GATE AEROSPACE FORMULA BOOK

First Edition

Advice Engineer Educational Services

New Delhi
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First Edition : 2017
 Preface

This book contains all the formula related to all the five subjects which comes under GATE
Aerospace Engineering.
Those Subjects are:
(a) Aerodynamics
(b) Flight Mechanics
(c) Aircraft Structures
(d) Aircraft Propulsion
(e) Space Mechanics

Many illustrations have been given which will help the student to understand clearly the
concepts of the subject.

This book is not for a new person who is preparing for GATE Aerospace Engineering. The
person who have completed the whole syllabus at least once in their life will get the most
out of this book.

Before reading this book, please complete your whole syllabus. This book will be a revision
before exam when you will solve questions only.

Best of Luck

Advice Engineer Educational Services

1. Thrust, 𝐹 = 𝑚̇ + 𝑚̇ 𝑈 − 𝑚̇ 𝑈 + (𝑃 − 𝑃 )𝐴
Momentum Thrust = 𝑚̇ + 𝑚̇ 𝑈 − 𝑚̇ 𝑈
Pressure Thrust = (𝑃 − 𝑃 )𝐴
In almost every case, 𝑚̇ < 𝑚̇

𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 2𝑈
2. Propulsive Efficiency 𝜂 = 𝐸𝑥𝑖𝑡 𝐾𝐸−𝐼𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝐾𝐸 = 𝑈 +𝑈
𝑒

𝐸𝑥𝑖𝑡 𝐾𝐸−𝐼𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝐾𝐸 𝑚 +𝑚̇ 𝑓 𝑈2𝑒 −12𝑚̇ 𝑎 𝑈2

1 ̇
2 𝑎
3. Thermal Efficiency 𝜂 = 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛
= 𝑚̇ 𝑓 𝑄𝑅

4. Overall Efficiency 𝜂 = 𝜂 × 𝜂

5. Specific Impulse 𝐼 =
× ̇

6. Range = 𝑈𝐼 ln

7. Specific fuel Consumption, 𝑠𝑓𝑐 =

̇
𝒎𝑭𝒂𝒏
8. Bypass Ratio = 𝜶 =
̇
𝒎𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒆

( )
9. Diffuser Efficiency = 𝜂 = where 𝑃 is pressure ratio across diffuser.

AXIAL COMPRESSOR:
10. Velocity Triangle of Compressor:
11. 𝑈 and 𝐶 are blade velocity and axial velocity respectively. 𝑉 is relative velocity.

12. = tan 𝛼 + tan 𝛽 = tan 𝛼 + tan 𝛽

13. Work done per unit mass = 𝑈𝐶(tan 𝛼 − tan 𝛼 ) = 𝑈𝐶(tan 𝛽 − tan 𝛽 )

( )
14. Compressor Efficiency = 𝜂 = where 𝑃 is compressor pressure ratio

and 𝑛 is number of stage.

15. Degree of Reaction 𝜆 = 1 − × (𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼 )

16. Case 1. 𝜆 = 0, Impulse Turbine. No pressure rise in rotor.

17. Case 2. 𝜆 = 0.5, Symmetric velocity Triangles. 𝛼 = 𝛽 , 𝛼 = 𝛽 Equal pressure Rise in
Rotor and Stator
18. Case 3. 𝜆 = 1, No Contribution of Stator.

( )
19. Polytropic Efficiency of Compressor 𝜂 =
( )

TURBINE:

20. Turbine Efficiency = = ( )

( )

21. In turbine, = tan 𝛼 − tan 𝛽 = tan 𝛽 − tan 𝛼

22. In turbine, 𝑊 = 𝑈𝐶(tan 𝛼 + tan 𝛼 ), from above tan 𝛼 + tan 𝛼 = tan 𝛽 + tan 𝛽

23. Degree of Reaction, 𝜆 = (tan 𝛽 − tan 𝛽 )

×
( )
24. 𝜂 =
( )

NOZZLE:

25. Mass flow rate in nozzle = ×

{ } ( )

( )
26. Throat to Exit Area Ratio = = × ×
ROCKET PROPULSION:
27. Linear Burning Rate 𝑟 = 𝑘(𝑃 ) , 𝑃 is combustion chamber pressure
28. Propellant Consumption rate, 𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑟𝐴

29. Propellant flow rate = 𝑚̇ = 𝑚̇ − (𝜌𝑉)

30. Specific Impulse = 𝐼 = = =

̇

31. Specific propellant consumption =

̇
32. Weight flow coefficient = 𝐶 = ∗

33. Thrust Coefficient = 𝐶 = ∗

34. Characteristic Velocity 𝑉 ∗ =

35. Rocket Equation: 𝑚̇ = −

36. At 𝑡 = 0, 𝑢 = 0, 𝑚 = 𝑚 and 𝑡 = 𝑡 , 𝑢 = 𝑢 , 𝑚 = 𝑚
𝑚
𝑢 + 𝑔𝑡 = 𝑔𝐼 ln
𝑚
Since 𝑡 is very less, so we have 𝑢 = 𝑈 ln
ELASTICITY:

