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Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 459–495

www.elsevier.com/locate/pecs

Combined cooling, heating and power: A review

D.W. Wu, R.Z. Wang
Institute of Refrigeration and Cryogenics, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Dongchuan Road 800, Shanghai 200240, China
Received 25 July 2005; accepted 28 February 2006
Available online 21 August 2006

Abstract

Combined cooling, heating and power (CCHP) systems, including various technologies, provide an alternative
for the world to meet and solve energy-related problems, such as energy shortages, energy supply security,
emission control, the economy and conservation of energy, etc. In the first part of this paper, the definition and
benefits of CCHP systems are clarified; then the characteristics of CCHP technologies—especially technical
performances—are presented, as well as the status of utilization and developments. In the third part, diverse
CCHP configurations of existing technologies are presented, particularly four typical systems of various size ranges.
The worldwide status quo of CCHP development is briefly introduced by dividing the world into four main
sections: the US, Europe, Asia and the Pacific and rest of the world. It is concluded that, within decades, promising CCHP
technologies can flourish with the cooperative efforts of governments, energy-related enterprises and professional
associations.
r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Combined cooling, heating and power; Technologies; Developments worldwide

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
2. Status and developments of CCHP technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
2.1. Prime movers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
2.1.1. Steam turbines [1,18,19] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
2.1.2. Reciprocating internal combustion engines [1,6,7,18,20–22]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
2.1.3. Combustion turbines [1,6,18,21–24] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
2.1.4. Micro-turbines [1,6,7,15,18,20,24,25]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
2.1.5. Stirling engines [1,6,18,20] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
2.1.6. Fuel cells [1,6,7,15,18,20,22,24,26,27] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
2.2. Thermally activated technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
2.2.1. Absorption chillers [13,22,28–31] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
2.2.2. Adsorption chillers [32–38] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
2.2.3. Desiccant dehumidifiers [3,13,31] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
2.2.4. Other options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472

Corresponding author. Tel.: +86 21 34206776; fax: +86 21 34206056.

E-mail address: [email protected] (R.Z. Wang).

0360-1285/$ - see front matter r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.pecs.2006.02.001
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460 D.W. Wu, R.Z. Wang / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 459–495

3. Typical CCHP systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473

3.1. Diverse configurations of CCHP systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
3.2. Representative CCHP systems in use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
3.2.1. Micro systems (under 20 kW). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
3.2.2. Small-scale systems (20 kW–1 MW) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
3.2.3. Medium systems (1–10 MW) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
3.2.4. Large-scale systems (above 10 MW) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
4. Development of CCHP around the world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
4.1. United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
4.2. Europe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
4.2.1. Austria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
4.2.2. Denmark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
4.2.3. Finland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
4.2.4. The Netherlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
4.2.5. France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
4.2.6. Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
4.2.7. Hungary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
4.2.8. Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
4.2.9. Poland. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
4.2.10. Spain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
4.2.11. Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
4.2.12. UK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
4.3. Asia and the Pacific . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
4.3.1. China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
4.3.2. Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
4.3.3. India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
4.3.4. Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
4.4. Other countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
5. Discussions and conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493

1. Introduction and useful thermal energy from the same primary

energy source [1]. A slight difference between CCHP
Combined cooling, heating and power (CCHP), is and CHP is that thermal or electrical/mechanical
derived from combined heat and power (CHP, also energy is further utilized to provide space or process
called cogeneration1)—a proven and reliable technol- cooling capacity in a CCHP application. In some
ogy with a history of more than 100 years, which was literature, CCHP systems are also referred to as tri-
utilized mainly in large-scale centralized power plants generation and building cooling heating and power
and industrial applications. The conventional way to (BCHP) systems [2–4]. CCHP can be defined as a more
provide electricity and heat is to purchase electricity extensive concept than CHP is. In winter, many CCHP
from the local grid and generate heat by burning fuel in systems can be seen as CHP units, when there is no
a boiler. But in a CHP system, by-product heat, which cooling demand of building air-conditioning. In other
can be as much as 60–80% of total primary energy in words, CHP system is CCHP without any thermally
combustion-based electricity generation, is recycled for activated equipments for generating cooling power,
different uses. Typically, CHP is defined as the though this difference will change the structure of
combined production of electrical (or mechanical), systems to some extent.
1
In general, recent development of CCHP systems
Most literature lists statistics of CHP/cogeneration instead of
CCHP. In fact, data of CHP/cogeneration with cooling options
is related to the emergence of DER2 (distributed/
count these statistics in most cases, though these applications
2
only take a small fraction of the gross. For a better description of Other similar abbreviations in the literature are DP (dis-
these systems, the term CHP/cogeneration is substituted by tributed/decentralized power) and DG (distributed generation/
CCHP in most part of this article. decentralized generation), which is slightly different from DER.
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D.W. Wu, R.Z. Wang / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 459–495 461

Nomenclature BCHP building cooling heating and power

DER distributed/decentralized energy
Tri-generation resources
DP distributed/decentralized power
CCHP combined cooling heating and power DG distributed generation/ decentralized
generation
Cogeneration

CHP combined heating and power

decentralized energy resources)—a novel technical

concept in energy supply. DER is defined as an
electricity-generation system located in or near user
facilities, which provides electrical and thermal energy
simultaneously to meet local users in top-priority.
Certain factors, such as various rated capacities,
ownership of systems, technologies employed and types
of connection with utility grids, are not critical in a
consensus definition of DER. According to some Fig. 1. Categories of CCHP and DER.
reports, DER can be divided into two major sections
[5,6]. The first section is high-efficiency CHP or CCHP
systems in industry and buildings throughout the
world, using prime mover technologies as reciprocating There is no clear borderline between two cate-
engines, gas turbines, micro-turbines, steam turbines, gories. CCHP systems can cover a wide range of
Stirling engines and fuel cells. The second major area of capacity from 1 kW to 500 MW. Most centralized
DER is on-site renewable energy systems with energy power plants and industries applying cogeneration
recycling technologies, including photovoltaic and exceed 1 MW. The capacity of distributed CCHP
biomass systems, on-site wind and water turbine gene- systems ranges from less than 1 kW in domestic
rators, plus systems powered by gas pressure reduction, dwellings to more than 10 MW in hospitals or
exhaust heat from industrial processes, and other low- university campuses, and as much as 300 MW to
energy content combustibles from various processes. supply energy to a district of a city [7,8]. One report
Due to the relationship between traditional CHP defines ‘‘everything under 1 MW’’ as ‘‘small-scale’’.
and novel DER (Fig. 1), CCHP systems are ‘‘Mini’’ usage is under 500 kW and ‘‘micro’’ use is
classified into two categories: under 20 kW’’ [9].
A typical CCHP system is showed in Fig. 2. It is
comprised of a gas engine, a generator and an
1. Traditional large-scale CCHP applications (pre- absorption chiller. The engine is driven by natural
dominantly CHP systems without cooling op- gas and the mechanical energy is further changed
tions) in centralized power plants or large into electricity power by the generator. At the same
industries; time, the absorption chiller to generate cooling
2. Relatively small capacity distributed CCHP units power in summer and heating power in winter
with advanced prime mover and thermally utilizes exhaust gas and jacket water derived from
activated technologies3 to meet multiple energy the engine. If waste heat from engine is not enough
demands in commercial, institutional, residential for users, a combustor in absorption chiller can
and small industrial sections. burn natural gas as a supplement. Thus, the energy
3
demands of cooling, heating and electrical power in
Thermally activated technologies: technologies that are able to
a building or a district can be met by this system
use waste heat as a fuel and offer the chance to replace electric air
conditioning and/or dehumidification loads with thermal loads, simultaneously.
such as absorption chiller, adsorption chiller and desiccant Compared with the energy supply mode of large
dehumidifiers. centralized power plant and local air-conditioning
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462 D.W. Wu, R.Z. Wang / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 459–495

Fig. 2. Typical CCHP system.

system, distributed CCHP systems will receive more

attention, because—along with the developing
tendency and promising prospects—they possess
some advantages, which traditional energy supplies
do not share [1,9–13].
First, overall fuel energy utilization has dramati-
cally improved, ranging from 70% to more than
90% compared with 30–45% of typical centralized
power plants. In general, less primary energy is
needed to obtain the same amount of electricity and
thermal energy. In addition to the saving in primary
energy, vast reductions in net fuel costs, transmis-
sion and distribution savings can be achieved.
A theoretical calculation of prime energy utilization
based on traditional energy supply mode and typical
CCHP system as Fig. 2 can be seen in Figs. 3 and 4. If
end user needs 33 units of electrical power, 40 units of Fig. 3. Energy flow of traditional supply mode.
cooling power and 15 units of heating power in a
summer day, 148 units of prime energy are consumed
in a traditional way. Centralized power plant runs at
the efficiency of 33% and 100 units of prime energy
are used to generate 33 units of electrical power.
Traditional boiler burns 18 units fuel to heat 15 units
of domestic hot water at the efficiency of 85%.
Electrical air-conditioner driven by 10 units of
electrical power can generate 40 units of cooling
power at COP of 4. However, consider the efficiency
of electricity generation in power plant, 30 units of
prime energy is needed in all for space cooling.
Based on a typical CCHP system shown in Fig. 2,
only 100 units of prime energy are needed for 33
units of electrical power, 40 units of cooling power Fig. 4. Energy flow of typical CCHP system.
and 15 units of heating power in a summer day. The
electricity generation efficiency of CCHP system is Thirty four units of waste heat in the form of
similar to centralized power plant, because electri- exhaust gas and machine coolant are used to drive
city is consumed locally without loss on distribution an absorption chiller at COP of 1.2, thus 40 units of
lines, though small-scale prime mover is less efficient cooling power can be obtained. And another 18
than large prime mover in power plant. The units of waste heat can be recovered to heat 15 units
keystone of full energy utilization of CCHP system domestic water at the efficiency of 85% similar to
lies on the recovery of waste heat from prime mover. the efficiency of a boiler. Compared with traditional
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D.W. Wu, R.Z. Wang / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 459–495 463

