Topic 0: Introduction to Aircraft Stability & Control

To discuss stability of a steady motion, we must first introduce some terminology to describe the motion.
Suppose we fix a reference frame to some point in the aircraft, as shown in Figure 1. We denote by xB
the unit vector pointing through the nose of the aircraft. This axis is often referred to as the longitudinal
axis. We let z B represent the unit vector pointing through the belly of the aircraft; this is often called the
directional axis. Finally, we define the lateral axis in terms of the unit vector y B = z B × xB . Viewing the
aircraft from behind, y B points to the right.
!

yB
xB

zB

yI
xI

zI

Figure 1: Inertial and body-fixed reference frames.

To describe the orientation of the aircraft, we define an inertial reference frame, which is denoted by the
fixed unit vectors xI , y I , and z I . The reason we choose to describe the aircraft’s orientation with respect to
an inertial frame is that Newton’s laws of motion only hold in an inertially fixed frame. We will typically
consider an earth-fixed frame to be an “inertial” frame. Although the resulting equations of motion will
technically be incorrect, the error due to the earth’s rotation, its revolution about the sun, etc. will be
small over the time periods of interest in studying stability and control.
As the aircraft is assumed to be rigid, the location of any point in the airplane is uniquely determined
by the position and orientation of the body-fixed reference frame. Therefore, we will often represent the
aircraft simply by its body-fixed reference frame. Suppose that the aircraft (i.e., the body frame) translates
at some velocity with respect to the inertial frame. We let
 
u
v= v 
w

denote the translational velocity of the body with respect to the inertial frame, but expressed in the body
frame.1 Also, suppose that the aircraft rotates at some angular velocity with respect to the the inertial
frame. We let  
p
ω= q 
r
denote the angular velocity of the body with respect to the inertial frame, but expressed in the body frame.
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Note the distinction, here! While any given vector can be expressed in any given reference frame, derivatives are always
taken with respect to a specific frame.

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 Axis Linear Aerodynamic Angular Angular Aerodynamic
Velocity Force Displacement Velocity Moment
Longitudinal (xB ) u X φ p L
Lateral (y B ) v Y θ q M
Directional (z B ) w Z ψ r N

The angular displacement variables φ, θ, and ψ do not generally represent angles about the body-fixed
axes. These angles, referred to as the Euler angles, define a series of three rotations which transform
vectors from the inertial frame to the body frame, and vice versa. The parameterization of vehicle attitude
will be discussed in detail later. Until then, we will only consider simple motions in which, for example,
the pitch angle θ is truly a rotation about the lateral (y B ) axis.
The aerodynamic forces and moments are conventionally denoted in terms of dimensionless coefficients.
Let V = kvk be the airspeed, let S denote a reference area, and let l denote a reference length. Then one
writes

   
1 2 1 2
X = CX ρV S L = Cl ρV Sl
2 2
   
1 2 1 2
Y = CY ρV S M = Cm ρV Sl
2 2
   
1 2 1 2
Z = CZ ρV S N = Cn ρV Sl
2 2

The reference area S is typically the wing planform area. Reference lengths differ depending on the context.
For the pitch moment coefficient Cm , for example, one typically takes l = c̄, the mean aerodynamic chord.
For the roll and yaw moment coefficients Cl and Cn , one takes l = b, the wing span.
The use of upper-case subscripts in the force coefficients is consistent with the notation for aerodynamic
forces. The apparently inconsistent use of lower-case subscripts in the moment coefficients avoids a potential
ambiguity between roll moment coefficient and lift coefficient.
The dimensionless coefficients CX , CY , CZ , Cl , Cm , and Cn , are functions of the Mach number M = V /a
(where a is the speed of sound), the Reynolds number Re = (ρV l)/µ (where ρ is the fluid density and µ
is the dynamic viscosity), and the aerodynamic angles α and β. Recall that the aerodynamic angles are
defined solely in terms of the body translational velocity:
w v
α = arctan and β = arcsin
u V
These angles are shown in Figure 2. The dimensionless coefficients also depend on the body angular rate
ω as well as the aerodynamic angle rates α̇ and β̇.
A standard assumption is that an aircraft is symmetric about the xB -z B plane. Motions which are restricted
to this plane of symmetry, such as wings-level climbs and loops, are called symmetric or longitudinal
motions. Motions out of the plane of symmetry, such as banked turns, are called asymmetric or lateral-
directional motions. Accordingly, the components of velocity and aerodynamic force and moment are often
decomposed into these two groups:

• Longitudinal (or symmetric) quantities: u, w, q, X, Z, M

• Lateral-directional (or asymmetric) quantities: v, p, r, Y , L, N

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 u
®
v ¯

v
Figure 2: Aerodynamic angles.