1. Stress = 𝜎 = =
∆
2. Strain = 𝜖 = =

3. Modulus of Elasticity = 𝐸 = =

4. Stresses in normal directions are 𝝈𝒙𝒙 , 𝝈𝒚𝒚 , 𝝈𝒛𝒛 and are called Normal Stresses.
Let 𝑢, 𝑣 and 𝑤 are displacement in 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 directions therefore,
Normal strains are:
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
𝝐𝒙𝒙 = , 𝝐𝒚𝒚 = , 𝝐𝒛𝒛 =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
5. Stresses in parallel directions are 𝝉𝒙𝒚 , 𝝉𝒚𝒛 , 𝝉𝒛𝒙 and are called Shear Stresses.
Let 𝑢, 𝑣 and 𝑤 are displacement in 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 directions therefore,
Shear strains are:
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤
𝜸𝒙𝒚 = + , 𝜸𝒚𝒛 = + , 𝜸𝒙𝒛 = +
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥
6. Equilibrium Equations:
𝜕𝜎 𝜕𝜏 𝜕𝜏
+ + =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝜎 𝜕𝜏 𝜕𝜏
+ + =0
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝜎 𝜕𝜏 𝜕𝜏
+ + =0
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
7. Stresses in Inclined Plane under Equilibrium:

𝜎 = 𝜎 cos 𝜃 + 𝜎 sin 𝜃 + 𝜏 sin 2𝜃

𝜎 −𝜎
𝜏= sin 2𝜃 − 𝜏 cos 2𝜃
2
2𝜏
2𝜃 = tan
𝜎 −𝜎
8. Principal Stresses:
𝜎 +𝜎 𝜎 −𝜎
𝜎 , = ± +𝜏
2 2
9. For unidirectional stresses, let the stress is in x direction,
Along with normal strain, there is also existence of shear strain.
𝜎 𝜎 𝜎
𝜖 = , 𝜖 = −𝜈 , 𝜖 = −𝜈
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸

where 𝜈 and 𝜈 are poisson ratios.

9. Poisson’s Ratio = 𝜈 = . Its range is -1 to 3.

10. Ratio of Shear Stress to Shear Strain is called Modulus of Rigidity and represented by G.
𝜏
𝛾 =
𝐺
11. Till now we have assumed that mechanical properties 𝐸, 𝜈 and 𝐺 are independent of
direction. But they can also become direction dependent and it varies by material.
12. Stress Strain Relations in 3 Dimensions:
In matrix form it can be written as:
[𝜖] = [𝑎][𝜎]
where [𝜖] is a 6 × 1 matrix containing six strain components, [𝑎] is a 6 × 6 matrix
containing 36 components called elastic compliances. Similarly, [𝜎] is also a 6 × 1 matrix
containing all six stress components.
13. There are maximum 21 elastic constants in any linear elastic material.
The material which contains all 21 elastic constants are called anisotropic materials.
14. Orthotropic Materials have 9 elastic constants and Isotropic materials have only 2 elastic
constants.
15. Elastic Strain Energy:
1
∆𝑈 = ∆𝑉 𝜎 𝜖 +𝜎 𝜖 +𝜎 𝜖
2
Elastic Strain Energy per unit volume is called Strain Energy Density and represented by W.
16. For any isotropic material,
𝜎 𝜎 𝜎
𝜖 = −𝜈 −𝜈
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
𝜎 𝜎 𝜎
𝜖 = −𝜈 −𝜈
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
𝜎 𝜎 𝜎
𝜖 = −𝜈 −𝜈
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
17. With reference to point 16, the case of Plain Strain, is as follows:
If strains in Z direction is zero, then this condition is called Plain Strain.
𝜖 =𝛾 =𝛾 =0
∴𝜏 =𝜏 =0
Use these conditions in point 16 to get respective equations of plain strain.
18. With reference to point 16, the case of Plain Stress, is as follows:
If stresses in Z direction is zero, then this condition is called Plain Stress.
𝜎 =𝜏 =𝜏 =0
𝛾 =𝛾 =0
Use these conditions in point 16 to get respective equations of plain stress.
19. Compatibility Equations:
𝜕 𝛾 𝜕 𝜖 𝜕 𝜖
= +
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕 𝛾 𝜕 𝜖 𝜕 𝜖
= +
𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕 𝛾 𝜕 𝜖 𝜕 𝜖
= +
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧

𝜕 𝜖 𝜕 𝜕𝛾 𝜕𝛾 𝜕𝛾
2 = − + +
𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕 𝜖 𝜕 𝜕𝛾 𝜕𝛾 𝜕𝛾
2 = − +
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕 𝜖 𝜕 𝜕𝛾 𝜕𝛾 𝜕𝛾
2 = + −
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
20. Airy Stress Function 𝜙(𝑥, 𝑦) is defined for plane stress case.
𝜕 𝜙 𝜕 𝜙 𝜕 𝜙
𝜎 = ,𝜎 = ,𝜏 =−
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦
If, ∇ 𝜙 = 0 then it will be valid airy stress function.
21. Relation between E, G and 𝜈:
𝐸
𝐺=
2(1 + 𝜈)
22. Relation between, E, K and 𝜈:
𝐸 = 3𝐾(1 − 2𝜈)
Where 𝐾 is bulk modulus of body.
TORSION:
1. Compatibility equation for torsion:
𝜕𝛾 𝜕𝛾
− = 2𝜃
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Where 𝜃 is rate of twist.
2. Prandtl’s Stress Function: Prandtl defined a stress function 𝜙(𝑥, 𝑦) such that
𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙
𝜏 = ,𝜏 =
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
3. To find Torque, T we have:

𝑇=2 𝜙𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦

Where 𝜙 is stress function. 𝜙 is zero at lateral free surface of a bar.