energy supply mode, CCHP system can save 48 moreover, novel adsorption chillers—currently al-
units of prime energy to meet the same demand of most entirely for commercial use—can be another
cooling, heating and power. choice for small CCHP systems. Some existing
The second benefit of distributed CCHP systems systems also apply electric chillers, or engine-driven
is emission reduction; viewed from two aspects and chillers integrated with prime movers, to fulfill
sorted by different prime movers. Some prime cooling demands, which, combined with thermally
movers with new technologies, like fuel cells and activated technologies, are the cooling or dehumi-
micro-turbines exhaust much less emissions (includ- dification options of CCHP systems in some of the
ing NOx, CO2), than do traditional technologies literature.
from centralized power plants. Other prime movers, Different prime movers, connecting with different
equipped in CCHP systems with smaller capacity cooling or dehumidification options, can result in
than their larger counterparts in centralized power various kinds of CCHP systems in theory, but only
plants, emit somewhat more NOx and CO2 per several modes of combination are widely adopted in
kW electricity generated. Nevertheless, the pro- commercial markets; other promising possibilities
motion of energy efficiency—CCHP systems should are being investigated to overcome technological or
be encouraged at this time: burning significantly economic problems.
less fuel to meet the same demand results in In the next two parts of this paper, brief reviews
significant emission reduction, which surely over- of prime mover technologies, cooling and dehumi-
rides the additional emissions caused by the slight dification options and various CCHP system modes,
decrease in converting efficiency in small-scale with four typical examples are presented in
prime movers. sequence, to present a clear picture of current
Last, but of equal importance, CCHP systems CCHP technologies.
increase the reliability of the energy supply network. Although governments worldwide, experts, man-
Obviously, generation/distribution systems can mal- ufacturers and users have acknowledged that CCHP
function: weather and terrorism are fatal threats to systems are the current development trend in energy
centralized power plants. A smaller, more flexible supply, the share of decentralized power generation
and dispersed system, CCHP might prevent these (including CCHP systems) in the world market
threats from becoming reality, and controlled remains at around 7%—unchanged between 2001
repercussions and fast recovery could be achieved and 2003 [14]. The distributed CCHP market of the
if these situations occurred. A study following the US grew significantly until 2002, but since then it
11 September attacks suggested that a system based has slowed sharply in the face of high natural gas
more on distributed generation plants may be five prices and persistent regulatory barriers. The
times less sensitive to systematic attack than a European distributed CCHP market was flat in last
centralized power system [14]. 4 years. Although some developing country markets
A typical CCHP system consists of five basic are beginning to emerge, including China, Brazil
elements: the prime mover; electricity generator; and India, it is presumed that the boom in these
heat recovery system; thermally activated equip- burgeoning markets will take much more time and
ment and the management and control system. effort than markets in developed countries. The
According to current technologies, options in prime obstacles come from every direction: technology
movers can be steam turbines, reciprocating internal performance, costs, policies, regulations and market
combustion engines, combustion turbines, micro- demands. The year 2004 can be viewed as a turning
turbines, Stirling engines and fuel cells; the last three point of low growth in CCHP market worldwide.
prime movers are relatively new technologies devel- A WADE survey, forecasts that growth will be
oped in last decade. Any of these options can be reinforced by the probable introduction of the
selected to meet diverse demands and limitations European Union Emissions Trading Scheme in
from site-to-site, especially local heat and electricity January 2005, which is expected to further increase
profiles, regional emissions and noise regulations power prices. In the fourth chapter of this paper, the
and installation restrictions. Thermally activated status of CCHP system development worldwide is
equipment is another part of CCHP systems, to presented; the world is divided into the US, Europe,
provide cooling or dehumidification. Commercia- Asia and the Pacific and other countries, for a
lized thermally activated technologies include ab- review of existing or potential markets, and to
sorption chillers and desiccant dehumidifiers; present a forecast and analysis.
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2. Status and developments of CCHP technologies include low electrical efficiency, slow start-up time,
and poor partial load performance. As a result,
CCHP technologies include components relating steam turbines are more popular in large central
to energy conversion, recovery and management. plant utilities or industrial cogenerations than in
Among these technologies, prime movers obviously distributed energy applications, although some
play a critical role; they are the keystones of CCHP claims are made that future ‘‘plug and play’’
systems and, to some extent, they determine turbines will operate with fractional kW outputs,
possibilities and availability of other related tech- wherever steam pressure is reduced [6].
nologies. As for the importance of thermal activated
options, these alternative technologies dramatically 2.1.2. Reciprocating internal combustion engines
shift the energy utilization of energy conversion [1,6,7,18,20– 22]
systems compared to conventional electrical power Two types of internal combustion engines are
systems. Therefore, the following paragraphs focus currently in use; spark ignition engines, which are
on these two major aspects of CCHP systems, operated mainly with natural gas (although biogas
especially the advantages, drawbacks and develop- or landfill gas can also be used); and compression
ing trends of these technologies. ignition engines, which can use diesel fuel, as well as
other petroleum products, such as heavy fuel oil or
2.1. Prime movers biodiesel. Reciprocating engines are a proven
technology with a range of size and the lowest first
There are several ways to classify prime mover capital costs of all CCHP systems. In addition to
technologies, based on fuel used, technical maturity, fast start-up capability and good operating relia-
market shares or capacity range. Although quite a bility, high efficiency at partial load operation give
few newly emerging technologies appear to be users a flexible power source, allowing for a range of
promising, reciprocating internal combustion en- different energy applications—especially emergency
gines, steam turbines and combustion turbines that or standby power supplies. Reciprocating engines
can be considered conventional prime movers still are by far the most commonly used power genera-
make up most of the gross capacity being installed tion equipment under 1 MW.
[9,15]. In addition, fuel cells, Stirling engines and Although they are a mature technology, recipro-
micro-turbines, mainly gas driven, present a pro- cating engines have obvious drawbacks. Relatively
mising future for prime movers [9,15–17]. Brief high vibrations require shock absorption and
introductions follow and major parameters and shielding measures to reduce acoustic noise. A large
performance of these prime movers can be refer- number of moving parts, and frequent maintenance
enced in Table 2, at the end of this section. intervals, increase maintenance costs, strongly off-
setting fuel efficiency advantages. In addition, full
2.1.1. Steam turbines [1,18,19] utilization of the various heat sources with diverse
Steam turbines are the most common technology temperature levels in CCHP applications is difficult.
used in power plants and industries. Depending Moreover, high emissions—particularly nitrogen
upon the exit pressure of the steam, steam turbines oxides—are the underlying aspect of this technol-
fall into two types: backpressure turbines and ogy, which need improvement. Major manufac-
condensing turbines. Backpressure turbines operate turers around the world continuously develop new
with an exit pressure at least equal to atmospheric engines with lower emissions; at the same time,
pressure, and are suitable for some sites with a emissions control options, such as selective catalytic
steam demand of intermediate pressure. Condensing reduction (SCR), have been utilized to reduce
turbines have the advantage of changing electrical emissions.
and thermal power independently and they work
with an exit pressure lower than atmospheric 2.1.3. Combustion turbines [1,6,18,21– 24]
pressure. In theory, steam turbines equipped with Combustion turbines are frequently used prime
a suitable boiler can be run on any kind of fuel. As a movers in larger-scale cogenerations due to their
mature technology, steam turbines have an extre- high reliability and large range of power. Sets
mely long life and, with proper operating and smaller than 1 MW have so far been generally
maintenance, are very reliable. However, several uneconomical because of their low electrical effi-
problems limit their further application, which ciency and consequent high cost per kWe output.
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Combustion turbines are easier to install than steam Micro-turbines can be used as a distributed
turbines and they have the added benefit of being energy resource for power producers and consu-
less area intensive, with lower capital costs; main- mers, including industrial, institutional, commercial
tenance costs are slightly lower than reciprocating and even residential users of electricity in the future.
engines, but so is their electrical efficiency. Emis- Moreover, the heat produced by a micro-turbine
sions are somewhat lower than that of reciprocating can be used to produce low-pressure steam or hot
engines, and cost-effective NOx emissions-control water for on-site requirements.
technology is commercially available.
Combustion turbine exhaust—typically around
2.1.5. Stirling engines [1,6,18,20]
540 1C—can be used to support the combustion of
Compared to conventional internal combustion
additional fuel. This technology is called supple-
engine, Stirling engine is an external combustion
mentary firing, and it can raise the temperature of
device. The cycle medium—generally helium or
exhaust gas more than 1000 1C and increase the
hydrogen—is not exchanged during each cycle, but
amount of high-pressure steam produced. Using
within the device, while the energy driving the cycle
produced steam to power a steam turbine is known
is applied externally. Stirling engines can operate on
as a combined-cycle gas turbine (CCGT), with
almost any fuel (gasoline, alcohol, natural gas or
higher net electrical efficiency (35–55%), which is
butane), with external combustion that facilitates
appropriate for public utility companies and in-
the control of the combustion process and results in
dustrial plants.
low air emissions, low noise and more efficient
The major disadvantages of combustion turbine
process. In addition, best in class machines fewer
are described below. Combustion turbines require
moving parts compared to conventional engines
premium fuels, especially natural gas, which histori-
limit wear on components and reduce vibration
cally has high price volatility. The high tempera-
levels.
tures involved lead to demanding standard of
Stirling engine technology is still in its develop-
materials with higher production costs. Addition-
ment; no statistical data on availability is therefore
ally, turbine performance is significantly reduced at
available. High cost also prevents popularization of
higher altitudes or during periods of high ambient
this technology. Nevertheless, the promising pro-
temperatures.
spects of Stirling engines stimulate further research,
especially for CCHP applications. Small size and
2.1.4. Micro-turbines [1,6,7,15,18,20,24,25]
quiet operation mean that they will integrate well
Micro-turbines extend combustion turbine tech-
into residential or portable applications. Some
nology to smaller scales. They are primarily fuelled
literature indicates the possibility of using a solar
with natural gas, but they can also operate with
dish to heat the Stirling engine, thus potentially
diesel, gasoline or other similar high-energy fuels.
eliminating the need for combustion of a fuel.
Research on biogas is ongoing. Micro-turbines have
only one moving part; they use air bearings and they
do not need lubricating oil, although they have 2.1.6. Fuel cells [1,6,7,15,18,20,22,24,26,27]
extremely high rotational speed, up to 120,000 rpm. Fuel cells are quiet, compact power generators
A striking characteristic is their flexibility that without moving parts, which use hydrogen and
small-scale individual units can be combined readily oxygen to make electricity and; at the same time,
into large systems of multiple units. Additionally, can provide heat for a wide range of applications. In
there are environmental advantages, such as lower general, fuel cells show high electrical efficiencies
combustion temperatures assuring low NOx emis- under varying load and; thus, result in low
sions levels and less noise than an engine of emissions. The transportation sector is the major
comparable size. potential market for fuel cells. Power generation,
This technology has been commercialized only however, seems to be another promising market in
recently and is offered by a small number of which fuel cells could be quickly commercialized.
suppliers. The main disadvantages at this stage are Five major fuel cell technologies listed below have
its short track record and high first costs compared the most attractive prospects. In reality, with the
with reciprocating engines. Other issues include exception of PAFC, no fuel cells are yet completely
relatively low electrical efficiency and sensitivity of commercially viable; a total capacity of over 40 MW
efficiency to changes in ambient conditions. PAFC having been installed worldwide. A detail
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Table 1
Characteristics of fuel cells [6,20,18,26]

PEMFC AFC PAFC MCFC SOFC

Charge carrier H+ ions OH
ions H+ ions CO3¼ ions O ¼ ions

Type of electrolyte Polymeric membrane Aqueous Phosphoric acid Phosphoric acid Stabilized zirconia
potassium solutions (immobilized ceramic matrix with
hydroxide soaked liquid) free oxide ions
in a matrix
Typical construction Plastic, metal or Plastic, metal Carbon, porous High temp Ceramic, high temp
carbon ceramics metals, porous metals
ceramic
Catalyst Platinum Platinum Platinum Nickel Parasites
Oxidant Air or O2 Purified air or O2 Air or O2- Air Air
enriched air
Fuel Hydrocarbons or Clean hydrogen Hydrocarbons or Clean hydrogen, Natural gas or
methanol or hydrazine alcohols nature gas, propane
propane, diesel
Operational 50–100 1C 60–80 1C 100–200 1C 600–700 1C 600–1000 1C
temperature
Size range 3–250 kW 10–200 kW 100–200 kW 250 kW–5 MW 1–10 MW
Electrical efficiencya 30–50% 32–70% 40–55% 55–57% 50–60%
Primary CO, sulfur and NH3 CO, CO2 and CO41%, sulfur Sulfur Sulfur
contaminants sulfur
a
Electrical efficiencies are based on values for hydrogen fuel and do not include electricity required for hydrogen reforming.