Static longitudinal stability. When discussing flight of atmospheric vehicles, the term “stability” refers
to a property of a special class of motion known as steady motion. For a vehicle in steady motion, all
components of body translational velocity v and body angular velocity ω are constant. A special case
of steady motion is equilibrium flight, in which the vehicle acceleration is zero. Note that these two
definitions are distinct. Steady, wings-level flight at constant altitude is equilibrium flight. A horizontal
turn at constant radius and velocity is not equilibrium flight; the constant yaw rate turn requires a constant
centripetal acceleration. Equilibrium flight is a steady motion for which ω = 0.
Stability (or instability) is a property corresponding to a steady motion. Loosely speaking, if a vehicle
which is slightly perturbed from a steady motion returns to that steady motion, the motion is stable. If
the vehicle motion diverges in response to a small perturbation, the motion is unstable.
The flight mechanics literature distinguishes between two finer notions of stability: static and dynamic
stability. The term static stability is somewhat of a misnomer because, by definition, stability (or instabil-
ity) refers to a system’s motion in response to a disturbance. Static stability refers to the initial tendency
of a vehicle, if displaced from a given steady motion, to return to that motion. No information about
the vehicle’s subsequent motion is required, only its initial tendency. Thus, one may determine static
stability without solving the differential equations that describe the airplane’s motion. Moreover, one may
typically determine static stability without even knowing those equations, that is, without knowing the full
mathematical model for the aircraft. The notion of static stability is therefore very important in aircraft
design, where the effect of preliminary sizing and configuration decisions on stability must be determined
immediately.
Even though a given steady motion may be statically stable, the vehicle may diverge from the given motion
with time. To characterize this latter phenomenon, one must consider dynamic stability in which the
complete vehicle motion, not just its initial motion, is important. A given steady motion is dynamically
stable if, after a small displacement, the aircraft returns to the steady motion asymptotically in time.
Dynamic stability is stronger than static stability:

Dynamic stability ⇒ Static stability but Static stability 6 ⇒ Dynamic stability

For example, a vehicle’s state may undergo diverging oscillations about a statically stable steady motion.
We will begin by investigating the conditions under which steady wings level flight is statically stable in
pitch. In the absence of asymmetric disturbances, the motion remains purely longitudinal because of the
longitudinal symmetry of the aircraft. The pitch rate equation about the center of gravity simplifies to
 
1 1 1 2
q̇ = M = ρV Sc̄ Cm
Iy Iy 2
For pure longitudinal flight, the primary influences are angle of attack α, pitch rate q, angle of attack rate

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α̇, Reynolds number Re, and Mach number M. For now, since we are considering the initial response to a
static perturbation, we ignore all dependencies save α and write Cm = Cm (α). Formally expanding in a
Taylor series about zero angle of attack gives
Cm = Cm0 + Cmα α + h.o.t. (1)
If we assume that α remains fairly small (as measured in radians), then we may neglect the higher order
terms in (1). The term Cm0 is the pitch moment coefficient at zero angle of attack and

∂Cm 
Cmα =
∂α 

α=0

is the slope of the pitch moment coefficient curve. Because of its critical role in determining both static
and dynamic stability, Cmα is referred to as a stability derivative.
CL Cm

CL 1. Cm ® > 0
eq

2. Cm ® = 0
® ®

® eq ® eq

3. Cm < 0
®

Figure 3: Pitch coefficient possibilities.

For symmetric equilibrium flight at constant altitude, a simple force balance in the z I direction shows that
the lift which the aircraft generates must perfectly balance its weight:
 
X 1 2
FzI = 0 = W − ρV S CL (α)
2
where CL (α) is the nondimensional “lift coefficient.” Suppose that we measure the angle of attack α from
the airplane’s zero-lift line, so that
C L = C Lα α
In this case, the constant component Cm0 in the pitch moment coefficient is the zero-lift pitch moment
coefficient Cm0L .
Given that CLα > 0 and that lift must act in the upward direction to balance the airplane’s weight, a
constant, positive angle of attack, say α = αeq > 0, is required for equilibrium flight:
 
X 1 2
FzI = 0 = W − ρV S CLα αeq
2
Moreover, equilibrium flight requires that the angular rate and all its derivatives be zero. Thus,
 
1 1 2
q̇ = 0 = ρV Sc̄ Cm (αeq ) ⇒ Cm (αeq ) = Cm0L + Cmα αeq = 0
Iy 2

Referring to Figure 3, there are three possible scenarios in which balanced flight could be established:

