Hahn Masters Thesis Final

The Pennsylvania State University
The Graduate School
School of Music
BEHIND THE MASK:
A SEMIOTIC ANALYSIS OF WILLIAM BOLCOM'S
SONGS OF INNOCENCE AND OF EXPERIENCE
A Thesis in
Music Theory
by
Eric M. Hahn
©2013 Eric M. Hahn
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements
for the Degree of
Master of Arts
December 2013

The thesis of Eric M. Hahn was reviewed and approved* by the following:
Taylor Greer
Associate Professor of Music
Thesis Adviser
Eric McKee
Professor of Music Theory
Marica Tacconi
Professor of Musicology
Head of the Department of Music Theory
*Signatures are on file in the Graduate School.
ii

ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study is to utilize semiotic analysis as a method to determine
the intended musical meanings within William Bolcom's Songs of Innocence and of
Experience. More specifically, this research will begin with biographical information
about Bolcom and a brief glimpse into his compositional catalogue and style. I will
continue with an exploration of the field of semiotics, or sign study, complete with a
chronological evolution of the domain. This section of the research will also explore how
the field can be applied to musical analysis following the models created by Leonard G.
Ratner, V. Kofi Agawu, Robert S. Hatten, and Arthur B. Wenk. In order to gain a clearer
perspective of Bolcom's possible intended musical meanings, this research will also delve
into the biographical information of William Blake and explore the literary criticisms
associated with his two-part collection of poetry Songs of Innocence and of Experience.
Next, I will utilize semiotics to analyze Bolcom's composition for signs and topics, which
will help to define the composer's musical "mask." In conclusion, the accepted meanings
of Blake's poetry as discussed by the literary criticisms will be compared to the musical
meanings of Bolcom's composition to determine if and how the composer has musically
captured the literary intentions of the author. Specific attention will be paid to the three
poems from Songs of Innocence and three from Songs of Experience, which illustrate
dualities or contraries in both Blake's lyrics and Bolcom's music. These poems include
"The Lamb" and "The Tyger," "The Chimney Sweeper" and "The Chimney Sweeper,"
and "Holy Thursday" and "London." These poems will most clearly demonstrate Blake's
fascination with contraries, dualities, and ironies while also providing prime examples of
Bolcom's musical masks and determine his intended musical meanings.
iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Tables.......................................................................................................................v
Acknowledgements.............................................................................................................vi
Chapter 1. WILLIAM BOLCOM........................................................................................1
Chapter 2. SEMIOTICS.......................................................................................................7
A Brief History........................................................................................................7
Semiotics Applied to Musical Analysis.................................................................13
Chapter 3. WILLIAM BLAKE..........................................................................................28
Chapter 4. LITERARY ANALYSIS.................................................................................35
Chapter 5. MUSICAL ANALYSIS...................................................................................50
Chapter 6. CONCLUSIONS..............................................................................................61
Appendix A: William Blake's Songs of Innocence and of Experience..............................65
Appendix B: WIlliam Bolcom's Songs of Innocence and of Experience..........................66
Bibliography......................................................................................................................67
iv

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Agawu's Topics I.................................................................................................20
Table 2. Agawu's Topics II................................................................................................21
Table 3. Dickensheets' Topics...........................................................................................22
Table 4. Grabócz' Topics...................................................................................................23
Table 5. Agawu's Topics....................................................................................................24
Table 6. Mirka's Topics.....................................................................................................25
v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and foremost, I would like to thank Dr. Taylor Greer for his unwavering support
throughout the thesis writing process. His willingness to join me for this journey into the
world of Semiotics and how they can be applied to the music of William Bolcom is
greatly appreciated, and I will not soon forget the tremendous amount of information and
knowledge he provided me during trip. I could not have asked for a more considerate
adviser and first reader to lead me through the program.
I would also like to thank Dr. Eric McKee for his willingness to serve as a second reader
for this thesis. Not only did his vast knowledge of Semiotics and semiotic analysis
provide me with a plethora of information to utilize within this thesis, but his insightful
and thought provoking suggestions helped to make it much more cohesive and well
structured. I consider myself fortunate to have worked with such an educated musician.
I would also like to thank Dr. Maureen Carr for the many roles she has played in my
overall music education, most importantly for serving as the catalyst that began my
journey down the paths of this degree program. I hope to have many more opportunities
to work with such a distinguished professor.
Lastly, I owe a huge debt of gratitude to my wife, Dr. Kathryn Hahn, for her assistance,
support, patience, and understanding throughout this process. I could not possibly have
found the time and drive to succeed with this endeavor had it not been for her unwavering
encouragement and assistance. I will forever thank her for helping me achieve this goal.
vi

CHAPTER 1 - WILLIAM BOLCOM
William Bolcom has been described as an unrepentant eclectic composer of
contemporary music.1 This description is supported by a perusal of his compositional
catalogue,2 which contains myriad works for orchestra, band, choir and voice, chamber
ensemble, and keyboard instruments in every genre “from ragtime and theatre scores to
chamber and symphonic works.”3 Additionally, Bolcom regularly performs an eclectic
array of cabaret songs, show tunes, and popular songs with his wife and fellow Grammy
winner, Joan Morris.4 The claim is also supported by Bolcom’s lengthy list of awards
from a variety or organizations including two Guggenheim Fellowships, two
Koussevitzky Foundation Awards, the Marc Blitzstein Award from the Academy of Arts
and Letters, the Henry Russel Award (University of Michigan), a Pulitzer Prize (1998),
the 2006 National Medal of Arts, and four Grammy Awards in 2008 for the recording of
his setting of William Blake’s Songs of Innocence and of Experience.5 This collection of
songs alone demonstrates Bolcom’s eclectic compositional style as it includes settings of
nearly four dozen poems encompassing a similar number of musical genres performed by
a full orchestra complete with saxophones, electric fiddles, vocal soloists, and mixed
chorus. Steven Blier writes,
The Blake piece runs the gamut from country and western, rock, blues,
and reggae numbers, to sections reminiscent of Mahler and Berg,
neoclassicism, atonal music, and folk songs. Leonard Bernstein may have