comparison of the characteristics of these fuel cells available non-precious metal electrodes, and high
appears in Table 1. efficiency, up to 70%. However, the primary
disadvantage is the tendency to absorb carbon
2.1.6.1. Proton exchange membrane fuel cell dioxide, converting the alkaline electrolyte to an
(PEMFC). PEMFCs are quite simple and can be aqueous carbonate electrolyte that is less conduc-
made very small to adjust to variable power tive. Thus, the fuel input must be restricted to pure
demands. They are easier to start up and they apply hydrogen, which limits applications to those in
solid electrolyte that reduces corrosion. At the same which pure hydrogen are available. If the CO2 is
time, the low operating temperature requires the use removed from fuel and oxygen streams, the operat-
of an expensive platinum catalyst, and limits ing costs are much greater. Although the attractive-
cogeneration potential. As for the fuel sources, this ness of AFC has declined substantially with the
fuel cell technology is highly sensitive to fuel pursuit of improved PEMFC technology, recent
impurities and hydrogen storage; delivery and developers still believe that AFC can be used for
reforming technology has yet to evolve. PEMFCs many applications, such as stationary power gen-
appear to be the choice for automotive applications. eration, and mobile applications including both
The advantage of being small allows application for marine and road vehicles.
laptops, mobile phones and other portable appli-
ances. With relatively low-quality waste heat, the 2.1.6.3. Phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC). PAFCs
PEMFC is unlikely to be widely used for high are the most mature of the technologies in
voltage stationary power generation; but small-scale commercial production, although its costs remain
domestic CCHP applications—the simplest thermal uncompetitive with other non-fuel cell technologies.
load of which is hot water—would be considerable. Hydrogen is still the ultimate fuel for the reaction in
the PAFC, but various fuels, including natural gas,
2.1.6.2. Alkaline fuel cell (AFC). AFCs were the LPG and methanol, can be used as raw input
first fuel cells used on spacecrafts and space shuttles. converted by a reformer. Other advantages are
The technology has obvious merits, such as low resistance to fuel impurities, and the ability to use a
operating temperature, rapid start-up time, readily less expensive catalyst. The drawbacks of this fuel
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D.W. Wu, R.Z. Wang / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 459–495 467

cell include a lower efficiency than other fuel cell 2.2. Thermally activated technologies
technologies and corrosive liquid electrolyte. In
2002, over 200 commercial units were manufac- An important difference between CCHP systems
tured, delivered and operated in the US, Europe and and conventional cogenerations is that CCHP
Japan. In the near future, with lower operating systems—including some cooling or dehumidifica-
temperatures, PAFC would be ideal for small and tion components—provide not only electricity and
mid-size power plants, replacing large electrical heating but also cooling capacity for space air-
generators and other types of CCHP utilities in conditioning or process. These cooling or dehumi-
hospitals, hotels and airports. dification options can employ advanced thermally
activated technologies as well as traditional tech-
nologies. But recent research indicates that ther-
2.1.6.4. Molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFC). A
mally activated technologies are favored, as the
MCFC uses a molten carbonate salt mixture as its
overall efficiency of CCHP systems is enhanced by
electrolyte. The composition of the electrolyte
their application. In addition to high primary fuel
varies, but usually consists of lithium carbo-
efficiency, other benefits such as low emissions and
nate and potassium carbonate, which is chemi-
net cost reduction are also achieved with thermally
cally aggressive and puts strain on the stability
activated technologies (Table 2).
and wear of the cell components. As a result,
Major thermally activated technologies include
MCFC is more expensive than either SOFC or
absorption chillers, adsorption chillers and desic-
PEMFC in terms of capital cost. Fuel reforming of
cant dehumidifiers. These cooling and dehumidifi-
MCFC occurs inside the stack and tolerates
cation systems can be driven by steam, hot water or
impurities; therefore, this technology may use a
hot exhaust gas derived from prime movers.
variety of fuels. In addition, the high operating
However, waste heat from various prime movers
temperature allows for combined heat and power
falls into different temperature ranges; at the same
generation and high fuel-to-electricity efficiency.
time, cooling and dehumidification systems have
Nevertheless, the long start-up time to reach
their own suitable working temperature. As a result,
operating temperatures, and poorer flexibility in
best pairing of recoverable energy streams with
output, make MCFC ideally suited to base load
thermally driven technologies is shown in Table 3.
power generation where continuous operation is
necessary, such as heavy industries and national
2.2.1. Absorption chillers [13,22,28– 31]
electrical grid networks.
Absorption chillers are one of the commercialized
thermally activated technologies widely applied in
2.1.6.5. Solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC). Due to all- existing CCHP systems; they are similar to vapor
solid-state ceramic construction, SOFCs share compression chillers, with a few key differences. The
important characteristics, such as stability and basic difference is that a vapor compression chiller
reliability. A variety of hydrocarbon fuels can be uses a rotating device (electric motor, engine,
used, like gasoline, methanol and natural gas. As combustion turbine or steam turbine), to raise the
another asset, the high operating temperature pressure of refrigerant vapors, while an absorption
makes internal reforming possible and removes chiller uses heat to compress the refrigerant vapors
the need for a catalyst, and also produces high- to a high pressure. Therefore, this ‘‘thermal
grade waste heat suited well to CCHP applications. compressor’’ has no moving parts.
But the high temperature also creates some diffi- Basic absorption cycle is illustrated in Fig. 5.
culties: expensive alloys for components are re- After the evaporator of absorption chiller generates
quired, a very long time is needed for the electrolyte cooling power, vapor generated in the evaporator is
to heat and flexible small applications are diffi- absorbed into a liquid absorbent in the absorber.
cult. Start-up time is less of an issue for stationary The absorbent that has taken up refrigerant with
and continuous applications. SOFCs generally spent or weak absorbent is pumped to the gen-
achieve around 60% efficiency in an average erator. The refrigerant is released again as a vapor
5 MW plant, compared to around 30% for a by waste heat from steam, hot water or hot exhaust
traditional gas turbine. The last critical problem gas, and vapor is to be condensed in the condenser.
that prevents its commercialization is the compara- The regenerated or strong absorbent is then led
tively high costs of SOFC. back to the absorber to pick up refrigerant vapor
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Table 2
Characteristics and parameters of prime movers in CCHP systems [1,6,11,15,16,18,20]

Steam turbines Diesel engines Spark ignition Combustion Micro-turbines Stirling engines Fuel cells
engines turbines

Capacity range 50 kW–500 MW 5 kW–20 MW 3 kW–6 MW 250 kW –50 MW 15–300 kW 1 kW–1.5M W 5 kW–2 MW
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Fuel used Any Gas, propane, Gas, biogas, Gas, propane, Gas, propane, Any (gas, alcohol, Hydrogen and
distillate oils, liquid fuels, distillate oils, distillate oils, butane, biogas) fuels containing
biogas propane biogas biogas hydrocarbons
Efficiency electrical 7–20 35–45 25–43 25–42 15–30 40 37–60
(%)
Efficiency overall (%) 60–80 65–90 70–92 65–87 60–85 65–85 85–90
Power to heat ratio 0.1–0.5 0.8–2.4 0.5–0.7 0.2–0.8 1.2–1.7 1.2–1.7 0.8–1.1
a a
Output heat Up to 540 Up to 540 200–350b 60–200 260–370
temperature ( 1C)
Noise Loud Loud Loud Loud Fair Fair Quiet
c
CO2 emissions (kg/ 650 500–620 580–680 720 672d 430–490
MWh)
c
NOx emissions (kg/ 10 0.2–1.0 0.3–0.5 0.1 0.23d 0.005–0.01
MWh)
Availability (%) 90–95 95 95 96–98 98 N/A 90–95
Part load Poor Good Good Fair Fair Good Good
performance
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Life cycle (year) 25–35 20 20 20 10 10 10–20

Average cost 1000–2000 340–1000 800–1600 450–950 900–1500 1300–2000 2500–3500
investment ($/kW)
Operating and 0.004 0.0075–0.015 0.0075–0.015 0.0045–0.0105 0.01–0.02 N/A 0.007–0.05
maintenances costs ($/
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kWh)
a
Up to a third of the fuel energy is available in the exhaust at temperatures from 370 to 540 1C; other rejected heat is low temperature, often too low for most processes. (Jacket
cooling water at 80–95 1C, lube oil cooling at 70 1C and intercooler heat rejection at 60 1C, all difficult to use in CHP.)
b
D.W. Wu, R.Z. Wang / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 459–495

650 1C without recuperator.

c
Emissions associated with a steam turbine are dependent on the source of the steam. Steam turbines can be used with a boiler firing any one or a combination of a large variety of
fuel sources, or they can be used with a gas turbine in a combined cycle configuration. Boiler emissions vary depending on fuel type and environmental conditions.
d
Stirling engine emission characteristics / STM 4–260. Gas-fired distributed energy resource technology characterizations.
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Table 3
Recoverable energy qualities with matching technologies [28]

Power source Temp. (1C) Matching technology

Gas turbine 540 Triple-effect/ double-effect absorption

Solid oxide fuel cell 480 Triple-effect/ double-effect absorption
Micro-turbine 320 Triple-effect/ double-effect absorption
Phosphoric acid fuel cell 120 Double-effect/ single-effect absorption
Stirling engine 90 Single-effect absorption, adsorption or dehumidification
IC engine 80 Single-effect absorption, adsorption or dehumidification
PEM fuel cell 60 Single-effect absorption, adsorption or dehumidification

Absorption chillers can also be used in chilled

water storage systems to produce chilled water
during off-peak electric load periods when the cost
of electricity is low and the demand for cooling is
low. The stored chilled water is then drawn upon
during the peak cooling periods when electricity
costs are high, to supplement the chiller operation.
The storage system helps to reduce the chiller
capacity requirement and total installed cost of
chillers. The installed cost of absorption chillers
Fig. 5. A single-effect absorption refrigeration system [30]. varies from 140 to 290 US$/kW, with the decrease
of overall capacity. The O&M cost is in the range of
4.5–9 US$/kW/yr [31].
anew. Heat is supplied to the generator at a
comparatively high temperature and rejected from 2.2.2. Adsorption chillers [32– 38]
the absorber at a comparatively low level, analo- Adsorption-cooling technology is a novel, envir-
gously to a heat engine. onmentally friendly and effective means of using
The most common working fluids for absorption low-grade heat sources. An adsorption refrigeration
chillers are water/NH3 and LiBr/water, although system is similar to vapor compression systems
there are 40 refrigerant compounds and 200 except that heat—instead of work—provides the
absorbent compounds available in the literature energy needed for compression. Unlike conven-
[30]. Lithium–bromide/water absorption chillers tional vapor compression systems which require a
play a predominant role in the absorption chiller mechanical compressor assembly, this new technol-
market in Asia-Pacific countries like China, Japan, ogy uses a thermally driven static sorption bed,
Korea and in the US. In contrast, ammonia/water saving as much as 90% of the required input power
absorptions chillers are more popular in Europe. typically used to drive a mechanical compressor.
Depending on how many times the heat supply is The functioning of the basic cycle of adsorption
utilized within the chiller; absorption chillers can be cooling can be presented as comprising four phases
divided into single-effect, double-effect and triple- as shown in the schematic Fig. 6 and described as
effect. A single-effect absorption refrigeration sys- follow:
tem is the simplest and most commonly used design.
Fig. 5 shows a single-effect system using non- 1. A heating-pressurization 1–2, during which the
volatility absorbent such as LiBr/water. When adsorber is isolated from both the condenser and
volatility absorbent such as water/NH3 is used, the the evaporator. The pressure inside the adsorber
system requires an extra component called ‘‘a then increases until reaching the condensation
rectifier’’, which will purify the refrigerant before pressure, thanks to the heat supplied by an
entering the condenser. The parameters and char- external heat source.
acteristics of different absorption chillers can be 2. An isobaric condensation 2–3, during which the
viewed in Table 4. adsorber is connected to the condenser, allowing
 470

Table 4
Characteristics of absorption technologies [30]

System Operating temp. ( 1C) Working fluid Cooling COP Current status Remark
capacity (ton)
Heat source Cooling
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Single effect cycle 80–110 5–10 LiBr/water 10–1500 More than 0.7 Large water 1. Simplest and widely used
chiller 2. Using water as a refrigerant, cooling
temperature is above 0 1C
3. Negative system pressure
4. Water cooled absorber required to prevent
crystallization at high concentration

Single effect cycle 120–150 o0 Water/NH3 3–1000+ 0.5 Commercial 1. Rectification of refrigerant required
2. Working solution is environmental friendly
3. Operating pressure as high as with NH3
4. No crystallization problem
5. Suitable for use as heat pump due to wide
operating range

Double effect (series 120–150 5–10 LiBr/water 200–1500 More than 1.2 Large water 1. High performance cycle, commercially
flow) chiller available
2. Heat of condensation from first effect used
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as heat input for second stage

Double effect (parallel 120–150 o0 Water/NH3 Up to 1000 0.8–1.2 Experimental 1. Heat release from first stage absorber used
flow) unit for second stage generator
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Triple effect cycle 200–230 5–10 LiBr/water N/A 1.4–1.5 Computer 1. High complexity control system
model and 2. Likely to be direct-fired, as input temp is
experimental very high
unit 3. Requires more maintenance as a result of
D.W. Wu, R.Z. Wang / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 459–495

high corrosion due to high operating

temperature
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Fig. 6. Standard Clapeyron’s lnp-1/T diagram of basic cycle.

