Direct Laser Writing

Polymerization describes a chain reaction in which monomers are translated into

which then results in a chain propagation in the form of

resembles that of radical polymerization; however, cationic polymerization possesses

Photocrosslinking is closely related to photopolymerization, but the involved

2.5 Principles of Direct Laser Writing