1
Christopher Wright, “The Unrepentant Eclectic,”
http://www.adventuresinmusic.biz/Archives/Interviews/bolcom.htm (2005), accessed 31 May 2009.
2
William Bolcom, “Compositions,” http://www.williambolcom.com/index.php?contentID=1017 (2008),
accessed 28 March 2009.
3
Ann McCutchan, The Muse that Sings (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 23-29.
4
William Bolcom, “Meet the Composer,” http://williambolcom.com/index/php?contentID=1011 (2008),
5
William Bolcom, “Honors & Awards,” http://williambolcom.com/index.php?contentID=1016 (2008),
accessed 26 May 2009.
1

been eclectic, but when it comes to mixing genres, no one has outdone
William Bolcom.6
Through their reviews, many critics have reinforced William Bolcom’s reputation
as an eclectic. In a 1990 concert review of Bolcom’s Piano Concerto, performed by
Emanuel Ax and the New York Philharmonic, Donal Henahan of the New York Times
compares the composer to a minister presiding over the marriage of Classical and popular
music in America.7 Just five years later, Bernard Holland declares, “Mr. Bolcom works
hard to erase the lines between the elite and the vulgar, the intellectual and the visceral,
the select and the popular.”8 Robert Karl describes Bolcom’s eclecticism more
concretely, suggesting one of his compositions might include sections of atonality,
expressionism, American popular music, and formal Classical elements, meaning the
only constant in Bolcom’s music is its diversity.9 Very plainly, Daniel Webster writes in
his review of Bolcom’s Symphony No. 5, “Eclecticism, rather than a post-modern
philosophy appeared to guide Bolcom in his musical choices.”10
Bolcom received his formal compositional training from such diverse educators as
George Frederick McKay and John Verrall (University of Washington), Darius Milhaud
(Mills College, CA), Olivier Messiaen (Paris Conservatoire), and Leland Smith (Stanford
University) while garnering pianistic inspiration from Madame Berthe Poncy Jacobson

6
Steven Blier, program notes, New York Festival of Song, 23 and 25 September 2008.
7
Donal Henahan, “A Composer Who Marries the Popular and Unpopular,” The New York Times (Late
Edition), 21 April 1990, 1, 14.
8
Bernard Holland, “Composing a Kinship Between Classical and Pop,” The New York Times (Late
Edition), 18 January 1995, C14.
9 Robert Carl, “Six Case Studies in New American Music: A Postmodern Portrait Gallery,” College
Music Symposium, 30/1 (1990), 59-‐63.

10
Daniel Webster, “Philadelphia Orchestra: Bolcom Symphony No. 5 [premiere],” Musical America, 110/3
(May 1990), 64.
2

and Eubie Blake,11 all of whom Bolcom asserts have contributed to his eclectic writing
style.12 Additionally, Bolcom writes, “I am in love with the many genres of music and
have learned that it is important to respect the genre you are contributing to if you want
its expressive potential in your music.”13
In Bernard Holland’s New York Times article, “Composing a Kinship Between
Classical and Pop,” Bolcom expands upon his eclecticism claiming his music is an
attempt to clarify the relationships between the genres of the past and the future. He
believes there are similarities, which, if realized, could benefit the declining field of
contemporary music composition.14 Bolcom also addresses his love for juxtaposing
musical genres in his article “The End of the Mannerist Century.” Within this essay,
Bolcom asserts that commonalities can be found within the music of all genres, and how
an amalgamation of these elements can help to expand appreciation and understanding
not only of these foreign styles, but also of ourselves and of others.15 Describing his
setting of Songs of Innocence and of Experience, Bolcom reflects,
The whole piece is about dualities or ‘contraries,’ as Blake called them.

The whole set of poems is about how to deal with these incredibly
surprising juxtapositions, and make some sense of them. But they’re all
built out of this same principle of contraries, which turns out to also be a
kind of overarching aesthetic in my own music.”16

11
William Bolcom, “Meet the Composer,” http://williambolcom.com/index.php?contentID=1011 (2008),
12
Wright, Unrepentant Eclectic.
13
William Bolcom, “Something About Music,” in Contemporary Composers on Contemporary Music, ed.
Elliott Schwartz (New York: Da Capo Press, 1998), 482-484.
14
Holland, Composing a Kinship, C14.
15
William Bolcom, “The End of the Mannerist Century,”
http://williambolcom.com/index.php?contentID=1039 (2008), accessed 28 March 2009.
16
Anastasia Tsioulcas, “Bolcom’s Epic ‘Songs’ Finally Get Their Due,” Billboard, 116/45 (6 November
2004), 12.
3