4. To find Polar Moment of Inertia:
4
𝐽=− 𝜙𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
∇ 𝜙
5. For any arbitrary cross section,
𝑇 𝜏
= = 𝐺𝜃
𝐽 𝑟
Here 𝜃 is rate of twist per unit length.
6. Shear Flow: It is product of shear stress and thickness.
𝑞 =𝜏×𝑡
It is a vector quantity.
7. Breth – Bratho Theorem: The net torque produced by constant shear flow (q) in a thin
walled section of area A is given by
𝑇 = 𝑞(2𝐴)
8. From Breth Bratho theorem, product moment of inertia is given by
4𝐴
𝐽=
𝑑𝑠
∮ 𝑡
Where ds is length of section.

BENDING:

1. Centroid is given by,

 𝐴 𝑥 + 𝐴 𝑥 + ⋯.. 𝐴 𝑦 +𝐴 𝑦 + ⋯..
𝑥̅ = , 𝑦=
𝐴 +𝐴 +⋯ 𝐴 +𝐴 +⋯
(𝑥̅ , 𝑦) is the location of centroid.
2. Moment of Inertia:

𝐼 = 𝑦 𝑑𝐴 , 𝐼 = 𝑥 𝑑𝐴

Where 𝐼 and 𝐼 is moment of Inertia in x and y direction.

𝐼 = 𝐴𝐾 where 𝐾 is radius of gyration.
3. Parallel Axis Theorem:
Moment of Inertia about any axis in the plane of element is equal to sum of moment of
inertia of element about centroidal axis and product of area and square of distance between
two axes.
𝐼 =𝐼 ̅ ̅ + 𝐴𝑦
𝐼 =𝐼 + 𝐴𝑥̅
4. Perpendicular Axis Theorem:
𝐼 =𝐼 +𝐼
5. Simple Bending occurs when bending is not accompanied by Torsion.
6. Pure Bending occurs when shear force produced in beam is zero.
7. Bending Equation is given by:
𝑀 𝐸 𝜎
= =
𝐼 𝑅 𝑦
Where 𝑀 is bending moment, 𝐼 is moment of Inertia, 𝐸 is Young’s modulus, 𝑅 is radius of
curvature, 𝜎 is bending stress and 𝑦 is distance of element from Neutral Axis.
8. The axis where bending stress is zero in an element is called Neutral Axis.
9. To find deflection of a beam we use formula:
𝑑 𝑦
𝐸𝐼 =𝑀
𝑑𝑥
Where bending moment according to a condition is written on right hand side and two times
integrated to get the value of 𝑦 (deflection).
Deflection of Beam varies according to the beam used.
10. To find the shear stress in bending of beam, we have
𝑦𝐴
𝜏=𝑃
𝐼𝑏
Where 𝑃 is the load applied.
11. Product of Inertia:
 𝑰𝒙𝒚 = 𝒙𝒚𝒅𝑨

12. Castigliano’s Theorem:

“Rate of change of Strain Energy with respect to statically independent force, gives you the
component of deflection of this force in the direction of force.”

Applications of Castigliano Theorem:

13. Deflection under axial load:

𝑊𝑑𝑥
𝛿=
𝐴𝐸
14. Deflection under Torsion:
𝑇 𝜕𝑇
𝛿= . 𝑑𝑥
𝐺𝐽 𝜕𝑊
16. Deflection under bending:
𝑀 𝜕𝑀
𝛿= . 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼 𝜕𝑊
17. Rotation under Torsion:
𝑇
𝜃= 𝑑𝑥
𝐺𝐽
18. Deflection under Shear:
𝐹𝑑𝑥
𝛿=
𝐴𝐺
COLUMNS:
Euler’s theory of buckling of columns:

1. Columns hinged at both Ends:

𝜋 𝐸𝐼
𝑃 =
𝑙
Where 𝑙 is equivalent length of column. Here 𝑙 = 𝑙.

2. Columns hinged at one end and fixed at other end:

𝜋 𝐸𝐼 𝜋 𝐸𝐼
𝑃 = =
𝑙 𝑙
√2
Where 𝑙 is equivalent length of column. Here 𝑙 = .
√

3. Columns fixed at both ends:

𝜋 𝐸𝐼 𝜋 𝐸𝐼
𝑃 = =
𝑙 𝑙
2
Where 𝑙 is equivalent length of column. Here 𝑙 =

4. Column Fixed at one end and free at the other:

𝜋 𝐸𝐼 𝜋 𝐸𝐼
𝑃 = =
𝑙 (2𝑙)