Fig. 7. Schematic of two-bed adsorption refrigeration systems

the refrigerant vapor to flow the adsorber to the
[37].
condenser and condenses therein as the heating is
still continuing. This simultaneity of heating and
vapor flow and condensation makes the process improvement of this cycle has been the invention
isobaric. The condensation heat is absorbed by of the two beds quasi-continuous cooling produc-
the cooling medium or could be used to provide tion system, shown in Fig. 7. In addition to the
heating if the purpose of the system is heat quasi-continuity of the cold production, the system
pumping. The condensate is then expanded and offers the possibility for heat recovery and mass
drained into evaporator at lower pressure. recuperation from one bed to anther, thereby
3. A cooling-depressurisation 3–4, during which the helping to improve cycle’s efficiency. A heat
adsorber is isolated from both the condenser and regeneration fluid also can be used to increase
the evaporator. The adsorber is cooled down and system efficiency by transferring heat from a hot to
the pressure decreases back to the value of a cold bed. As a critical part of this technology, the
adsorption condition. characteristics of various adsorbent–adsorbate
4. An isobaric adsorption, during which the ad- working pairs are listed in the Table 5.
sorber is connected to the evaporator and Since there are no moving parts, except for valves,
isolated from condenser. The low-pressure liquid the sorption system is considerably simpler, requir-
water contained in the evaporator is evaporated ing no lubrication and thus, little maintenance.
by extracting latent heat of evaporation from the Other advantages include quiet operation and
space when being cooled down, and, simulta- modularity so it is readily scalable for increased
neously, the evaporated vapor is adsorbed anew heating and cooling capacity by additional beds.
by the reactivated adsorbent contained in the Furthermore, any heat source, such as waste heat or
adsorber. renewable energy resources, can be used, so energy
saving can be potentially significant.
The system takes advantage of the ability of Based on these merits of the adsorption system,
certain adsorbent material, stored in an adsorber, to active research in China, Europe, Japan and the US
soak up a relatively large quantity of refrigerant has resulted in the breakthrough of this technology.
vapor at some low temperature and pressure. At this The adsorption refrigerators first appeared on the
stage, cooling capacity is achieved in the evaporator market in 1986, which were produced by the
because of the evaporation of the refrigerant. The Nishiyodo Kuchouki, Co. Ltd. The silica gel–water
refrigerant is subsequently released to the condenser adsorption chillers produced by this company are
at a higher pressure simply by applying heat to the sold in the American market by the HIJC USA Inc.
sorption bed. The basic cycle is the cycle without This company estimated the payback of this chiller
neither heat nor mass recovery. When operated with to about 2–3 years. The chiller is driven by hot
a single bed, the cold production of this cycle is water from 50 to 90 1C, and the temperature of
intermittent. One step forward in the path of chilled water is close to 3 1C. The COP can reach 0.7
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Table 5
Characteristics of adsorption working pairs [32,35,36]

Adsorbent Adsorbate Heat of Toxicity Vacuum level Release Heat sources Applications
adsorption temp. ( 1C)
(kJ/kg)

Silica gel H2O 2800 No High 70–100 Solar energy, low- Space cooling,
CH3OH 1000–1500 Yes High temperature waste refrigeration
heat
Zeolite H2O 3300–4200 No High 4150 High-temperature Space cooling,
NH3 4000–6000 Yes Low waste heat refrigeration
Activated C2H5OH 1200–1400 No Moderate 100 Solar energy, low- Low temperature,
charcoal CH3OH 1800–2000 Yes High 110 temperature waste ice making
heat
Charcoal 42000 Yes High 120
fiber
CaCl2 NH3 1368 Yes Low 95 Solar energy, low- Low temperature,
CH3OH N/A Yes Low temperature waste ice making
heat

when the chiller is power by hot water at 90 1C. the desiccant material (such as silica gel, activated
Another company producing silica gel–water ad- alumina, lithium chloride salt, or molecular sieves)
sorption is Mayekawa Co. The chillers from this to a moisture-laden process air stream, retaining the
company can be powered by hot water at 75 1C and moisture of the air in desiccant and regenerating
yield chilled water at 14 1C with a reported COP of desiccant material via a heated air stream. System
0.6. In China, a series of adsorption chillers are capacity is often expressed in volume of airflow or in
commercially available with the cooperation of moisture removal rate. Table 6 shows some
Shanghai Jiao Tong University and Jiangsu Shuan- specifications and costs of desiccant dehumidifica-
gliang Air Conditioner Equipment Company. The tion systems.
products are rated at 10, 20, 50, 100 kW, etc. and the Dehumidification technology is divided into two
costs in US dollars could be $10,000, $15,000, major types, solid desiccant dehumidifiers and
$30,000 and $50,000, respectively. liquid desiccant dehumidifiers; both are useful for
There are two typical CCHP applications with the mitigation of indoor environmental quality and
adsorption chillers. The CCHP system installed at health problems and for humidity control in
the beginning of 2000, in the St. Johannes hospital is buildings. Liquid desiccant technologies—particu-
composed by a fuel cell, solar collectors, a heat larly those with air washing and biocidal capabil-
storage vessel, a mechanical compression chiller, an ities—are viewed as a critical path toward ensuring
adsorption chiller, an ice-storage tank and cooling indoor environmental security under extraordinary
ceilings. The hot water derived from solar collector circumstances and reducing indoor air pollution in
and waste heat of the fuel cell drives a 105 kW general.
Mycom ADR 30 adsorption chiller, manufactured Dehumidification technology in the commercial
by the Japanese company, Mayekawa. Another sector remains a young technology with a premium
example is the CCHP systems set up at Shanghai price. To date, commercial desiccant technologies
Jiao Tong University, which will be specified in later have not been designed for integration into CCHP
section. systems.

2.2.3. Desiccant dehumidifiers [3,13,31] 2.2.4. Other options

Desiccant dehumidifiers can work in concert with Although thermally activated technologies indi-
sorption chillers or conventional air-conditioning cate the trend in cooling and dehumidification
systems to significantly increase overall system options in CCHP systems, electric vapor-compres-
energy efficiency by avoiding overcooling air and sion refrigeration systems still play an important
precluding oversized capacity to meet dehumidifica- role for their maturity and reliability. Therefore,
tion loads. The desiccant process involves exposing quite a few CCHP systems in research and practical
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Table 6
Costs and performance of desiccant dehumidification systems [31]

Flux (m3/min) Cost (US$/m3/min) Thermal input (W/m3/min) Maximum latent removal (W/m3/min)

40–140 280–630 300–1000 300–600

140–280 210–390 300–1000 300–600
280+ 210–320 300–1000 300–600

Table 7
Costs and performance of engine-driven chillers [31]

Capacity (kW) Electric use (kWe/kW) Cost (US$/kW) Maintenance cost (US$/kW/yr)

35–350 0.014–0.020 230–300 12.8–28.4

350–1760 0.003–0.014 180–270 10.0–21.3
1760–7030 0.001–0.003 130–210 7.1–17.0

utilization still employ these conventional technol- Table 8

ogies as their cooling options. Nonetheless, it is Natural gas demand forecast (10 million m3) [84]
unwise for a CCHP system to drive chillers using Sector Year 2005 Year 2010
electricity generated by prime movers, since smaller
prime movers have lower efficiency than larger types Power generation 174 484
used in power plants. Chemicals 120 180
Industrial material 168 257
Engine-driven chillers have emerged as a sub-
Domestic fuel 106 230
stitute for electric chillers in CCHP units, avoiding
the losses in energy conversion. Engine-driven Total 568 1151
chillers, including reciprocating, centrifugal and
screw types, are conventional chillers driven by an
engine, in lieu of an electric motor. They employ the 3. Typical CCHP systems
same thermodynamic cycle and compressor tech-
nology used in electric chillers, but an engine or 3.1. Diverse configurations of CCHP systems
other prime mover drives the compressor directly.
In engine-driven chillers smaller than 700 kW, CCHP systems, including both existing units and
reciprocating compressors are typically packaged experimental models in laboratories, vary from site
with the engine. In applications ranging from over to site, with diverse prime movers, cooling options,
700 kW to less than about 4220 kW, both screw and connecting forms, rated size ranges, heat-to-power
centrifugal compressors are used. In the largest, rates, user demand limitations and similar char-
over 4500 kW, centrifugal compressors are the only acteristics. Based on CCHP technologies and their
option [22]. An advantage of engine-driven chillers characteristics described earlier, this section will
is better variable speed performance, which im- discuss practical and potential CCHP systems and
proves partial-load efficiency. Engine-driven chillers their development.
can also operate in a CCHP system for hot water Regarding the classification of CCHP systems in
loads when the waste heat produced by the engine is the Introduction, traditional large-scale systems,
recovered. Table 7 shows the costs and perfor- predominantly CHP systems without cooling op-
mances of various engine-driven chillers (Table 8). tions in centralized power plants or large industries,
In general, mechanical vapor compression (typi- account for large portions in installed CHP capacity
cally by electric compression chillers and engine- in many countries. The technologies used in this
driven chillers) is not a characteristic part of CCHP type of CHP approach have developed for several
systems. It can be added to increase redundancy, decades and these systems are relatively mature. For
diversity, reliability and economics of CCHP these CHP systems, there are two common config-
systems. urations [39]: one is based on boiler and steam
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turbine, shown as Fig. 8; the other system is based systems (Fig. 9), the thermal energy is typically one
on combustion turbines, shown as Fig. 9. to two times the electric energy generated [39].
The steam boiler/turbine approach has always An improved system model called combined cycle
been the most widely used CHP system. In this gas turbine system (CCGT) combined combustion
approach, a boiler produces high-pressure steam turbine with steam turbine in one configuration
that is fed to a turbine to produce electricity. (Fig. 10), which is the most widely used model in
However, the turbine is designed so that there is large central power plants today. The reliability of
steam left over to feed an industrial process. Thus, combined cycle systems is 80–85%, the annual
one fuel input to the boiler supplies electrical and average availability is 77–85% and the economic life
thermal energy by recovering waste heat from the cycle is 15–25 years. The electrical efficiency is in the
steam turbine electric generator. Typically, two range 35–45%, the total efficiency is 70–88% and
thirds of the energy in a conventional power plant the power to heat ratio is 0.6–2.0. The electrical
is lost when waste steam is condensed in the cooling efficiency can be increased further.
tower. This type of system typically generates about As for other categories of CCHP systems,
five times as much thermal energy as electrical relatively small-capacity-distributed CCHP units
energy [39]. Thus, this kind of system is suit for heat are the trend in future applications. In this category,
plants in which electricity power is generated as novel technologies such as fuel cells, micro-turbines,
byproduct. Stirling engines, adsorption chillers and dehumidi-
In newer, large, centralized CHP systems, a fiers are emerging in some research models and
combustion turbine (a diesel reciprocating engine practical applications, which possess some promis-
can also be used) is used to generate electricity, and ing characteristics, including low emission, high
thermal energy is recovered from the exhaust stream efficiency and low-grade thermal energy recovery.
to make steam for other thermal uses. In these Reciprocating engines, combustion turbines, elec-
trical chillers and absorption chillers are predomi-
nant in the recent distributed CCHP market, for the
maturity and stability of these technologies.
Reciprocating engines plus absorption or elec-
trical (engine driven) chillers are popular for small
utilizations. Jacket cooling fluids, lubricating oil
systems, and engine exhaust are three heat recovery
options which can produce hot water using ex-
changers, for heat demands and other cooling and
dehumidification usages. This configuration, shown
in Fig. 11, represents a large percentage of CCHP
systems with reciprocating engines as prime mover.
Fig. 8. CHP system with backpressure steam turbine [1]. Reciprocating engines with engine driven chillers
have fewer applications with low on-site electricity
demands. This small-scale engine-based CCHP
(CHP) system was a research issue addressed in