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 1. Cm0L < 0 and Cmα > 0
2. Cm0L = 0 and Cmα = 0
3. Cm0L > 0 and Cmα < 0

In each case, the pitch coefficient is zero when α = αeq . What distinguishes the three cases is what happens
when the equilibrium is disturbed. Imagining a small (positive or negative) perturbation in the angle of
attack and considering each case in turn, static pitch stability clearly requires that Cm (α) have a negative
slope when it crosses the α-axis at the equilibrium angle of attack αeq . Moreover, this x-intercept should
occur at a positive value αeq > 0 so that the aircraft can generate useful lift in this condition:

Static longitudinal stability requires Cmα < 0 and Cm0L > 0

Aerodynamic reference points. A common reference point for the aerodynamic forces and the pitch
moment on a wing is the aerodynamic center. The aerodynamic center is that point about which the
pitching moment does not vary with angle of attack. To find this point, note that by definition
∂Cmac
=0
∂α

If one knows CL and Cma about some point xa as functions of α (from wind tunnel tests, for example), then
one may obtain Cmac using the following handy approximation for transferring an aerodynamic moment
from the (nondimensional) longitudinal point ha = xa /c̄ to the point hb = xb /c̄:

Cmb ≈ Cma + CL (hb − ha ) (2)

To find Cmac and hac (and hence xac ), consider the following procedure:

1. Let hb in equation (2) denote the aerodynamic center.

2. Set the derivative of equation (2) with respect to α equal to zero:
∂Cmac ∂Cma ∂CL
0= = + (hac − ha )
∂α ∂α ∂α
Notice that if CL and Cm are linear in α (and we will generally assume that they are), all terms in
the equation above are constants.
3. Solve for the location of the aerodynamic center:
 
∂CL −1 ∂Cma
hac = ha − (3)
∂α ∂α

4. Substitute hac back into equation (2) to obtain Cmac .

There is often a simpler approach to find Cmac . If α = α0L , that is, if the angle of attack corresponds to
zero lift, then CL is zero in equation (2) and the pitch moment (coefficient) is the same everywhere along
the wing:
Cmb = Cma = Cmac
Thus, the (constant) moment about the aerodynamic center has the same value as the zero-lift pitching
moment:
Cmac = Cm0L
Letting xa = xac , we may re-write the moment transfer formula (2) as

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 Cmb ≈ Cmac + CL (hb − hac )
= Cm0L + CL (hb − hac )

Aerodynamic data for wings are typically referenced to the wing aerodynamic center or some other wing-
related reference point. When writing the equations of motion for an entire aircraft, however, it is most
convenient to sum moments about the aircraft center of gravity. Thus, a typical application of the formula
above will be to transfer the wing aerodynamic moment to the aircraft center of gravity.
To this point, we have only discussed the aerodynamic center for a rectangular wing. For a more general
wing, one introduces the notion of mean aerodynamic center x̄ac . Appendix C in [1] presents techniques for
determining (or approximating) this point, as well as the mean aerodynamic chord c̄, for wings of general
shape. In subsonic flight, the aerodynamic center is located roughly one-quarter chord aft of the wing’s
leading edge. In supersonic flight, the aerodynamic center shifts aftward to roughly the half-chord point.
Another reference point which is sometimes important is the point at which the moment generated by the
wing vanishes entirely. The center of pressure is the point about which the moment due to the aerodynamic
force generated by the wing (i.e., the vector sum of lift and drag) precisely balances the pure aerodynamic
couple generated by the wing. To find the center of pressure, we solve

0 = Cmcp = Cm0L + CL (hcp − hac )

to obtain
Cm0L
hcp = hac −
CL
Note that the center of pressure varies with α because CL varies with α. For this reason, the center of
pressure is generally a less useful reference point in aircraft dynamic modeling.
Conditions for Static Longitudinal Stability. Let’s return now to the problem of static longitudinal
stability. The two requirements we obtained are that the pitch moment coefficient Cm about the center
of gravity (CG) must have a negative slope and be positive at the zero lift angle of attack α0L . The
first condition ensures that a restoring moment is generated in response to small perturbations from αeq .
The second condition ensures that an equilibrium angle of attack exists for which the wing generates the
positive lift necessary to balance the airplane’s weight.
Given xac and Cmac , we may write

Cmcg = Cmac + CL (hcg − hac )