Where 𝑙 is equivalent length of column. Here 𝑙 = 2𝑙

5. Rankine Formula:
1 1 1
= +
𝑃, 𝑃 𝑃,
𝑃 , = Rankine Buckling Load
𝑃 = Compressive or Crippling Load
𝑃 , = 𝑃 = Euler Load
THEORY OF FAILURES:
1. Total strain energy per unit volume:
1
𝑈= 𝜎 + 𝜎 + 𝜎 − 2𝜈(𝜎 𝜎 + 𝜎 𝜎 + 𝜎 𝜎 )
2𝐸
Total Strain Energy can be split into two parts:
I. Volumetric Strain Energy
II. Shear Strain Energy
2. Volumetric Strain Energy per unit volume:
1 1 − 2𝜈
𝑈 = (𝜎 + 𝜎 + 𝜎 ) .
3 2𝐸
3. Shear Strain Energy:
1
Ushear = [(σ − σ2 )2 + (σ2 − σ3 )2 + (σ3 − σ1 )2 ]
12𝐺
4. Maximum Principal Stress (Rankine Theory):
According to this, a material fails when value of maximum principal stress 𝜎 reaches a stress
value at elastic limit 𝜎 as found in simple test.
𝜎 =𝜎

5. The Maximum Principal Strain Theory (St. Venant’s theory):

According to this, a material fails when value of maximum principal strain reaches a strain
value as calculated under some complex stress in a simple tensile test.
1 σyield
ϵ = [σ1 − ν(σ2 + σ3 )] ≤ ϵyield =
E 𝐸
6. Maximum Shear stress theory or Guest – Coulomb’s theory or Tresca’s theory:
According to this, a material fails when value of maximum shear stress exceeds a shear stress
value as calculated in a simple tensile test.
𝜎 −𝜎 =𝜎
7. Maximum Strain Energy Theory:
1 𝜎
𝜎 + 𝜎 + 𝜎 − 2𝜈(𝜎 𝜎 + 𝜎 𝜎 + 𝜎 𝜎 ) =
2𝐸 2𝐸

8. Distortion Energy Theory or Von Mises Theory:

𝜎
𝜎 +𝜎 −𝜎 𝜎 =
2
VIBRATIONS:

1. Spring Force 𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥 where 𝑘 is spring constant and 𝑥 is the elongation of spring.

2. If two springs are in parallel, then 𝑘 = 𝑘 + 𝑘 + ⋯.
3. If two springs are in series, then
1 1
𝑘 = + +⋯
𝑘 𝑘
4. Harmonic Motion:
Let 𝑿𝟏 = 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡 and 𝑿𝟐 = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
Magnitude of resultant vector 𝑿 = (𝐴 + 𝐴 cos 𝜃) + (𝐴 sin 𝜃)
Angle between 𝑿𝟏 and 𝑿 is given by
(𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃)
𝛼 = tan
(𝐴 + 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃)
5. Spring Mass System in Single Degree of Freedom:

For 𝑿 = 𝑨 cos 𝜔𝑡, 𝑿 = −𝜔 𝑿

𝑘
𝜔=
𝑚
6. Vibration of Undamped System:
𝑚𝑥̈ + 𝑘𝑥 = 0
The solution of above differential equation is:
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐶𝑒
𝑚𝑠 + 𝑘 = 0
Here 𝑠 = ±𝑖𝜔
𝑘
𝜔 =
𝑚
Where 𝑘 is spring constant and 𝑚 is mass of spring.
7. Vibration with viscous damping:
𝑚𝑥̈ + 𝑐𝑥̇ + 𝑘𝑥 = 0
The solution of above differential equation is:
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐶𝑒
𝑚𝑠 + 𝑐𝑠 + 𝑘 = 0
𝑐 𝑐 𝑘
𝑠 , =− ± −
2𝑚 2𝑚 𝑚
8. Critical Damping and Damping Ratio:
The value of 𝑐 for which term in square root is equal to zero is called critical damping
constant.
𝑐 𝑘
− =0
2𝑚 𝑚
𝑐 = 2𝑚𝜔
Damping Ratio is given by,
𝑐
𝜁=
𝑐
𝑐
𝜁𝜔 =
2𝑚
𝜔 =𝜔 1−𝜁
If 𝜁 < 1, then it is called underdamped system.
If 𝜁 = 1, then it is called critically damped system.
If 𝜁 > 1, then it is called overdamped system.

9. Logarithmic Increment:
𝑥 𝑥
𝛿 = ln = ln
𝑥 𝑥
10. Energy stored in damper:
Δ𝑊 = 𝜋𝑐𝜔 𝑿𝟐
BASIC FLUID MECHANICS:

1. Continuity Equation:
𝜕𝜌
+ ∇. 𝜌𝑉⃗ = 0
𝜕𝑡
In polar coordinates:
𝜕𝜌 1 𝜕 1 𝜕 1 𝜕
+ (𝜌𝑟𝑢 ) + (𝜌𝑢 ) + (𝜌𝑢 ) = 0
𝜕𝑡 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 𝜕𝑧
2. Streamline Equation:
𝑦=𝑥
3. Pathline Equation:
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
= 𝑢, = 𝑣, =𝑤
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
4. Newton’s Law of Viscosity:
Shear Stress is proportional to shear strain on every plane.
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝜏=𝜇 +
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
5. Momentum Equation:
𝑑𝑢⃗ ∇𝑃⃗ 1
= 𝑔𝚥̂ − + 𝑑𝑇⃗ + 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑑𝑡 𝜌 𝜌𝑉
6. Circulation:
𝜁= 𝑢⃗. 𝑑𝑙⃗
7. Kelvin’s Theorem:
For some fluid particles, 𝜁 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 means,
𝑑𝜁
=0
𝑑𝑡
Under some assumptions. Those assumptions are:
a. Boundary of fluid particles should not interact with the particles in viscous domain.
b. Flow should be barotropic i.e. pressure should be only function of density.
c. Fluid particles should be in a non-rotating frame of reference.
d. Body force has to be conservative.