Bolcom’s use of compositional dichotomies or “contraries” has continued to pervade his
music in the years since Songs of Innocence and of Experience creating a style that goes
beyond eclecticism.
William Bolcom completed his musical setting of Songs of Innocence and of
Experience in 1983. Bolcom himself describes the piece as "a musical illumination of the
poems of William Blake."17 The work was premiered in 1984 by the Stuggart Opera
Orchestra under the direction on Dennis Russell Davies, and has since been performed by
the University of Michigan Symphony Orchestra and Choirs, the Grant Park Symphony
Orchestra, The Brooklyn Philharmonic, the Saint Louis Symphony Orchestra, the BBC
Symphony Orchestra, and the Pacific Symphony Orchestra.18 A recording on the Naxos
label of the U.S. Premiere by the University of Michigan was awarded four Grammy
awards.
It is the belief of this researcher that Songs of Innocence and of Experience
epitomizes the eclecticism of William Bolcom in a way no other compositions within his
catalogue can. The work combines elements of the orchestra, band, choral, opera, solo
voice, piano/keyboard, chamber music, and jazz genres in which Bolcom typically
composes. Specifically, this epic composition involves the combined forces of a massive
symphony orchestra (including saxophones and several chamber ensembles), a solo tenor,
a solo baritone, solo sopranos, a solo boy singer, a solo contralto, a solo mezzo-soprano, a
solo coloratura soprano, a solo country singer, a speaking actor, a solo rock singer, a solo
folk singer, a six-voice madrigal group, a large symphonic choir, and a children's choir.
Also necessary are a pipe organ, a piano, an electric piano, a melodeon, a celesta, a harp,

17
William Bolcom, Songs of Innocence and of Experience (New York: E.B. Marks, 1983).
18
Ibid.
4

a harmonica, an electric guitar, an acoustic guitar, an electric bass, two electric violins, a
mandolin, and a fiddle tuned one half step sharp.19 Of his eight orchestral symphonies,
only his Fourth Symphony incorporates solo voice, and only his Eighth Symphony
includes choral forces. In the concert band genre, Bolcom has composed only eight
pieces, a relatively small portion of his massive catalogue, many of which were written
for special occasions such as the installation of a new university president (University of
Michigan) or for a specific player or players such as saxophonist Donald Sinta and his
quartet. Again, only one of these pieces includes a vocal component, and only the
relatively recent First Symphony for Band could even be considered eclectic. Bolcom's
choral output is more extensive than his concert band catalogue, but relatively few of
these compositions utilize all of the myriad forces with which Bolcom has experimented
throughout his career. These same arguments can be applied to most of the remainder of
Bolcom's compositional catalogue.20 Therefore, while the inclusion of Bolcom's entire
catalogue may allow for a general overview of his compositional styles, a thorough
examination of Songs of Innocence and of Experience will lead more specifically to the
compositional devices, musical topics, and multiple masks Bolcom utilizes within his
music.
It is the goal of this researcher to complete a semiotic analysis of selected
movements from Bolcom's setting of Songs of Innocence and of Experience, identify his
typical compositional techniques or "topics," combine those techniques into musical
"masks," and determine how Bolcom's use of these masks assists with the musical

19
Ibid, ii.
20
William Bolcom, “Compositions,” http://www.williambolcom.com/index.php?contentID=1017 (2008),
5

illumination of Blake's poetry, eliciting the intended audience response. In order to
ensure that all readers are equally aware of the foundations upon which this research is
based, I will begin with a brief history of semiotics followed by a discussion of musical
topics and how they have been employed to analyze music of the eighteenth, nineteenth,
and twentieth centuries. Utilizing the lists of topics created by Leonard B. Ratner, V. Kofi
Agawu, Janice Dickensheets, Márta Grabócz, Danuta Mirka, and Arthur B. Wenk, I will
develop a set of characteristic topics and masks that inform Bolcom's compositional style
as though it were a musical language. Additionally, I will research the poetry of William
Blake, paying specific attention to the critical analyses of his Songs of Innocence and of
Experience Showing the Two Contrary States of the Human Mind. With these analyses in
mind, I intend to show how Bolcom's masks apply to the myriad of musical selections
within Songs of Innocence and of Experience and analyze the composer's use of semiotics
as a method for paralleling the contextual meanings of William Blake.
6

CHAPTER 2 - SEMIOTICS
A Brief History
The idea of semiotics, or the analysis of signs and the functioning of sign systems,
has existed since ancient Greeks such as Plato analyzed the origin of language itself in
the fourth century B.C.E. In the following century, Aristotle studied the meaning of
nouns and St. Augustine soon joined the field of study. Other precursor semioticians
include William of Ockham in the 1300s and John Locke in the 1600s. Locke specifically
composed his Essay Concerning Human Understanding in 1690 to shed brighter light
upon the psychological workings of the human mind. 21
Two centuries later, in the latter portion of the 1800s, the first true semiotician
came into being in the person of Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure whose teachings
prompted a posthumous publication of his course notes titled Course in General
Linguistics.22 Unlike previous researchers who studied the evolution of language over
time, Saussure examined the inner-workings of language at a given point. In essence,
Saussure studied language synchronically rather than diachronically.23 Within his
research, Saussure defined language as a "system of signs that express ideas," but also as
a network of elements that signify only in relation to each other.24 This research allowed
Saussure to make comparisons and analyze the relationships between parole (actual
spoken words) and langue (language as a whole).25
Saussure's study of semiotics is based on the concept of a two-pronged model or
dyad. The dyad consists of the signifier and the signified. The signifier is the meaningful