Fig. 10. Combined cycle CHP system with backpressure steam

Fig. 9. CHP system with combustion turbine [1]. turbine [1].
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much of the literature. Maidment [40,41], men- turbine-based units have become serious competi-
tioned energy management of an engine-based tors with engine-based units in the small-scale
CCHP system with the application of an absorption CCHP market. With rising awareness of micro-
chiller. Riley [42], examined the emission from this turbine-based systems, more research has been
type of small CCHP system. Talbi [43], examined focus on this method in recent years [49,50].
the interfacing of the turbocharged diesel engine Fig. 12 illustrates a typical schematic diagram of a
with an absorption refrigeration unit in a CCHP micro-turbine CHP system.
system and estimated the performance enhance- In this category of CCHP systems, the Stirling
ment. Miguez et al. [44,45], illustrated design and engine is viewed as a promising prime mover in
performance of a CCHP system with engine and small commercial and residential applications for
heat pump equipment. Smith [46], also analyzed a their low emissions, fewer moving parts, low noise,
similar system in his articles. Reciprocating engines, small-scale availability and relatively low byproduct
as the most mature prime mover technology used in heat. Only a few commercial Stirling engine units
distributed CCHP systems, made new improve- can be found on the market, but research on Stirling
ments in some recent research. Moss et al. [47], engines in some companies and laboratories has
attempted to combine the Joule-cycle used in gas advanced to a near-commercial stage, both in the
turbines with an internal-combustion engine and US and in Europe. There has also been research on
formed a reciprocating Joule-cycle engine-based the feasibility of CCHP driven by Stirling engines
CHP system. A project at Shanghai Jiao Tong [51]. Some possible cooling and dehumidification
University [48], experimented with novel adsorption options for Stirling engines are absorption chillers,
chillers, using heat recovered from engines, to dehumidifiers and adsorption chillers. Fig. 13 shows
generate cooling capacity because of the relatively an STM 4-120 Stirling engine system [18], which is
low byproduct heat temperature of small engines in the first commercialized Stirling engine in the world;
CCHP systems. Research on engine-based CCHP until now it has had limited applications.
systems is active and the literature is extensive. It is envisioned that fuel cell systems will serve a
Micro-turbines became available commercially in variety of CCHP applications in the future, but
2001 and 2002, and they immediately became an there is limited experience to validate potential
ideal prime mover for small-scale distributed CCHP applications. Since most fuel cells are still in an early
systems. Absorption chillers and desiccant dehumi- stage of development and commercial use, fuel cells
difiers driven by byproduct heat of micro-turbines CCHP systems carry high capital costs and higher
are employed to meet cooling demands of users. project risk due to unproven durability and
A number of the same micro-turbine units can be reliability. Simpler CHP systems based on PAFC
connected to fulfill any electricity range in practice. systems have been deployed in commercial practice.
This configuration of CCHP systems is applied in Although difficulties remain, some fuel cell CCHP
many locations, especially in the US, where micro- systems have already emerged in the US; Fig. 14
demonstrates a solid polymer fuel cell plant [52].
Tokyo Gas Co., Ltd. will market the first domestic
polymer electrolyte fuel cell in 2005 [53]. In
addition, Hamada et al. [54] field-tested the

Fig. 11. Schematic of reciprocating engine heat recovery [7,22]. Fig. 12. Schematic diagram of micro-turbine [7,22].
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performance of a polymer electrolyte fuel cell for a and risks. In addition, it is a positive step forward
residential energy system. According to the fuel cell for the use of thermal cooling with CHP in the
characteristics illustrated earlier, different fuel cells industrial sector.
can produce various temperature levels of bypro-
duct heat to drive certain cooling and dehumidifica-
3.2. Representative CCHP systems in use
tion equipment.
One major challenge of CCHP systems is the lack
In terms of rated sizes, CCHP applications are
of integrated systems [22]. In the US, seven
categorized into micro, small-scale, medium and
industrial teams have announced research, develop-
large-scale systems, while the size range of these
ment and testing of ‘‘first generation’’ integrated
categories are under 20 kW, from 20 kW to 1 MW,
CHP and absorption chillers with controls—some
from 1 to 10 MW and above 10 MW, respectively.
with desiccant units as well. This program holds
In the following sections, four typical CCHP
promise for the building market for CHP, offering
applications, selected to represent these four cate-
multiple benefits, such as lower integration costs
gories, are discussed in detail for a close look at
various size CCHP systems currently in use.
3.2.1. Micro systems (under 20 kW)
In this category, there are limited examples in the
current market for a relatively small capacity,
although micro systems show great potential for
commercial, institutional and residential utilization.
As regards their technological feasibility, recipro-
cating engines, fuel cells and Stirling engines are
regarded as prospective prime movers. At Shanghai
Jiao Tong University, a micro CCHP system,
comprised of a 12 kW gas-fired reciprocating
engine, a 10 kW adsorption chiller, a floor radiate
heating system, a waste heat recovery, a hot water
Fig. 13. STM 4-120 power unit packaged DG system [18]. tank and a cooling water tower, has been set up

Fig. 14. Typical configuration of a solid polymer fuel cell plant [52].
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(Fig. 15), which is one of the smallest CCHP grade thermal energy [55,56]. In the tests, the COP
applications currently in use [48]. of silica/gel–water adsorption chiller reaches 0.3–0.4
Fig. 16 shows the configuration of the micro- with a heat source of 60–95 1C. With the help of this
CCHP system at SJTU. Natural gas or LPG is used thermal-activated technology, the overall thermal
to drive the engine. Engine jacket cooling water and electrical efficiency of the micro CCHP system
passes through the heat exchanger and is reheated is more than 70%. After an analysis was executed
by exhaust gas that is up to 580 1C. Reheated water based on this micro CCHP system [48,55], it was
then passes through an adsorption chiller to concluded that the payback period is between 2.1
produce chilled water for space cooling in summer; and 3.2 years for commercial buildings, or between
or through the heat exchanger to produce hot water 1.7 and 2.4 years for hotels, while the natural gas
for a floor radiate heating system in winter. After costs from 0.193 to 0.230 US$/Nm3.
that, the jacket water enters water tank to produce In recent years, many other new developments
domestic hot water and finally returns to the engine have been achieved to commercialize water
jacket. The generator at rated power (electricity chillers with small cooling capacities. Examples of
efficiency is about 21.4%) recovers 13.6 and these are:
14.4 kW heat from exhaust gas and cylinder jacket
cooling water, respectively. 1. Water–LiBr absorption chillers
The highlight of this micro CCHP system is its  EAW in Westenfeld, Germany (lowest avail-
practical utilization of an adsorption chiller devel- able cooling capacity 15 kW)
oped by SJTU with the cooperation of Jiangsu  Phönix Sonnenwärme in Berlin, Germany
Shuangliang Air Conditioner Equipment Company (10 kW)
(Fig. 17), which makes possible the recovery of low-  University de Catalunya in Terrassa, Spain:
air-cooled system (10 kW)
 Rotartica in Spain: air-cooled system with
rotating absorber/generator (10 kW)
2. Ammonia water systems with mechanical solu-
tion pump
 Joanneum Research in Graz, Austria (10 kW,
operation temperature
20–10 1C)
 AOSOL in Portugal: air-cooled machine
(6 kW)
3. Ammonia water systems without mechanical
solution pump
 University of Applied Research in Stuttgart,
Germany (approximately 2–5 kW)
Fig. 15. Test facility view of the micro CCHP.  SolarFrost in Graz, Austria

Fig. 16. Schematic diagram of the micro-CCHP [48].

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College Park. Fig. 18 shows the CCHP package at

the University of Maryland.
The small-scale CCHP system is located in
Chesapeake Building of the University of Mary-
land. This 4900 m2 building is representative of the
medium-sized commercial buildings accounting for
23% of all buildings in the US [58]. The prime
mover is a Capstone C60 micro-turbine that
generates 60 kW electricity at 90,000 rpm and
exhausts flue gas at 310 1C after recuperation [59].
The average efficiency of the micro-turbine is
26.9%, when operating at full output capacity and
an average air inlet temperature of 7 1C. However,
the partial-load efficiency drops to a low of 11% at
9 kW output power. Waste heat from the micro-
turbine exhaust powers a Broad BD6.4NF-15 single
effect absorption chiller, which achieves 65 kW of
cooling power at the COP of 0.65. The absorption
chiller assists the RTU (316 kW direct expansion
Fig. 17. Adsorption chiller prototype.
electric rooftop cooling units) in providing air
conditioning for cooling zone two, seen in Fig. 19.
Chilled water produced by the absorption chiller is
4. Solid sorption supplied at 7 1C and returns at 12 1C [49]. Flue gas
 Sortech in Halle, Germany: adsorption heat from the chiller powers the ATS solid desiccant
pump (10 kW, working pair water/silica gel) dehumidifier. The dehumidifier dries the supply air
 ClimateWell AB in Hägersten, Sweden for the building, a function normally performed by
(10 kW, working pair lithium chloride/water; the roof top unit and the absorption chiller,
includes thermo-chemical storage) reducing the need for grid-based electrical power.
 SWEAT b.v., in the Netherlands (working Together, these interactive components efficiently
pair sodium sulfide/water; includes thermo- supply air conditioning for cooling zone two and
chemical storage) supplement the power requirement for the entire
building. The overall fuel utilization of this CCHP
These products are not yet well established in the system is as much as 72%. Compared with the
market, but promise to open new market segments conventional energy supply for this building, annual
for CCHP in small commercial buildings (e.g., savings of applying the new CCHP system are
offices, small hotels, etc.) and even residential forecasted to be $25,000, with a 40% reduction in
buildings. CO2 [49].