8. Bernoulli’s Equation:
𝜕𝒖 1
+ 𝒖. 𝛁𝒖 = − ∇𝑝
𝜕𝑡 𝜌
1
𝑝 + 𝜌𝑢 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
2
9. Vorticity Equation:
𝐷𝝎 𝜇
= 𝒖. (𝝎. 𝛁) + 𝛁 𝟐 𝝎
𝐷𝑡 𝜌
10. Biot Savart’s Law:
𝜁 𝒅𝒍 × 𝒓
𝑑𝑽 =
4𝜋 𝑟
11. Reynolds number:
Ratio of Inertia and Viscous Force.
 𝜌𝑉𝐿 𝑉𝐿
𝑅= =
𝜇 𝜈
12. Froude Number:
Ratio of Inertia and Gravity Force.
𝑉
𝐹=
𝐿𝑔
13. Euler Number:
Ratio of Inertia and Pressure Force.
𝑉
𝐸=
𝑃
𝜌
14. Mach Number:
Ratio of Inertia and Elasticity Force.
𝑉
𝑀=
𝐾
𝜌
Where 𝐾 is bulk modulus of elasticity.

15. Weber Number:

Ratio of Inertia Force and Surface Tension.
𝑉
𝑊=
𝜎
𝜌𝐿
POTENTIAL FLOW:
1. Stream Function (𝜑):
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
𝜌𝑢 = , 𝜌𝑣 =
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
2. Potential Function (𝜙)
𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙
𝑢= , 𝑣=
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
3. Stream Function is perpendicular to Potential Function.
4. Complex Potential Function is 𝜔 = 𝜙 + 𝑖𝜑
𝑑𝜔
= 𝑢 − 𝑖𝑣
𝑑𝑧
Where 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
5. Types of Flows:
(a) Uniform Flow:
𝑑𝜔
=𝑈
𝑑𝑧
𝜙 = 𝑈. 𝑥, 𝜑 = 𝑈. 𝑦
(b) Uniform Flow inclined at an angle 𝜷:
𝜙 = 𝑈𝑥 cos 𝛽 + 𝑈𝑦 sin 𝛽
𝜑 = 𝑈𝑦 cos 𝛽 − 𝑈𝑥 sin 𝛽
(c) Point Source or Sink:
𝑝 𝑝
𝜙= ln 𝑟 , 𝜑= 𝜃
2𝜋 2𝜋
Here 𝑝 is strength of source/sink. Positive Sign for Source and Negative Sign for Sink.
(d) Vortex Flow:
𝜑 𝜑
𝜙=− 𝜃, 𝜑= ln 𝑟
2𝜋 2𝜋
(e) Half Rankine Oval:
Here Uniform flow is overlapped on Source flow which creates Half Rankine Oval.
We can superimpose every parameter except pressure.
𝑝
𝜙 = 𝑈𝑟 cos 𝜃 + 𝑙𝑛 𝑟
2𝜋
𝑝
𝜑 = 𝑈𝑟 sin 𝜃 + 𝜃
2𝜋
Distance between Stagnation point and Source is given by
𝑝
𝜆=
2𝜋𝑈
Height of Half Rankine Oval is given by:
𝑝 𝜋−𝜃
ℎ=
2𝜋 𝑈

r h
θ

(f) Full Rankine Oval:

Full Rankine Oval is created by superimposing Uniform flow with source at (-a, 0) and sink at (a, 0).

U P

θ1 θ θ2
a a
λ λ

𝑝 𝑝
𝜔 = 𝑈𝑧 + ln(𝑧 + 𝑎) − ln(𝑧 − 𝑎)
2𝜋 2𝜋
(g) Source – Sink Doublet:
If source and sink is placed very near to each other, they form a doublet. Let they are
separated by a distance 2𝜖 when they are at (−𝜖, 0) and (𝜖, 0).
𝑝 𝑝
𝜔= ln(𝑧 + 𝜖) − ln(𝑧 − 𝜖)
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑝𝜖 𝜇
𝜔= =
𝜋𝑧 𝑧
Where 𝜇 is strength of source/sink doublet.
(h) Vortex Doublet:
 𝜁𝜖 ∝
𝜔= =
𝜋𝑧 𝑧
Where 𝛼 is the strength of vortex doublet.
(i) Stationary or Non Rotating Cylinder:
Here uniform flow is superimposed on source sink doublet.
𝜇
𝜔 = 𝑈𝑧 +
𝑧
𝜇 𝑎
𝑢 = 𝑈 1− cos 𝜃 = 𝑈 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
𝑟 𝑈 𝑟
𝜇 𝑎
𝑢 = −𝑈 1 + sin 𝜃 = −𝑈 1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝑟 𝑈 𝑟
Here 𝑎 =
At the surface of cylinder, 𝑢 = 0 and 𝑢 = −2𝑈 sin 𝜃
𝑃−𝑃
𝐶 =
1
2 𝜌𝑈
Where 𝐶 is coefficient of pressure.
(j) Rotating Cylinder:
Here uniform flow is superimposed on source sink doublet and vortex flow.
𝜇 𝑖𝜁
𝜔 = 𝑈𝑧 + + ln 𝑧
𝑧 2𝜋
Put 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 in the above equation to find all the equations 𝑢 and 𝑢 .
(k) Corner Flows:
𝜔 = 𝐴𝑧
Put 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 in the above equation to find all the equations 𝑢 and 𝑢 .
(l) There is no drag or lift on non-rotating cylinder.
(m) On a rotating cylinder, there is no drag and lift is equal to 𝐿 = 𝜌𝑈𝜁