The first condition for static longitudinal stability is that Cmcgα < 0, where

∂Cmcg ∂Cmac ∂CL

Cmcgα = = + (hcg − hac )
∂α ∂α ∂α
= CLα (hcg − hac )

Since CLα > 0 and x is measured positive aft of the leading edge, this condition says that the center of
gravity must be forward of the aerodynamic center.
Now consider the second condition for static longitudinal stability, that Cmcg |α0L > 0. This condition
ensures that the pitch coefficient curve passes through zero at an angle of attack αeq for which CL (αeq ) is
positive. Thus, positive lift will be generated when the pitch moment is zero. Assuming that the dynamic
pressure is appropriate, the aircraft’s weight will be perfectly balanced by the lift that it generates. We

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can express this condition as a condition on Cmac as follows:
 
0 < Cmcg α
0L

= [Cmac + CL (hcg − hac )]α0L

= Cmac

The existence of a statically stable, balanced flight condition requires

Cmac = Cm0L > 0 and Cmcgα < 0 or, equivalently, Cmac = Cm0L > 0 and (hcg − hac ) < 0

CL Cm

Cm , C mac
0L

CL
eq

® ®

® 0L ® eq ® eq

CL Cm

Cm , C mac
0L
CL
eq

® ®
® eq ® eq

Figure 4: Generic lift and pitch moment coefficient curves. The bottom and top graphs are equivalent
except that, in the lower graphs, α is measured to the zero-lift line while, in the upper graphs, ᾱ is measured
from some other fuselage reference line.

Shown in Figure 4 are representative lift and pitch moment coefficient curves, where Cm = Cmcg . At the
top, CL and Cm are plotted versus ᾱ where ᾱ is not measured to the zero-lift line. Below these plots, CL
and Cm are plotted versus α, which is measured to the zero-lift line (meaning α0L = 0). Note that the the
pitch moment coefficient curve represents a statically stable wing for which the balanced angle of attack
corresponds to positive lift. That is, Cmac = Cm0L > 0 and Cmcgα < 0.

References

[1] B. Etkin and L. D. Reid. Dynamics of Flight: Stability and Control. John Wiley and Sons, New York,
NY, third edition, 1996.

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Appendix: Transferring moments. Consider the planar rigid body shown on the left in Figure 5. The
body is subject to a force F acting at the point xa and a moment M , which is a pure couple. For this
system, we have X X
Fz = F and MO = M − F xa
One may easily transfer a set of forces and moments acting at a given point to any other point. For
example, one may transfer the force and moment above to the origin O, as shown at the right in Figure 5.
Now consider a rectangular wing. We assume that lift force, drag force, and aerodynamic moment are
z z
F

xa
F
=
x x
O
M (M - Fxa)

Figure 5: Equivalent force and moment diagrams.

known, as functions of angle of attack, at the point xa . (In keeping with aerodynamics convention, the
signed distance x is measured positive aft from the wing leading edge.)
Lb
La

Mb
Ma ®
® V Db
V Da
xa xb

c c

Figure 6: Equivalent force and moment diagram for a wing.

Suppose we wish to transfer the forces and moment from the point xa to another point xb along the chord.
The forces are equal at either point:

Lb = La = L and Db = Da = D

It remains to determine the moment Mb given Ma , La , and Da . First, compute the moment of the system
on the left about a particular point, say the leading edge:

Ml.e. = Ma − L(xa cos α) − D(xa sin α)

Next, compute the moment of the system on the right about the same point:

Ml.e. = Mb − L(xb cos α) − D(xb sin α)

Equating the two expressions for Ml.e. and solving for Mb gives

Mb = Ma + (L cos α + D sin α)(xb − xa )

1 2


Dividing through by 2 ρV Sc̄ gives
x xa 
b
Cmb = Cma + (CL cos α + CD sin α) −
c̄ c̄

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(Note: Since we are considering a rectangular wing, the mean aerodynamic chord c̄ is simply the constant
chord length c.) Define the nondimensional distances
xa xb
ha = and hb =
c̄ c̄
For small angles of attack2 , we have

Cmb = Cma + (CL cos α + CD sin α) (hb − ha )

 
CD
≈ Cma + CL 1 + α (hb − ha )
CL

For a well-designed wing operating below stall, CCDL ≪ 1 (ignoring, as pathological, the case where CL → 0).
Since we have already assumed that α is small, the product CCDL α may be neglected. We therefore have the
following approximate equation for transferring an aerodynamic moment between points on a wing:

Cmb ≈ Cma + CL (hb − ha )

2 π
The error in this approximation is less than 5% for |α| ≤ 12
radians ≈ 15◦ .