3.2.3. Medium systems (1– 10 MW)

3.2.2. Small-scale systems (20 kW– 1 MW) Generally, existing applications ranging from 1 to
In this group of size ranges, a large number of 10 MW are set up for industrial sites, where no
applications are constructed for different uses, such cooling demand is needed. As an example, the
as retail stores, supermarkets, hospitals, offices, system in the Domain Plant of Austin is equipped
schools, small industry, etc. This sector is the most with a combustion turbine for electricity demands
active and mature market for CCHP, since almost as well as an absorption chiller for cooling and
every prime mover and cooling/dehumidification heating.
technology above can find their particular market. This plant is powered by a 4.6 MW Solar Turbine
Micro-turbines are strong competitors of internal Centaur 50 gas turbine (Fig. 20), which generates
combustion reciprocating engines in this stage. 4.3 MW net outputs for full-load continuous duty
Following the example of small-scale CCHP sys- with 28.6% electrical efficiency and 510 1C exhaust.
tems, one of the first CCHP applications with The exhaust from the gas turbine is ducted into a
micro-turbines is located at University of Maryland, two-stage indirect-fired Broad Co. absorption chil-
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ler (Fig. 21) via a diverter valve, which produces the complete system. The system is intended to run
8918 kW of cooling power at chiller water volu- in continuous duty operation at full base load
metric flow rate of 1390 m3/h. The chilled water is output 24 h a day [62,63].
supplied to users at 6.7 1C and returns to the chiller After beginning commercial service, the CCHP
at 12.2 1C [60–63]. The overall schematic layout of system operated at overall fuel efficiency of 76.8%
the CCHP system is illustrated in Fig. 22. with less than 15 ppm NOx and no catalyst exhaust
The CCHP plant was constructed by Burns & treatment. The system is expected to cut equipment
McDonnell partnered with the municipal utility and installation costs by 15–30% and achieve 3
Austin Energy, in an existing building that is the million m3 in natural gas saving annually, depend-
right size to house the modular package layout. ing on the amount of infrastructure available at the
A remarkable characteristic of this system is its site [62,63].
modularization, which enables ease of construction.
Austin Energy owns and operates the CCHP system 3.2.4. Large-scale systems (above 10 MW)
as part of an existing central utility station that Large-scale CCHP systems with capacity above
generates power for the grid and sells chilled water 10 MW are the ideal energy supply scheme for large
to industrial tenants and a downtown district industries or institutional/commercial/residential
cooling system. Overall system integration is con- districts. Although large cogenerations can be found
trolled by Allen Bradley software, which provides everywhere, large systems that provide vast cooling
programmable logic remote monitoring capacity for capacity simultaneously have limited applica-
tions similar to micro CCHP systems. The
57.4 MW CCHP plant at the University of Illinois
at Chicago is a successful model for large-scale
CCHP applications.
This CCHP system provides service to the entire
campus of about 744,000 m2 and a student popula-
tion of over 27,000 [64]. This application consists of
two sections: the East Campus system and the West
Campus system, which were established from 1993
to 2002. The CCHP plant on the campus is shown in
Fig. 23.
Equipment utilized in the East Campus system
includes: two 6.3 MW Cooper-Bessemer dual-fuel
reciprocating engine generators; two 3.8 MW Wärt-
Fig. 18. The CCHP package at the University of Maryland [57]. silä 18V-28SG gas reciprocating engine generators;

Fig. 19. Schematic diagram of the CCHP application at the University of Maryland [49,58].
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Fig. 20. Solar gas turbine package [60].

Fig. 21. Broad absorption chiller.

Fig. 22. Schematic layout of the CCHP system in Austin [62].

a 3.5 MW Trane two-stage absorption chiller; two
7 MW York International electrical centrifugal
chillers; and several remote building absorption After the success of CCHP system in the East
chillers activated by the hot water loop (4.7 MW Campus, a second system began operation on
maximum cooling capacity). The system generates the West Campus, with an additional 37.2 MW
20.2 MW of electricity total, to cover nearly 100% electricity power to offset the heating and cool-
of the entire electrical demand of the East Campus. ing demands of the several hospitals and other
The recovered heat from the CCHP system offsets buildings on the West Campus. At the heart of
the heating and cooling requirements of 29 east the West Campus CCHP system are three
campus buildings, more than 353,400 m2. The 5.4 MW Wärtsilä gas engine generators and three
configuration of this complex system is illustrated 7.0 MW Solar Taurus turbines. The cooling com-
in Fig. 24. The overall installed cost is 25.7 million ponents of the system are several Carrier absorp-
US dollars and estimated payback is less than 10 tion chillers, totaling 7 MW cooling capacity.
years. It is estimated that the CCHP application The schematic configuration of the West Campus
provides an overall source energy reduction of CCHP system is illustrated in Fig. 25. The in-
14.2%, an estimated 28.5% reduction in CO2, a stallation cost of the system was 36 million US
52.8% reduction in NOx, and an 89.1% reduction in dollars; annual savings of 7 million US dollars are
SO2, along with approximately three million US expected, with an estimated simple payback of 5.1
dollars in annual operating saving [65]. years [66].
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4. Development of CCHP around the world 12 GW in 1980 and; in this period, the average
increased capacity annually was about 2.2 GW
4.1. United States [67–69].
However, in the mid 1990s; a liberated market
The beginning of CCHP development in the US concept was introduced into the electricity genera-
dates back to 1978, when Public Utility Regulatory tion industry by government; during this time,
Policy Act of 1978 (PURPA) was enacted to require intense competition and instability in the electricity
utilities to purchase electricity generated by inde- market blocked the rapid development of CCHP
pendent suppliers and thus, stimulate the develop- applications. The installed capacity of CCHP
ment of renewable energy and CCHP (CHP or increased very slightly from 45 GW in 1995 to
cogeneration). In 1995, the installed capacity of 46 GW in 1998. Subsequently, the US government
CCHP systems in the US was 45 GW compared to took a series of measures to promote CCHP
development again. First, the US Department of
Energy (DOE), with the cooperation of the Envir-
onmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Com-
bined Heat & Power Association (CHPA), put a
‘‘CHP Challenge’’ into effect in 1998. The aim of
this ‘‘challenge’’ was to boost the installed capa-
city of CCHP from 46 GW in 1998 to 92 GW
in 2010. Then, in 1999, ‘‘Combined Cooling Heating
& Power for Buildings 2020 Vision’’ was pub-
lished by the DOE, which presented a timetable of
CCHP development. It was recommended that
obstacles to connect distributed CCHP applica-
tions with utility grids be eliminated, and that
parameters be established to achieve change be-
fore 2005. By 2010, CCHP is to be applied in 25%
of new constructions and 10% of existing commer-
cial and institutional buildings; CCHP will sub-
stitute in 50% of CHP buildings. By 2020, 50% of
new construction and 25% of existing commercial/
institutional buildings will be equipped with
Fig. 23. CCHP plant at the University of Illinois at Chicago [66]. CCHP [67,69].

Fig. 24. System configuration of the East Campus [64,65].

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Fig. 25. System configuration of the West Campus [64,66].

In 2001, President George W. Bush establi- The US CCHP market grew significantly through
shed the National Energy Policy Development 2002 but has since slowed sharply in the face of high
(NEPD) Group, directing it to ‘‘develop a na- natural gas prices and persistent regulatory barriers.
tional energy policy designed to help the private The major blackout of 2003 in North America
sector, and, as necessary and appropriate, State and brought about major review of options to minimize
local governments, promote dependable, affordable, such disruption in future. CCHP, especially DG
and environmentally sound production and distri- CCHP, can reduce vulnerability to such outages,
bution of energy for the future.’’ CHP policy and to the threat of terrorist attack on power systems
recommendations contained in The National [14,75,76]. Fig. 27 shows 35.2 GW non-DG CCHP
Energy Policy of 2001, set forth by the NEPD capacity was added from 1990 to 2003, including
Group included [70–74]: encouraging increased many merchant plants and 7.2 GW DG CCHP
the use of these cleaner, more efficient techno- capacity was added the same period, creating a total
logies CHP projects by shortening the depreciation CHP DG capacity of 22 GW [69].
life for CHP projects or providing an investment tax The overall electricity capacity of CCHP in the
credit. US reached 80 GW in 2004. There were 1540
As mentioned in the Introduction, CCHP is existing commercial CCHP applications, with
divided into traditional large-scale CCHP applica- 9024 MW and 1189 industrial CCHP sites with
tions (CHP non-DG) and relatively small capacity 65,621 MW in the US [77]. Capacities of various
distributed CCHP (CHP DG). These two parts of application sectors are compared by years (1995,
recent CCHP capacity additions can be seen in 2000 and 2004), shown in Figs. 28 and 29.
Fig. 26. The overall electricity capacity addition The future of CCHP markets in the US is
(2001–2003) in the US presented on the left below, promising; though there are still certain factors that
including both utility and non-utility, intercon- influence the potential outcome. Key motivators
nected and non-interconnected, capacity additions and barriers to CCHP development are listed as
of all sizes. The 15.5 GW change in CCHP reflects follows [14]:
incentives to build after the California crisis and Key motivators
other market changes. It should be noted that 87%
of new CCHP is non-DG, which is traditional large-
scale CCHP applications.  Need for higher quality power supply.
The installed capacity of CCHP in 2001 was as  Congested transmission and distribution lines.
large as 56 GW and about seven percent of overall  Concerns about system vulnerability.
installed capacity that year. Examined from the aspect  State/national energy policy support for cogen-
of electricity generation, 310 billion kWh was eration and renewable energy. (States currently
generated by CCHP systems that year—up to nine represent a more important policy leader than
percent of the overall electricity generated in the US. does national government.)
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D.W. Wu, R.Z. Wang / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 459–495 483

Fig. 26. Capacity additions 2001–2003 (GW) [69].

Fig. 27. CCHP capacities in all sizes by 1st year installed [69].

Key barriers

 High gas prices (with delayed impact on power

prices) and energy price volatility.
 Non-standardized grid access and interconnec-
tion requirements across the USA.
 Continuing monopoly of energy utilities.
 Emissions standards that do not reflect the
efficiency of cogeneration and other DE.
 Continued ban on private wires and prohibitions
against third party sales in 15 states.

It is estimated that the potential US CCHP

market could be as large as 209.9 GW, based on the
analysis of overall capacity data in 1999. The Fig. 28. Industrial CCHP applications [77].
industrial CCHP potential could be another 88
and 75 GW of the commercial sector. Moreover, the achieving climate change commitments and define
existing 22 GW of CCHP/DG could double to possible instruments to promote the technology at
42 GW, even under high gas price conditions the EU level. When the strategy was issued in 1997,
[14,77]. CCHP applications would dominate overall the share of electricity produced from CCHP in the
DG industrial and commercial market potential, EU was about 9%. The strategy sets a target of 18%
comprising over two-thirds of all DG base case by 2010 [67,78,79]. However, possible measures and
market potential and over half of the future case instruments to achieve this target have so far not
market potential. Also, CCHP is currently under- been defined in depth.
utilized in the commercial building sector, where The development of CCHP in the EU is
there is great potential. characterized by a wide diversity, both in the scale
and nature of the development. This diversity
4.2. Europe reflects differences in policy priorities, natural
resources, history, culture and climate and has it
In the European Union, the most important close links to the structure and activity of electricity
legislative initiatives of CCHP development are the markets. Obviously, the main reason for this
Cogeneration Directive, the Emissions Trading diversity has been the different political choices
Directive, the New Electricity and Gas Directives, made by governments in energy matters. Fig. 30
and the Energy Performance of Buildings and portrays, as nearly as possible, the situation of
Taxation of Energy Products Directives. EU poli- CCHP development in EU countries and the
cies both recognize the importance of CCHP for projected scenario in 2010 [1,9,16].
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cular supportive policies are undertaken.

Nevertheless, CCHP was recognized as the econom-
ic means of generating electricity. Other reasons for
the healthy development of CCHP have been the
high demand for heating, subsidies for new tech-
nologies and an absence of barriers [9].