LAMINAR VISCOUS FLOWS

1. Couette’s Flow:
y=h

y=0
Lower plate is stationary here. Upper plate is infinitely long. No pressure gradient.
𝑉
𝑢= 𝑦
ℎ
Volume flow rate, 𝑄 =
Mass flow rate, 𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑄
Shear Stress, 𝜏 =
2. Plane – Poiseuille Flow:
 y=h
dp
h
dx
y=0
1 𝜕𝑃 𝑦
𝑢= (𝑦 − ℎ)
𝜇 𝜕𝑥 2
ℎ 𝜕𝑃
𝑄=−
12𝜇 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑃 ℎ
𝜏= 𝑦−
𝜕𝑥 2
BOUNDARY LAYER:
1. Boundary layer thickness is given by
0.5𝑥
𝛿 =
𝑅
Where 𝑅 is Reynolds number.
2. Displacement Thickness:
𝑢
𝛿∗ = 1− 𝑑𝑦
𝑈
3. Momentum Thickness:
𝑢 𝑢
𝜃= 1− 𝑑𝑦
𝑈 𝑈
4. Energy Thickness:
𝑢 𝑢
𝛿 ∗∗ = 1− 𝑑𝑦
𝑈 𝑈
5. Von Karman Integral Equation:
𝑈𝑑𝑈 ∗ 𝜕 𝜏
𝛿 + [𝑈 𝜃] =
𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜌
6. Boundary Layer over a flat plate:
𝑈 𝜕𝜃 𝜏
=
𝜕𝑥 𝜌
Boundary Layer Profile is given by:
𝒖 𝟑 𝒚 𝟏 𝒚𝟑
= −
𝑼 𝟐 𝜹 𝟐 𝜹𝟑
39
𝜃= 𝛿
280
4.62𝑥
𝛿=
𝑅𝑒
Skin friction Coefficient is given by,
𝜇 3 1
𝐶 = . .
𝜌 𝑈 𝛿
1.7325𝑥
𝛿∗ =
𝑅𝑒
 0.644𝑥
𝜃=
𝑅𝑒
7. Prandtl Number:
𝛿
(Pr) =
𝛿
8. Turbulent Boundary Layer:
0.37𝑥
𝛿 =
(𝑅𝑒)
0.074
𝐶 =
(𝑅𝑒)
GAS DYNAMICS
1. Temperature and Pressure Relationship is given by:
𝑇 𝑃
=
𝑇 𝑃
2. Speed of Sound in an Isothermal Flow:
𝑎 = √𝑅𝑇
3. Speed of Sound in isentropic flow:
𝛾𝑝
𝑎= = 𝛾𝑅𝑇
𝜌
4. Ratio of Total Temperature to ambient temperature:
𝑇 𝛾−1
=1+ 𝑀
𝑇 2
5. Characteristic Mach Number versus Mach Number
𝛾+1
𝑀∗ = 2 𝑀
(𝛾 − 1)𝑀
1+ 2
6. Normal Shock Wave:
Here upstream mach number is more than 1 which led to creation of shock wave. Normal
shock wave means flow is perpendicular to shock wave. Across normal shock wave, total
energy remains conserved but there is an increase in entropy.
The subscript 1 refers to situations before shock wave and subscript 2 refers to situation
after shock wave.

Mass Conservation: 𝜌 𝑉 = 𝜌 𝑉
Momentum Equation: 𝑝 + 𝜌 𝑉 = 𝑝 + 𝜌 𝑉
Energy Conservation:
𝑉 𝑣
𝑐 𝑇 + =𝑐 𝑇 +
2 2
Ideal Gas Equation: 𝑃 = 𝜌 𝑅𝑇 and 𝑃 = 𝜌 𝑅𝑇
Internal Energy: 𝑒 = 𝐶 𝑇 and 𝑒 = 𝐶 𝑇
Relation between Characteristic Mach Numbers:
𝑀∗ . 𝑀∗ = 1
 𝛾+1
2 𝑀
𝑀∗ =
𝛾−1
1+ 2 𝑀
Relation between Mach Numbers across the shock:
𝛾−1
1+ 2 𝑀
𝑀 =
𝛾−1
𝛾𝑀 − 2
7. Oblique Shock Wave:
For a weak shock wave, it is called a mach wave. It forms a cone which has an angle 𝜇,
called mach angle.
1
sin 𝜇 =
𝑀
Oblique shock wave is inclined at an angle 𝛽 with the angle of disturbance 𝜃.
If 𝛽 = 90 , it will become the case of normal shock wave.