21
Paul Cobley, Introducing Semiotics (London: Icon, 1990), 7.
22
Ibid, 9.
23
Ibid, 9.
24
Kaja Silverman, The Subject of Semiotics (New York: Oxford, 1983), 5.
25
Paul Cobley, Introducing Semiotics, 9.
7

form of the dyad, or what Freud would call a "sound-image"26 or "sound pattern."27 In
other words, the signifier is the visual, aural, or tactile catalyst that provokes the mental
sounds we hear when we think. The signified, in turn, is the concept the signifier evokes
or the meaning the "sound-image" generates. Saussure's suggests the signified is a mental
concept, and therefore, different for each person who experiences a given signifier. There
is, therefore, no natural bond between the signifier and the signified. The relationship is
entirely conventional, and will only transpire within a certain culture or linguistic
system.28 Kaja Silverman, in her book The Subject of Semiotics, states, "Semiotics
involves the study of signification, but signification cannot be isolated from the human
subject who uses it and is defined by means of it, or from the cultural system which
generates it."29 Many future semioticians share this belief, including the first American
researcher, Charles Peirce.
Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-1914) built the research for his text Collected
Papers on that of Saussure, but showed much greater flexibility in his beliefs.30 Peirce
expanded Saussure's two-pronged dyad into a triadic theory composed of a
representamen, an interpretant, and an object.31 Within this tripartate structure, the
representamen is the sign itself, and the object is that which the sign stands for. This
object can be direct (the exact object the sign represents), or indirect (an object that is
independent of the sign, but leads to the production of the sign). The third, and most
complex aspect of Peirce's structure is the interpretant. The interpretant can be thought of

26
Kaja Silverman, The Subject of Semiotics, 6.
27
Daniel Chandler, Semiotics: The Basics (New York: Routledge, 2007), 14.
28
29
Ibid, 3.
30
Ibid, 14.
31
Daniel Chandler, Semiotics: The Basics, 30.
8

as the mental image or effect created by the sign/representamen that leads to
understanding the object. Peirce writes,
A sign is something which stands, to somebody, for

something in some respect or capacity. It addresses
somebody, that is, creates in the mind of that person an
equivalent sign, or perhaps a more developed sign. That
sign which it creates I call the interpretant of the first sign.
The sign stands for something, its object. It stands for that
object, not in all respects, but in reference to a sort of
idea.32
Silverman corroborates this claim saying,
In much the same way, a portrait both resembles and

indicates its object, at least for the spectator who enjoys
what Peirce calls "collaborated acquaintance" with that
object (i.e. for the spectator who, as a consequence of some
prior experience with the object has conceptual access to
it.)33
Simply put, different images, sounds, and feelings hold different meanings depending on
the person who experiences them.
In the twentieth century, Russian researcher Valentin Volosinov (1895-1936)
focused on the concept of parole as the main area of study while Danish researcher Louis
Hjelmslev (1899-1965) studied langue as the principle topic. Hjelmslev followed the
research of Saussure by studying language at a given point in time and analyzing signs
within a society. Among his most influential proposals was the idea that a sign's
denotation is not equal to its connotation. In other words, the literal meaning of a sign is
not necessarily what the sign means to a specific society. However, these signs are often

32
Ibid, 29.
33
Kaja Silverman, The Subject of Semiotics, 20-21.
9

put in place with the intent of inciting a desired result based on conventional relationships
within a society.34
From 1954-1956, French semiotician Roland Barthes (1915-1980) expounded
upon this belief in a series of satirical articles he published titled Mythologies. In these
writings, Barthes attempts to show how cultural beliefs are not necessarily based on
truths or facts, but result from associations intended by the creators of signs. Specific
"myths" Barthes discusses in his articles include the connotations of "striptease, the New
Citroen, the foam that is a product of detergents, the face of Greta Garbo, steak and chips,
and so on."35 In this way, Barthes builds upon the beliefs of Louis Hjelmslev showing
that a sign's denotation, or literal meaning, is not necessarily parallel with its connotation,
or the meaning it holds to a certain person, society, or culture. He calls this connotative
meaning "ideology" or "myth," and uses his research to show how through the use of a
medium such as text, photography, or music, an artist can elicit a desired response from
an audience without literally stating this intention. Barthes goes one step further claiming
the denotation of a sign is based on a first-order sign system (i.e. the literal sound or
meaning of a word) while the connotation of a sign is a second-order system (i.e. spoken
language) that depends on previous first-order systems to exist. Most importantly,
Barthes brings to the forefront the idea of cultural codes, which assist with giving signs
their connotative meaning.36 However, while Barthes held fast to this philosophical idea
of an overall system of societal signs, even he could not necessarily account for the
cultural diversity and constant change that semiotics encompasses.

34
Paul Cobley, Introducing Semiotics, 43..
35
Ibid, 44.
36
Ibid, 48.
10

As a result of this shortcoming, twentieth century anthropologists such as Claude
Levi-Strauss (b.1908), Jacques Lacan (1901-1981), and Michael Foucault (1926-1984)
continued the practice of studying language by analyzing the relationship between signs.
This work gave rise to a movement known as structuralism. The basic tenet of
structuralism deals with the value of signs rather than their literal meaning. By assigning
value to a sign it allows that sign to be compared to other signs in the same society or
culture and also to be exchanged for dissimilar signs with similar values. This idea of
structuralism became nearly synonymous with the term semiotic analysis by the mid
1960s before the writings of Jacques Derrida began a revolution against structuralist
views.37
Leading up to France's student uprisings in May of 1968, Jacques Derrida
(1930-2004), along with help from Lacan and Foulcault, challenged the beliefs of
structuralism claiming they left too much to humanism. This post-structural research
insists signs do not cause reactions, but that a person's beliefs and reactions are
previously present and are a functional convenience of society. In essence, these
philosophers claim we become predisposed to associate certain "signifiers" with certain
"signifieds" so quickly in our minds that we cannot legitimately say we are consciously
making a denotative association. Instead, it is a learned association that society instills as
one garners life experience.38 However, despite this belief in the natural association
between signifiers and signifieds, Derrida challenges Sausseur's theory of the dyad,
instead supporting Peirce's theory of unlimited semiotics. More specifically, Derrida