4.2.4. The Netherlands

Success in the Netherlands has been achieved
through strong promotional activities and a clear
positive policy framework:

 fuel (gas) tax exemption for fuel used to generate

CHP electricity;
 investment in highly-efficient CHP units, partly
Fig. 29. Commercial CCHP applications [77]. fiscally deductible;
 eco-tax exemption for heat supplied by CHP.
In the diagram, it can be concluded that Austria,
The unofficial national long-term target for CHP is
Denmark, Finland and the Netherlands are the four
to achieve CCHP capacity of 15 GW by 2010.
leading countries in the popularization of CCHP
The development in other countries in the EU
utilization.
follows [1,9,14,16,80–83].
4.2.1. Austria
Austria has strong environmental policies, and 4.2.5. France
CCHP technology has always been encouraged. The major electricity demands of France are
Industrial and district heating sectors have devel- fulfilled by nuclear energy, which comprises more
oped relatively well; the former through the benefits than 70 percent of overall capacity. Thus, the
that the technology brings to high-energy intensity capacity of CCHP is responsible for a small fraction
users and the latter as a response to energy price of electricity. As shown in Fig. 31, after the boom in
rises in the 1970s and central state support [9]. CCHP installation in 1998, a sharp decline occurred
the next year, which remains unchanged in recent
4.2.2. Denmark years [16,80].
At the time of the oil crisis, in the beginning of the
1970s, Denmark was 90% dependent on foreign oil. 4.2.6. Germany
Today, Denmark is self sufficient in oil and gas, one In Germany, liberalization has had negative
of several factors, which led the government to effects on CCHP due to price wars between the
promote CHP technology. The popular use of wind utilities that have caused electricity to be sold below
energy in Denmark is also a contributing factor. its production cost. Although the price of electricity
The existence of district heating networks and the has begun to rise again, about 20 GW CCHP
environmental concerns of the society also propelled capacity was closed down before 2001. Thus, the
CHP development. The success of CHP develop- government has taken several measures [1,14,16]
ment in Denmark has been largely due to govern- listed below. First, ecological tax reform was
ment policy resolved to ensure that the technology undertaken: cogeneration with a global efficiency
can flourish, and has been achieved through of 70% or more is exempt from electricity and gas
significant subsidy and grant provisions [1,16,78]. taxes. The second measure was the Emergency Plan
making it compulsory to buy electricity from
4.2.3. Finland cogeneration with an extra subsidy of 0.03 DM/
Finland has always been one of the most liberal MWh [1]. In addition, a quota model was intro-
energy markets in Europe. The development of duced, mandating that every company supplying
CCHP in Finland has not been largely a conse- electricity to a final consumer must supply a certain
quence of specific political action, since no parti- percentage from cogeneration. New projects under
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Fig. 30. Percentage of CCHP in 1999 and 2010 [80].

the new CCHP law in Germany can be seen in 4.2.9. Poland

Fig. 32. There are over 1000 CCHP installations in
Poland, but no specific legal framework is estab-
lished. General provisions in the 1997 Energy Law
apply. Although there is no obligation upon
4.2.7. Hungary
distribution companies to purchase electricity from
As one of the European Union’s accession
CCHP, in general, they do purchase it. The
countries, the statistics for CCHP in Hungary are
generator-producing electricity from cogeneration
incomplete. However, the government and electri-
must be licensed if the installed capacity of the unit
city company each take measures to promote CCHP
exceeds 50 MW. For the promotion of CCHP,
development. Cogenerated electricity of 2004 in
KOGEN Polska, has been created, which is the
Hungary is 5600 GWh, about 15.6% of total
national member for COGEN Europe in Poland
generation, and cogenerated heat is 46,335 TJ,
[1,16].
about 71% of total generation. It is hoped
cogenerated electricity will reach 9.0–9.5 TWh—
4.2.10. Spain
about 20–22% of total generation—by 2010 [81].
Approximately 12% of electricity production is
from CHP, generated mostly in the industrial sector
and with no district heating. Natural gas fuels half
4.2.8. Italy of the existing CHP installations. A special regime
The annual electricity demand supplied by CHP for new CHP units meeting certain criteria was
is about 15%. Industrial sector applications are introduced in 1998; it included mutual obligations
more important than district heating or smaller by CHP producers and distribution companies.
public or private utilization. A series of policies have Some funding for small-scale CHP installations was
been set forth by the government to establish low made available from the Institute for Energy Saving
tax rates on gas used for district heating; tax and Diversification [16,78].
reductions on gas for industrial CHP schemes
proportional to their electrical efficiency; carbon 4.2.11. Sweden
tax exemptions for CHP; dispatch priorities for CHP represents about 6% of the total electri-
CHP in the transmission network and more [16,78]. city production, mostly in district heating and
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CCHP from the renewable obligation base. During

the 1990s, installed CHP capacity in the UK more
than doubled [83]. However, this buoyant trend
has been interrupted by recent market conditions.
Fig. 33 shows the trend in installed CCHP capacity
and how it relates to the 10 GW target [1,16].
Attempts have been made in many European
Union countries to remove the barriers and
promote cogeneration. Various incentives have been
used, such as relatively high prices for exported
electricity sold to the grid, and grants on invest-
ments. Other measures have included spreading
related information, energy auditing and analysis of
data, and support of research and development.
Most of these measures were designed at a time
Fig. 31. CCHP projects in France 1991–2002 [80].
when many of the barriers to the development of
CCHP derived from the existence of monopolistic
electricity and gas markets. The most frequently
mentioned barriers to CCHP in the EU were:

 low price paid for the surplus of electricity

exported to the grid;
 high fees for top-up and back-up supplies;
 no possibility of third party access;
 predatory pricing against possible competition.

The share of CCHP in the electricity production

in Europe is currently about 10%. This is far from
its full potential, which COGEN Europe estimates
to be at least 30%. This can be supported by the fact
that three countries have achieved this share
[1,9,16]. As previously mentioned, in its 1997
Strategy to Promote Combined Heat and Power,
Fig. 32. New projects under the new CCHP law in Germany the European Commission (EC), set a target of 18%
(February 2002) [80]. by 2010. In the current situation, uncertainties
caused by incomplete liberalization of electricity
industrial use. The low CHP share is not the markets in Europe make it unlikely that this target
result of regulatory obstacles, but rather of the will be reached without a reorientation of the policy
abundance of low-priced electricity. In Sweden, framework. Political support for CCHP, and energy
more than 90% of electricity is hydro or nuclear saving technologies from various national govern-
power [16,78]. ments is a proven necessity. A possible estimate of
future CCHP capacity by sectors in Europe is
4.2.12. UK shown in Fig. 34.
Since the year 2000, the government has intro-
duced a wide range of measures to support the 4.3. Asia and the Pacific
growth of CCHP capacity. These measures fall into
several categories: fiscal incentives, grant support, 4.3.1. China
regulatory framework, promotion of innovation In the 1980s, China became concerned about
and government leadership and partnership. The CCHP (CHP/cogeneration) development for the
main support measures favored by the CCHP first time. The government emphasized that size and
industry in their response to the strategy consulta- type of these systems should be determined by heat
tion were a CCHP obligation, and exempting demands of users, (called as ‘‘heat-match mode’’).
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During that period, many single systems with 3– measure sparked development not only of centra-
12 MW steam turbines were constructed. In the late lized cogeneration plants, but also small-scale
1980s and early 1990s, when China experienced distributed CCHP systems. In recent years, CHP
electricity supply problems, the government set units with cooling capacity developed rapidly, and
forth a series of policies which included tax several cities have coal-combustion CHP plants
exemption, investment tax credit and direct subsidy with cooling capacity supply. Jinan has 49.6 MW
for energy saving projects—especially CCHP sys- cooling supply CCHP system, and in Hangzhou
tems. The rapid development of CCHP systems there are two systems of more than 120 MW cooling
slowed at the end of the 1990s, as preferential capacity each. CCHP systems based on gas-com-
policies were abolished with several factors, such as bustion turbines or engines also emerged; typical
an abundance of temporary electricity, reform of examples are Shanghai Huangpu Central Hospital,
the national accounting system and monopolization Pudong International Airport, the Beijing Gas
in the electricity market [67,84,85]. Company building and the system used in Tsinghua
After the National Energy Conservation Law University [67,84,85].
took effect in 1998, China encouraged the develop- Current CCHP development in China has some
ment of general energy-saving technologies and unique characteristics. Following the heat-match
projects; energy grade utilization and overall mode, users select the system size based on pra-
efficiency was promoted. Through the end of 1999, ctical on-site heat demands; as a result, there are
there were as many as 1402 cogeneration units with many more small-scale units than large ones. In
individual capacity over 6 MW in China. The small and middle size cities of north China,
overall capacity of these units was 28,153 MW, cogeneration plants supply steam for both indu-
consisting of 12.6% fuel-combustion electricity strial processes and domestic space heating, while
generation [14,84,86]. Fig. 35 shows the capacity the heating connections and distributions are quite
of different size ranges CCHP systems in 1999. complex and require a large investment. In big
However, most systems were fueled with coal and cities of the north, cogeneration plants consist of
applied boilers and steam turbines as prime movers. large steam turbines—more than 100 MW per
In 2001, the government enacted the regulation of unit—which can supply space heating of 10 million
CHP for better management of CHP (including m2. Most CHP systems in large industries are set
CCHP) projects; it stressed the heat-match mode up solely for the power and heat demands of
and prescribed the lowest efficiency limitation and that industry. Although these systems connect with
heat-to-power ratio of different systems. This utility grids, they sell very little of the electricity

Fig. 33. CCHP installed capacity and targets in UK [83].

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Fig. 35. The capacity (GW) of different size range CCHP systems
in 1999 [84].
Fig. 34. Future possible scenario for CCHP capacity [80].

generated. Most CCHP systems supported by the Fuel diversification for future CCHP develop-
government generate cooling capacity for pro- ment is likely to be significant with biomass, biogas
cess utilization in textile mills, chemical indu- and natural gas providing new opportunities for
stries or large institutional buildings. Domestic developers. Natural gas-driven combined cycle
space cooling by CCHP systems cannot be ad- CCHP systems will play an important role in future
dressed, as the problem of metering and charge markets. Although gas-driven systems cannot com-
remains. In general, more than 95% of CCHP pete with coal-driven cogenerations in the north,
or CHP systems are fueled with coal and there they can become a strong competitor with 600 MW
are limited combined-cycle projects in China, since units using coal in the south. It is believed that
the production capacity of nature gas in China is about 1 GW combined cycle CCHP systems using
low and the price of natural gas is relatively gas will be put into production in 2005 and even
expensive [84]. more in the next several years [84].
To further CCHP applications in China, several The capacity of CCHP applications in China is
measures should be taken [86]: predicted to grow at a high rate in coming years,
with an estimated potential increase of 3.1 GW
annually, comprising 620 MW for industries,
1. Distributed CCHP generators should be per- 2000 MW for cities in north China and 500 MW
mitted grid access on transparent and non- for new industrial area in south China [84]. At the
discriminatory terms. same time, the increase in annual capacity is about
2. Emerging industry structures should not main- 4.5 GW. By 2006, CCHP capacity could reach
tain market control in the hands of incumbent 45 GW. If some, or all of measures listed above,
utilities. can be achieved, the scale of DER (most are CCHP)
3. The transmission and distribution costs asso- development in China could exceed that of central
ciated with central generation should be fully power and go beyond 100 GW by 2010 [14].
accounted for in any system planning.
4. Fuel and power pricing should be determined by 4.3.2. Japan
markets as much as possible. At the end of March 2003, there were 2915 CCHP
5. Private and foreign investors should face no (including cogeneration) units, totaling 1429 MW
undue commercial, legal or regulatory barriers in installed for commercial applications and 1600 units
carrying out their business. totaling 5074 MW for industrial usages [87]. The
6. The overall output efficiency (including usable accumulated data of installation numbers and total
heat), of utility plants should be rewarded. capacity are illustrated in Fig. 36. The number of
7. The clean development mechanism should be installations as well as the capacity has been steadily
encouraged to contribute significantly to China’s increasing over the last decade, which can be seen in
power demand requirements. Fig. 37. After a sharp rise in 1990, the growth rate
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slowed in 1992, due to recession and decline in to third parties. Such action, or even the credible
energy prices. There has been a renewed interest in possibility of such action, would put competitive
CCHP, proven by the fact that over 850 MW was pressure on the utility to change its prices and
added between March 1996 and 1998 [88]. reduce its costs to those customers who can credibly
In recent years, development of CCHP applica- self-generate.
tion in Japan restarted with the emergence of new In addition to this encouragement for CCHP
CCHP technologies. Data of commercial and development, the obligation of environmental pro-
industrial cogeneration by type of activity, including tection also plays a critical role. Following the Third
number of installations and generating capacities, Conference of Parties held at Kyoto in December
are summarized in Table 9. 1997, Japan set itself a target of reducing green-
Among commercial applications, commercial house gas emission by 6% by the year 2010, taking
stores rank first in terms of number and total 1990 as the base year. An Environmental White
capacity, followed by hospitals, hotels and offices. Book was released in June 1998 wherein CCHP
The main features of these sites include long and appears as one of the important measures to reduce
continuous operating hours, constant demand on CO2 emission [89,93].
thermal energy for hot water, steam and chilled In the ‘‘Energy Policies of IEA Countries: Japan
water. Although few in number, the district heating 1999 Review’’ [89], the target of cogeneration set by
and cooling network projects, with much larger the Japanese government concludes that total
average sizes, represent an important application in installed cogeneration capacity is expected to
Japan. Among industrial uses, gas and oil industries increase from 3.85 GW in 1996 to 10 GW in 2010
have the largest share in terms of capacity. Other (cogeneration is regarded as a demand side new
sectors having large capacities are pulp and paper, energy in Japan).
chemical pharmaceutical, iron and metals, and
glass, soda and ceramics industries. In contrast,
4.3.3. India
the food industry uses many smaller systems.
With continuing economic growth, the Indian
Since the 1980s, the support extended by govern-
electricity system is in need of urgent investment
ment for promoting CCHP may be classified into
and development. DER (mainly CCHP systems)
four categories: special taxation, low interest loans,
capacity is only 4.1 GW—about 3.6% of total
investment subsidies, and subsidies for new technol-
electricity capacity in India. High priced and
ogy development. The ‘‘Law Concerning Promotion
unreliable electricity supply, government capital
of the Use of New Energies’’ was enacted in June
grants and soft loans are the key drivers for CCHP
1997, as a framework for encouraging the introduc-
development. At the same time, some barriers exist,
tion of renewable and non-conventional fuels
such as lack of adequate policy framework, lack of
(including CCHP/cogeneration). The budget in
technical knowledge and support services, shortage
1998 allocated 74.8 billion JPf (up from 56 billion
JPf in 1997) for new energy promotion [89].
Other detailed measures taken by the government
are listed as follows: CCHP system investors may
choose either 30% depreciation on the installation
cost or 7% of tax exemption in the 1st year of
acquisition of cogeneration plant; low interest loans
(2.3% per year) can be obtained for 40–70% of the
total investment cost.
Additionally, electricity market reform also has
an obvious effect on CCHP development. Under
the former Electricity Supply Law, nine regional
electric utilities had the monopoly to supply
electricity in the whole country. This law was
revised in 1995, which now helps in further
propagation of cogeneration. The law allows the
private sector to sell self-generated electricity to the Fig. 36. The cumulative capacity of CCHP in each fiscal year
electric utilities or supply self-generated electricity [87].
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Fig. 37. The number and generating capacity of CCHP in each fiscal year [87].