Here 𝑀 , = 𝑀 sin 𝛽 and 𝑀 , = 𝑀 sin(𝛽 − 𝜃)

For rest formulaes, just take formula of normal shock wave and replace 𝑀 by 𝑀 , and
𝑀 by 𝑀 , .

Relation between 𝜃 and 𝛽 is given by:

2 cot 𝛽 [𝑀 sin 𝛽 − 1]
tan 𝜃 =
𝑀 (𝛾 + cos 2𝛽) + 2
8. Expansion Waves:
M1
M2

Here 𝑇 = 𝑇 , 𝑃 = 𝑃 , 𝑆 = 𝑆 because there are no shocks present here.

Mach number increases after expansion fan.

𝛾+1 𝛾+1
𝜈(𝑀) = tan (𝑀 − 1) − tan ( (𝑀 − 1)
𝛾−1 𝛾−1
9. Pressure distribution along a Converging Diverging Nozzle
(a) Area Ratio in the C-D Nozzle:
𝐴 1 2 𝛾−1
= 1 + 𝑀
𝐴∗ 𝑀 𝛾 + 1 2
(b) Mass Flow Rate inside nozzle:

𝑃 𝐴∗ 𝛾 2
𝑚̇ =
𝑇 𝑅 𝛾+1
1. Acceleration due to gravity, 𝑔 =

2. Gravitational Potential Energy, 𝑈 = −

3. In a circular orbit, Velocity 𝑉 = . Its direction is along the tangent to the path.

4. Work done by satellite in a full orbit is zero.

5. Time period for circular orbit is calculated as 𝑇 =

6. Total energy of the satellite in circular orbit 𝑇𝐸 = 𝐾𝐸 + 𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑉 + −

7. Binding energy for satellite in circular orbits = −(𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦)

8. Escape Velocity =

9. In an elliptical orbit, perigee is the nearest point to the earth and apogee is the distant
point from the earth.
Perigee distance = 𝑎(1 − 𝑒) and Apogee Distance = 𝑎(1 + 𝑒) where 𝑒 is eccentricity of
orbit.

10. From Kepler’s second law, = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

11. Time period of circular orbit 𝑇 ∝ 𝑟

13. Time period of elliptical orbit 𝑇 ∝ 𝑎 or 𝑇 ∝ 𝑏

14. Eccentricity of elliptical orbit 𝑒 =

15. Velocity at perigee 𝑉 = ×

16. Velocity at perigee 𝑉 = ×

17. 𝑉 𝑅 = 𝑉 𝑅
18. When plane is changed in Hoffman transfer at an angle 𝜃, the change in velocity
𝜃
∆𝑣 = 2𝑣 sin
2
𝑣 is the velocity of satellite.
19. Time period of geostationary satellite is 24 hours.
 𝑟
𝑔=𝑔
ℎ
ℎ =𝑟+ℎ
𝑟
ℎ= ×ℎ
𝑟+ℎ
ℎ is geometric altitude, ℎ is absolute altitude, ℎ is
geopotential altitude.

For gradient layers:

( )
𝑃 𝑇
=
𝑃 𝑇

[ ]
𝜌 𝑇
=
𝜌 𝑇
For isothermal layers:
𝑃 𝜌 ( )
= =𝑒
𝑃 𝜌

𝐶
𝐶 =𝐶 +
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
Where e is Oswald efficiency and AR
is aspect ratio of the aircraft.

AR = b.c = wing span × chord length

𝐶 , is zero lift drag coefficient

Equations of Motion:
𝑑𝑉
𝑇 cos 𝛼 − 𝐷 − 𝑊 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚
𝑑𝑡
𝑚𝑉
𝐿 + 𝑇 sin 𝛼 − 𝑊 cos 𝜃 =
𝑅
In a steady straight and level flight 𝐿 = 𝑊 and 𝑇 = 𝐷

Thrust Required for Level Unacclerated Flight:

𝑊
𝑇 =
𝐶
𝐶
For minimum thrust required, 𝐶 =𝐶
 THRUST AVAILABLE
Thrust available is the property of
engine used. It varies from propeller
engine to Turbojet Engine.

Power Required for Level

Unacclerated Flight:

𝑷𝑹 = 𝑻𝑹 × 𝑽
𝟏
𝑷𝑹 ∝ 𝟑
𝑪𝟐𝑳
𝑪𝑫

For minimum power required,

𝟏
𝑪𝑫,𝟎 = 𝑪
𝟑 𝑫𝒊
 POWER AVAILABLE
For Propeller Engine,
𝑃 = 𝜂𝑃
Where P is the Brake power of
shaft.
For Jet Engine,
𝑃 =𝑇 ×𝑉

RATE OF CLIMB:
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑏
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐴𝑣𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 − 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑
=
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑏 = 𝑉 sin 𝜃
Where 𝜃 is angle of climb.

Absolute Ceiling is the height at

which rate of climb is zero.

Service Ceiling is where most flights

take place.