37
Ibid, 66,
38
Ibid, 71.
11

claims that though a sign has meaning, what it means is not isolated, but exists within a
greater collection of other signs and meanings.39
French linguist Émile Benveniste (1902-1976) represents some of the most recent
beliefs regarding the study of semiotics. Benveniste's most important contributions to the
field are his views on the relationship between langue and parole, the separation of which
he vehemently opposes. He argues that signs, specifically linguistic signs, are ever
changing, and that issues related to human subjectivity serve to augment their erratic
nature. Benveniste proposes that language (langue), discourse (parole), and subjectivity
are forever entwined with each other and that signs will consistently have new meanings
due to differences in society and culture.40 Benveniste himself explains it most clearly:
"We are not able to say 'the same thing' in systems based on different units."41 Other
recent semioticians with similar philosophies include Jurij Lotman who hypothesizes that
culture defines the meaning of signs, Roman Jakobsen whose research suggests that
change in the meaning of signs is inevitable as societal beliefs are altered, and Umberto
Eco whose research represents the most current beliefs in the field of semiotics.42 Eco
believes the study of semiotics now applies to zoology, olfactory signs, tactile
communication, paralinguistics, medicine, kinesics and proxemics, musical codes,
formailized language, written languages, natural languages, visual communication,
systems of objects, plot structures, text theory, cultural codes, aesthetic texts, mass
communication and rhetoric.43

39
40
Ibid, 32-33.
41
Paul Cobley, Introducing Semiotics, 71.
42
Ibid, 155.
43
12

Semiotics Applied to Musical Analysis
Throughout the 20th-century, the philosophical ideas of semiotics have begun to
alter the way music historians and theorists understand music of the late 18th-century.
This new interpretive approach has an historical basis as is evident in a letter written by
Mozart to his father in 1781, within which he describes in detail the compositional
processes at work in his opera Die Entführung, and how he expects those techniques to
effectively communicate his intentions to his audiences.44 More recently, scholars such as
Leonard G. Ratner, Elaine Sisman, V. Kofi Agawu, Harold Powers, Robert S. Hatten,
Wye Jamison Allanbrook, and Arthur B. Wenk have utilized these semiotic techniques to
analyze music of the eighteenth as well as the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The
following analyses of Bolcom's Songs of Innocence and of Experience will mimic the
research model proposed and applied by this body of research.
Leonard G. Ratner was the first to explore the idea of musical signs used by
Mozart and other eighteenth century composers, and organized these topics into a
"thesaurus of characteristic figures,"45 paving the way for topical analysis of Classical
music. In his book, Classic Music: Expression, Form, and Style, Ratner organizes topics
into types and styles where types include compositional practices that encompass entire
pieces and styles are characterized as figures within a piece. Moreover, these categories
are flexible in that broad types such as marches or minuets can be considered styles when
they appear as short figures within a larger selection.46

44
V. Kofi Agawu, Playing With Signs: A Semiotic Interpretation of Classic Music (Princeton: Princeton
University Press, 1991), 3.
45
Leonard B. Ratner, Classic Music: Expression, Form, and Style (New York: Schirmer, 1980), 9.
46
Ibid, 9.
13

In her analysis of Mozart's The 'Jupiter' Symphony, Elaine Sisman modifies
Ratner's twofold concept by transforming his types category into dance types and adding
rhythms and genres to the categories of topics. Additionally, Sisman retains Ratner's
styles as a category. By including dance types and rhythms, Sisman shows topics are
categorized by the way they are defined in the music. For example, dance types are
defined by metric and gestural elements while rhythms are defined simply by rhythmic
patterns. Sisman also delineates how styles, which both she and Ratner define as small
portions of musical material, are not equivalent to genres, which both define as full
compositions and categories of music.47
V. Kofi Agawu further amends the categorization of musical topics in his text
Playing With Signs. Agawu's theory assumes the existence of a topical universe that
includes all possible musical ideas. This universe, writes Agawu, "like its parent world of
the sign, is potentially open, so that one cannot -- and need not -- specify the total number
of topics current in the eighteenth century."48
In his article "Reading Mozart's Music: Text and Topic, Syntax and Sense,"
Harold Powers expands upon Ratner's "universe," creating a bipartate structure including
types and textures. Within his types, Powers includes four subcategories (dance types,
metric or rhythmic, genre, and style), which bear a striking resemblance to Sisman's four
categories. Within the textures category, Powers includes those of Agawu's topics that do
not fit into the four subcategories of types, basically serving as a "catch all" for the
remaining topics.49

47
Elaine Sisman, Mozart: The 'Jupiter' Symphony (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 46.
48
V. Kofi Agawu, Playing With Signs, 30.
49
Harold Powers, "Reading Mozart's Music: Text and Topic, Syntax and Sense," Current Musicology 57
(1995), 28.
14