Table 9
CCHP commercial and industrial applications at the end of March 2003 [87,93]

Commercial sectors Number of Generation Industrial sectors Number of Generation

sites capacity (MW) sites capacity (MW)

Store 497 264 Food 294 1333

Hospital 460 213 Chemical pharmaceutical 279 4344
Hotel 440 219
Office 289 193 Machinery 223 2865
Sports facility 236 94 Electric equipment 158 2981
Welfare facility 214 11
Public bath 169 23 Iron and metal 141 4078
Training center/ sanatorium 124 43 Textile 90 2433
Pulp and paper 73 4657
Gasoline station 86 5 Gas, oil and other energy 66 9500
School 77 42
District heating and cooling 21 81 Glass, soda and ceramics 44 4091

Other 302 242 Other 232 1806

Total 2915 1429 Total 1600 3171

of investment finance and limited natural gas total potential for some 15 GW of cogeneration
network for cogeneration [14]. capacity, of which 2 GW had been implemented
In the CCHP market, there is tremendous to date.
potential in industrial sugar cane. Bagasse-based
cogenerations in sugar mills are the main form 4.3.4. Association of South East Asian Nations
of CCHP development in India [90,91]. A dis- (ASEAN)
tributed generation revolution began in India with There is huge potential for CCHP systems in
87 new local power projects, producing 710 MW ASEAN but market conditions differ from one
from sugar cane waste. In September 2001, the country to another. The driving force for industry
Ministry of Power estimated that there was a to invest in CCHP is lower energy cost, which is
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independent of overcapacity present in some coun- oil shale integrated tri-generation system (OSITGS)
tries. Financing is the largest obstacle to investment, in his article. The proposed plant will probably be
despite market liquidity. Most countries have an located close to the vast naturally occurring oil-
indirect biomass cogeneration policy through bio- shale deposits, which will be financially attractive
mass power and energy efficiency policy, legislation compared with conventional utilization methods, as
and support programs. However, none of the well as an environmentally acceptable technique for
ASEAN countries have any particular policy, producing synthetic (liquid and gaseous) fuels and
legislation or support program for coal and natural electricity from oil-shale. Other literature indicates
gas cogeneration presently [92,93]. that countries with abundant energy resources are
The huge difference between developments in well aware of CCHP [97].
the electricity supply industry in ASEAN Coun- Large-scale hydropower plays an important role
tries is illustrated in Table 10. Typically, CCHP in Brazil’s electricity structure, and the overall DER
(cogeneration) policy is part of national energy capacity of this big country is 2.8 GW—about 3.8%
policy, which is often scattered between different of electricity capacity [14]. Several articles reveal
agencies. that Brazil hopes to join the trend of CCHP
The EC-ASEAN COGEN Program is an eco- development around the world. In his article, Szklo
nomic cooperation program between the EC and [98,99] applied a COGEN model to two cases in
ASEAN; about 15 million EURO is funded by the Brazil—a chemical plant and a shopping mall—
EC. The program lasted for 3 years from January showing the highest economic potential for gas-fired
2002 to December 2004. As a result, 24 full-scale cogeneration in Brazil. Another article, by Silveira
demonstration projects (FSDP) candidates selected and Gomes [100], presents a study of technical and
ranges from 0.3 to 41 MW, and the total capacity is economic feasibility for the installation of cogenera-
174 MW. With assistance from developed countries tion systems utilizing fuel cells, connected to an
and organizations, the potential will become a absorption refrigeration system for a building of the
realistic market of CCHP applications in ASEAN tertiary sector, subject to conditions in Brazil.
[92,94,95]. Furthermore, a recent discovery of natural gas near
the State of San Paulo has at least tripled Brazil’s
4.4. Other countries reserves, although it will take a few years to develop.
Brazilian gas companies have announced a major
In addition to the above three sections of the move towards increasing distribution—the CCHP
world, many other countries develop their own market being their main target [14].
CCHP applications by different means. The potential CCHP market is also significant in
Russia leads in the development of CCHP (most Mexico, where petrochemical refinery sites can
are cogeneration) around world. About 30% of operate with onsite power generation. Although
electricity generation is from cogeneration, mostly state-owned companies dominate the power market,
in association with municipal use, which generates changes are being made to electricity regulations,
65 GW annually. The very cold temperature holds opening areas of the market to the private sector.
great potential for district heating as a whole. The government is promoting investment in DER/
Widespread supply of natural gas and its low cost cogeneration. In January 2004, the Energy Secretary
compared to Europe are additional drivers for announced possible additional investments of
development of cogeneration applications. How- 1000 MW by 2010. DER is expected to account
ever, lack of financial support and a strong for 20% of growth in the power market from 2004
monopoly-based market structure block further to 2010, according to a survey of WADE [14].
increase in cogeneration. Once this situation In Africa, CCHP development remains in a
changes, there could be rapid market growth primary stage. The foremost problem of many
based on growing demand and abundant natural countries is the promotion of electricity supply
resources [14]. infrastructures nation-wide. To some extent, small-
In the Middle East, profuse crude oil resources scale distributed CCHP systems provide another
seem to offer no need for developing an efficient power supply method to remote areas, rather than
power supply, such as CCHP systems. But environ- large centralized power plants. Joseph and Roy-
ment and economy make CCHP applications Aikins [101] investigated the potential economic
valuable. Jaber [96] proposed a commercial-sized benefits that can be accrued by installing gas turbine
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Table 10
Present differences in ASEAN electricity supply [94]

Country Present situation Installed capacity Forecasted annual Policy on

(MW) growth of power cogeneration
demand (%)

Cambodia No national grid 160 10 Preparing phase

Indonesia Govt.—56% IPP—4% 23,425 IPPa, conservation
Captive power —40% captive power
Malaysia Govt.—85% 13,760 6–10 SREPb,
Private—15% cogeneration
Philippines Govt.—55% 14,700 9 Renewable energy
Private—45%
Singapore Power pool 8140
Thailand Govt.—60% 24,500 10 SPPc, VSPPd,
Private—40% renewable

Vietnam Govt.—90% 3296 13 Preparing phase

Private—10%
a
IPP—independent power producers.
b
SREP—small renewable energy power.
c
SPP—small power producers.
d
VSPP—very small renewable power.

cogeneration sets along an oil pipeline in a rural 2. Existing and potential technologies of CCHP are
area of one sub-Saharan country. South Africa available. These technologies contain both im-
predominantly fueled by coal (93% of overall proved conventional approaches, like steam
electricity capacity) and the capacity of DER is turbines, reciprocating engines, combustion tur-
only 0.5 GW—about 1.4% of total capacity [14]. In bines and electric chillers, as well as relatively
summary, prospects for CCHP and renewable DER new technologies such as fuel cells, micro-
in Africa are hopeful, inspite of many barriers. turbines, Stirling engines, sorption chillers and
dehumidifiers. Most prime mover technologies
5. Discussions and conclusions are still based on fossil fuel combustion, since
renewable energy technologies cannot totally and
1. Combined cooling, heating and power systems economically replace traditional technologies in
are derived from the CHP category, which shares the near future. Therefore, CCHP technologies
some merits with CHP—especially energy con- provide the world with a transitional system of
servation. Small-scale distributed CCHP applica- reliable and stable energy supply. There may be
tions, an important part of novel DER grounds for the argument that there are too
technologies, are the issue of CCHP recently. many alternative technologies and modes of
Generally, CCHP indicates large-scale technolo- configurations existing, confusing potential users
gies and applications that appear complicated to about a particular CCHP unit. However, it is
some government officials, investors and end believed that the more choices available, the
users. Thus, the definition, benefits and classi- more possibilities—exist for CCHP utilization in
fication of CCHP systems should be made diverse circumstances. Better understanding of
known universally, since the lack of education user demands, careful selection of technologies
and awareness about CCHP remains the fore- and full consideration of revenue are the key-
most barrier to progress. Lack of understanding stones to a successful CCHP application.
about CCHP concepts, benefits and techno- 3. The CCHP world market has grown rapidly in the
logies have halted its further popularization; last decade, despite the fact that development levels
‘‘wait and see’’ is the attitude of both investors differ from country to country. CCHP development
and users. in the US and Europe restarted recently, after a
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short period of slow growth. Nonetheless, barriers and combined heat and power: a declaration of terms.
to development still exist in these countries, such as April 2000.
limited liberated electricity market, gas price vola- [6] WADE (World Alliance of Decentralized Energy, www.lo-
calpower.org). Guide to decentralized energy technologies.
tility, high initial cost, etc. Development in Japan 2002.
seems to be steady; the number of sites and the total [7] Resource Dynamics Corporation. Assessment of distribu-
capacity are gradually increasing. The two newly ted generation technology applications. February 2001.
emerging markets, China and India still are a long [8] Ackermann T, Andersson G, Söder L. Distributed genera-
way from a boom in CCHP applications. Other tion: a definition. Electric Power Syst Res 2001;57:195–204.
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developing countries have begun to encourage tion. March 2001.
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Acknowledgements
[17] Navarro E, Diaz A. European network for the integration
of renewables and distributed generation (the ENIRDGnet
This work was supported by the Research Fund project partially supported by the European Commission
for the Doctoral Program of Higher Education under the 5th RTD Framework Program—Thematic
under contract no. 20040248055 and the National priority: ‘energy environment and sustainable develop-
ment’, under contract no ENK5-CT-2001-20528). 2004.
Science Fund for Distinguished Young Scholars of
[18] The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), The
China under contract no. 50225621. The support Department of Energy (DOE), Office of Energy Efficiency
from the Key Research Program of MOE China and Renewable Energy (EERE) and the Gas Research
regarding Distributed Energy Systems is also Institute (GRI). Gas-fired distributed energy resource
appreciated. technology characterizations. October 2003.
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