For maneuvering, aircraft fly

between Absolute Ceiling and
Service Ceiling

GLIDING FLIGHT:
Equilibrium Glide Angle:
1
tan 𝜃 =
𝐿
𝐷
For minimum equilibrium glide angle, glide ratio should be maximum.
Time of Flight:
 𝑑ℎ
𝑑𝑡 =
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑏
Range and Endurance of Propeller Aircraft:

Range of Aircraft:
𝜂𝐶 𝑊
𝑅= ln
𝑐𝐶 𝑊
Where c is specific fuel consumption.
For maximum range of propeller aircraft, 𝐶 /𝐶 should be maximum.

Endurance of Aircraft:

𝜂𝐶
𝐸= (2𝜌𝑆) 𝑊 −𝑊
𝑐𝐶

For maximum endurance of propeller aircraft, should be maximum.

Range and Endurance of Jet Aircraft:

Endurance of Aircraft:
1𝐶 𝑊
𝐸= ln
𝑐 𝐶 𝑊
Where c is specific fuel consumption.
For maximum endurance of jet aircraft, 𝐶 /𝐶 should be maximum.

Range of Aircraft:

2 1𝐶
𝐸=2 𝑊 −𝑊
𝜌𝑆 𝑐 𝐶

For maximum range of jet aircraft, should be maximum.

Takeoff Performance:
Takeoff Distance is given by
1.44𝑊
𝑠 =
𝑔𝜌𝑆𝐶 , 𝑇
Landing Performance:
1.69𝑊
𝑠 =
𝑔𝜌𝑆𝐶 , 𝐷

TURNING FLIGHT:
𝐿 cos 𝜙 = 𝑊
 𝐿
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑛 =
𝑊

Here,
𝑚𝑉
𝐹 = 𝐿 −𝑊 =𝑊 𝑛 −1=
𝑅
Radius of Curvature is given by:
𝑉
𝑅=
𝑔√𝑛 − 1
Turn Rate is given by:
𝑔√𝑛 − 1
𝜔=
𝑉
Case 1: Pull up maneuver:
𝐹 =𝐿−𝑊
Convert in the form of n and then find R and 𝜔.

Case 2: Pull Down Maneuver:

𝐹 =𝐿+𝑊
Convert in the form of n and then find R and 𝜔.

STABILITY AND CONTROL:

1. Turning Motion about x axis is called Roll (Lateral Motion) and ailerons control roll.
2. Turning Motion about y axis is called Pitch (Longitudinal Motion) and elevators control
pitch.
3. Turning Motion about z axis is called Yaw (Directional Motion) and rudders control yaw.
Here, 𝑎𝑐 is aerodynamic center, a point on the aircraft moment about which is independent
of angle of attack.
𝑐𝑔 is centre of gravity and weight of aircraft act on this point. There are two airfoils here, one
is wing airfoil and other is tail airfoil.

Coefficient of moment 𝐶 =

When moment abut centre of gravity is zero, then aircraft is said to be trimmed.
Necessary Criteria for Longitudinal Stability is:
(a) 𝐶 , must be positive.
,
(b) must be negative.

Wing Stability:
𝐶 , , =𝐶 , +𝐶 , (ℎ − ℎ )

𝐶 , , =𝐶 , + 𝑎 𝛼 (ℎ − ℎ )

ℎ is distance from leading edge to centre of gravity and ℎ is distance from aerodynamic
centre to centre of gravity.

𝑎 is lift curve slope which is and 𝛼 is angle of attack on wing only.

Tail Stability:
𝐶 , , = −𝑉 𝐶 , = −𝑉 𝑎 𝛼

Here 𝑉 is tail volume ratio and is defined as

𝑙𝑆
𝑉 =
𝑐𝑆
Where 𝑙 is tail length, 𝑆 is tail area.
𝑎 is tail curve slope and 𝛼 is angle of attack on tail only.
𝛼 =𝛼 −𝑖 −𝜖
𝜕𝜖
𝜖=𝜖 + 𝛼
𝜕𝛼
 𝜕𝜖
𝐶 , , = −𝑎 𝑉 𝛼 1− + 𝑎 𝑉 (𝜖 + 𝑖 )
𝜕𝛼
Total Longitudinal Stability:
𝐶 , =𝐶 , , +𝐶 , ,
𝐶 , = 𝐶 ,
Neutral Point:
,
When = 0, the value of ℎ is changed to ℎ and calculated using above formulae.

For longitudinal stability, the position of centre of gravity must always be forward of
neutral point.

Static Margin:
𝜕𝐶 ,
= −𝑎(ℎ − ℎ) = −𝑎 × 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛
𝜕𝛼
Elevator angle to trim:
𝜕𝐶 ,
𝐶 , + .𝛼
𝛿 = 𝜕𝛼
𝜕𝐶 ,
𝑉
𝜕𝛿
Modes in Longitudinal Motion:

(a) Short Period Mode:

Eigen value having largest imaginary part will correspond to short period mode.

(b) Long Period Mode:

Eigen value having shortest imaginary part will correspond to long period mode.

(c) Phugoid Mode:

This mode has low frequency and a low damping factor.
√2𝜋𝑉
𝑇=
𝑔
Modes in Lateral Motion:

(a) Roll Mode and Spiral Mode:

Purely real roots determine these two modes. Larger Eigen value means Roll mode and short
eigen value means spiral mode.

(b) Dutch Roll Mode:

The complex pair describe this mode.
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