Within the foreword to Robert S. Hatten's Musical Meaning in Beethoven, topics
are defined as "richly coded style types which carry features linked to affect, class, and
social occasion such as church styles, learned styles, and dance styles."50 Hatten claims
this collection of eighteenth century topics served to musically evoke feelings or
emotions and even illustrate images in the minds of listeners based on cultural
connotations of that time period.51 He continues the refinement of Ratner's original
concept by producing a four-pronged, fairly general theory including categories such as
pictoralism (word painting, imitation of nature), topics (dance types and shorter styles),
style (regional, national, location specific pieces), and codes of feelings and passions
(based on pace, movement, tempo, intervals, and motives for affect). It should be noted
that Hatten is the first analyst since Ratner who utilizes the term "style" in two separate
ways, He claims, these categories and terms may not help to clearly organize topics, but
they are the terms utilized by eighteenth century composers and theorists, and we are,
therefore, left to utilize them in our analyses.52 Powers also notes, "Topics and style were
taken for granted by writers at the time, who advert to them just often enough to leave
modern analysts and critics frustrated at the lack of any really systematic exposition."53
Musicologist Wye Jamison Allanbrook, in her article "Rhythmic Gesture in
Mozart," organizes Ratner's dance types into a metric hierarchy based on time signatures
and division of beat. In essence, she creates a spectrum of metrical affects, which
illustrates the relationships between stately and spirited music as well as low class and

50
Robert S. Hatten, Musical Meaning in Beethoven (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994), x.
51
Leonard B. Ratner, Classic Music, 9.
52
Robert S. Hatten, Musical Meaning in Beethoven, 75.
53
Harold Powers, "Reading Mozart's Music," 28
15

high class music. This organization specifically allows Allanbrook to analyze Mozart's Le
nozze di Figaro and Don Giovanni. She claims eighteenth-century composers were,
"in possession of something we can call an expressive

vocabulary, a collection in music of what in the theory of
rhetoric are called topoi, or topics for formal discourse.
They held it in common with their audience, and used
it...with the skill of a master craftsman. This vocabulary,
when captured and categorized, provides a tool for analysis
which can mediate between the [works] and our individual
responses to them, supplying independent information
about the expressive content of the arias and ensembles...
[Each] musical topos has associations both natural and
historical, which can be expressed in words, and which
were tactically shared by the eighteenth century audience...
An acquaintance with these topoi frees the writer from the
dilemma he would otherwise face when trying to explicate
a given passage: that he can at the one extreme do no more
than detail the mere facts and figures of its tonal
architecture, or at the other merely anatomize his private
reactions to a work. By recognizing a characteristic style,
he can identify a configuration of notes and rhythms as
having a particular expressive stance, modified and
clarified, of course, by its role in its movement and by the
uses made of it earlier in the piece. In short, he can
articulate within certain limits the shared response a
particular passage will evoke.54
,
As the concept of topical categorization continues to evolve, additional questions
continue to arise as well. What is a topic? What is not a topic? Why should we organize
topics? What do categories tell us about topics? Does a topic have meaning? Does the
location of a topic within a piece of music change the meaning of the topic? Sisman
writes,
What is a topic and what is not? Is every tremolo passage in

a minor key a "reference" to Sturm und Drang or every

54
Wye Jamison Allanbrook, Rhythmic Gesture in Mozart (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983),
33.
16

imitative passage "learned style?" Is a "fanfare" the same at

the grand opening of the piece and in a calmer interior
context? Does the composer intend the audience simply to
recognize topics, or to understand more subtle meanings?55
Agawu responds to these questions, highlighting what he calls "two crucial facets
of topical analysis,"
Perhaps the most fundamental limitation of any topical

analysis is its lack of consequence...While topics can
provide clues to what is being "discussed" in a piece of
music - thus making them authentic semiotic objects - they
do not seem able to sustain an independent and self-
regulating account of a piece; they point to the expressive
domain , but they have no syntax. Nothing in Ratner's
scheme tells us why the singing style [in the first movement
of Mozart's Prague Symphony] should come after the
outbursts of sensibility, or why fanfare is used toward the
conclusion of the [first] period.56
Most importantly, this compositional tradition assumes the existence of a competent
audience, allowing the composer to communicate with them through understood musical
styles and dance forms. In his opinion, this ability to recognize a composer's intended
reaction can be garnered through experiences and education, but is not naturally inherent
within listeners. Also of importance is the ability of a composer to move in and out of
topics or combine topics into sequences, which may suggest an overall narrative or
programmatic nature of a given piece. With a nod to the influence of Lawrence Kramer,
Agawu nicknames this compositional technique structural rhythm. Agawu suggests,
however, the existence of a narrative plot may only be present in the mind of the analyst.
He believes this existence remains optional rather than obligatory and should be
considered a "point of departure," but never a "total identity." Agawu further explains the

55
Elaine Sisman, Mozart: The 'Jupiter' Symphony, 46.
56
V. Kofi Agawu, Playing With Sings, 20.
17

semiotic approach to musical analysis claiming the recurring question throughout his text
is not "what does this piece mean?" but, rather, "how does this piece mean?"57 Music
semiotician Jean-Jacque Nattiez summarizes this approach to musical analysis claiming,
"the goal of a musical semiotics is to inventory the types and modalities of symbolic
references to which the music gives rise, and to elaborate an appropriate methodology to
describe their symbolic functioning."58 Agawu continues,
In other words, it seems more useful, in the face of the

multiplicity of potential meanings of any single work, to
frame the analytical question in terms of the dimensions
that make meaning possible; only then can we hope to
reduce away the fanciful meanings that are likely to crop up
in an unbridled discussion of the phenomenon, and to
approach the preferred meanings dictated by both historical
and theoretical limitations. This is one reason why I have
borrowed certain concepts from semiotics, for semiotics
provides a useful searchlight for understanding the nature
and sources of meaning, even if it ultimately evades - or
declares irrelevant - the "what" question.59
Agawu firmly avers that "topics mirror certain expressive stances, but they never
assume the role of fundamentally structuring Classic music."60 However, he does
describe how the semiotic approach to musical analysis brings into question the concept
of musical structure with regard to topics. First, Agawu discusses the fact that topics need
not be present in every measure of every piece claiming topics have no "teleological
obligation." Ironically, the absence of a standard musical topic may, in fact, be a topic in
itself. Secondly, however, when studying a selection for the presence of musical topics,
the analyst must not limit himself to locating just one topic at any given point in the

57
V. Kofi Agawu, Playing With Signs: A Semiotic Interpretation of Classic Music (Princeton: Princeton
University Press, 1991), 5.
58
Jean-Jacques Nattiez, Fondements d'une Sémiologie de la Musique (Paris: Union Générale, 1975), 12.
59
V. Kofi Agawu, Playing With Sings, 5.
60
Ibid, 32.
18

music. Topics may exist concurrently and are organized hierarchically to determine the
dominant element of reference. Lastly, Agawu suggests that many of the topical classes
present in current analysis are quite broad and allow practically every note composed to
be included. Both advantages and drawbacks exist due to the all-encompassing nature of
these topical classes.61
In lieu of forcing structural meaning into topics, Agawu suggests that any musical
analysis should include some aspect of tonal organization in order to be complete in the
opinion of many analysts. He claims, however, that many topics suggest a specific tonal
organization (i.e. a musette suggests harmonic stasis while Sturm und Drang suggests
harmonic unrest). It is these structural tonal characteristics, in Agawu's opinion, that help
to give topics their accepted cultural connotations.62 By including tonal organization in
his analyses in this way, Agawu illustrates his belief that musical topics influence
expressive but not structural analysis. Hatten, conversely, believes there to be a strong
link between topics and expression as well as between topics and form. He specifically
claims that obvious oppositions between topics clearly reveal structure even if there is no
interaction between expression and form.63
Within a later chapter of Playing With Signs, Agawu puts into practice this
concept of musical topics to analyze compositions by Mozart, Haydn, and Beethoven.
The topics employed within the text include the following. 64

61
Ibid, 30.
62
Ibid, 32.
63
Melanie Diane Lowe, Expressive Paradigms in the Symphonies of Joseph Haydn, 10.
64
V. Kofi Agawu, Playing With Signs, 30.
19

1. alla breve 10. fantasy 19. ombra

2. alla zoppa 11. French overture 20. opera buffa
3. amoroso 12. gavotte 21. pastoral
4. aria 13. hunt style 22. recitative
5. bourrée 14. learned style 23. sarabande
6. brilliant style 15. Mannheim rocket 24. sigh motif (Seufzer)
7. cadenza 16. march 25. singing style
8. sensibility 17. minuet 26. Sturm und Drang
9. fanfare 18. musette 27. Turkish music
Table 1. Agawu's Topics I
Agawu maintains that even his extensive list is not exhaustive due to his selectivity and
the fact that additional topics will arise as necessary to analyze future compositions.65 In
a later publication, Music as Discourse, Agawu further develops his compendium to
include sixty-one topics he titles The Universe of Topics for Classic Music.66

65
Ibid, 30..
66
V. Kofi Agawu, Music as Discourse (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 43.
20

1. Alberti bass 21. fantasia style 43. musette

2. alla breve 22. French overture 44. ombra style
3. alla zoppa 24. fugal style 45. passepied
4. allemande 25. fugato 46. pastorale
5. amoroso style 26. galant style 47. pathetic style
6. aria style 27. gavotte 48. polonaise
7. arioso 28. gigue 49. popular style
8. bound style or 29. high style 50. recitative (simple,
stile legato 30. horn call accompanied, obligé)
9. bourrée 31. hunt style 51. romanza
10. brilliant style 32. hunting fanfare 52. sarabande
11. buffa style 33. Italian style 53. siciliano
12. cadenza 34. Landler 54. singing allegro
13. chaconne bass 25. learned style 55. singing style
14. chorale 36. Lebewohl (horn 56. strict style
15. commedia dell'arte figure) 57. Sturm und Drang
16. concerto style 37. low style (storm and stress)
17. contredanse 38. march 58. tragic style
18. ecclesiastical style 39. middle style 59. Trommelbass
19. Empfindsamer style 40. military figures 60. Turkish music
(sensibility) 41. minuet 61. waltz
20. fanfare 42. murky bass
Table 2. Agawu's Topics II
Music scholars have also developed a topical approach to account for a wide
range of nineteenth and twentieth century musical styles. Agawu references several of
these additional researchers whose writings have assisted with musical analysis. Within
her article "Nineteenth-Century Topical Analysis," Janice Dickensheets introduces
twenty-four topics, each of which references a specific compositional technique or
style.67

67
Janice Dickensheets, "Nineteenth-Century Topical Analysis: A Lexicon of Romantic Topoi," Pendragon
Review 2(1) (2003): 5-19.
21

1. archaizing styles 9. demonic style 17. pastoral style

2. aria style 10. fairy music 18. singing style
3. bardic style 11. folk style 19. Spanish style
4. bolero 12. gypsy music 20. style hongrois
5. Biedermeier style 13. heroic style 21. stile appassionata
6. Chinoiserie 14. Indianist style 22. tempest style
7. chavalric style 15. Italian style 23. virtuosic style
8. declamatory style 16. lied style or song 24. waltz (Ländler)
(recitative style) style
Table 3. Dickensheets' Topics
In her study of the music of Franz Liszt, Márta Grabócz utilizes sixteen more specific
topics she calls "classemes," which have defined meanings in musical language.68

68
Marta Grabocz, "Semiological Terminology in Musical Analysis," in Musical Semiotics in Growth, ed.
Eero Tarasti (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1996), 195-218.
22

1. appassionato, 10. recitativo 15. the pathetic,

agitato 11. lamenting, elegiac which is the exalted
2. march 12. citations form of bel canto
3. heroic 13. the grandioso, 16. the pantheistic,
4. scherzo triunfando an amplified variant
5. pastoral 14. the lugubrious type of either the
6. religioso deriving at the same pastoral
7. folkloric time from theme or of the
8. bel canto, singing apassionato religious type
9. bel canto, and lamentoso
declamatory
Table 4. Grabócz' Topics
Researchers who study the music of Gustav Mahler have, throughout the twentieth and
twenty-first centuries, often considered the notion of musical signs giving rise to a list of
eighteen topics that Agawu includes in his text.69

69
Constantin Floros, Gustav Mahler: The Symphonies, trans. Vernon Wicker (Portland, OR: Amadeus,
1993).
23

1. nature theme 7. march (including 13. bell motif

2. fanfare funeral march) 14. Totentanz
3. horn call 8. arioso 15. lament
4. bird call 9. aria 16. Ländler
5. chorale 10. minuet 17. march
6. pastorale 11. recitative 18. folk song
12. scherzo
Table 5. Agawu's Topics III
Lastly, Agawu references an unpublished categorized catalog by Danuta Mirka who
separates her topics into three groups: music associated with dances (Group A), music
associated with ethnicities (Group B), and music that does not fit either category (Group
C).70

70
V. Kofi Agawu, Music as Discourse (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 48-49.
24

Group A 15. Gypsy music 27. singing style

1. minuet 16. Russian music 28. barcarole
2. gavotte 17. Spanish music 29. Negro spirituals
3. bourrée 18. Latin-American 30. jazz
4. sarabande music 31. cafe music
5. gigue 19. "Oriental" music 32. circus music
6. pavane 20. North American 33. barrel organ
7. passepied country music 34. lullaby
8. tarantella 35. children's song
9. tango Group C 36. fanfare
10. waltz 21. Gregorian chant 37. military march
22. chorale 38. funeral march
Group B 23. Russian orthodox 39. pastoral style
11. Jewish music church style 40. elegy
12. Czech music 24. learned style 41. machine music
13. Polish music 25. chaconne
14. Hungarian music 26. recitativo
Table 6. Mirka's Topics
These extensive and often vague lists signify exactly why Agawu cautioned
musicologists against creating such broad topical classes so that any compositional
technique (every note) might be included in a semiotic analysis. In an attempt to rein in
this topical proliferation, Danuta Mirka has written a series of unpublished propositions
defining musical topics as "musical styles and genres taken out of their proper context
and used in another one." Under this definition, minuet, waltz, Gypsy music, and Ländler
would be considered topics, but general compositions practices such as specific time
signatures (3/4, 2/4, alla breve), effects such as sigh motif, amoroso, and Mannheim
rocket, and accompanimental/melodic figures such as Alberti bass, murky bass, and
Trommelbass should not be included. These techniques in combination with each other
may lead to specific topics, but should not be considered topics on their own.
Due to these compositional techniques, Agawu's lists appear somewhat clouded,
however, they consist mainly of musical styles and structures that could be considered
25

topics. Dickensheets' list consists mainly of nineteenth and twentieth century styles,
thereby acting as an addendum to Agawu's topics, but unable to stand on its own as a
complete list. Grabócz' list also serves a specific purpose having been created to analyze
the music of Franz Liszt, and the list in Figure 5 was created solely for use in Mahlerian
analysis. Not surprisingly, the list which best exemplifies the definition of topic put forth
by Danuta Mirka is the list created by Mirka herself. Not only does she exclude simple
compositional practices and effects, she further categorizes her list of musical topics into
structural styles and nationalistic styles and also includes a group for topics that fit
neither of these definitions. The previous five examples were clearly created for use in
the analysis of specific pieces or composers, and may therefore include superfluous
topics to assist with the researchers' assessment.
Arthur B. Wenk builds upon the method of utilizing topics to analyze music in his
text Claude Debussy and Twentieth-Century Music. Within, he develops five musical
"masks" defining each one as specific combination of certain aspects within Debussy's
style. By defining Debussy's musical style, Wenk is able to pass several of the
Impressionist composer's pieces through a figurative sieve, "catching" and identifying
specific compositional techniques and placing them into one of Debussy's five masks.
These masks are significantly more complex than the topics utilized by Ratner and
Agawu, sometimes combining two or more topics into a single "mask."71 In actuality,
these masks fit more closely into the definition of topic presented by Mirka as they are, in
essence, a combination of several compositional techniques utilized by the composer to
create a musical style or genre removed from its proper context.

71
Arthur B. Wenk, Claude Debussy and Twentieth-Century Music (New York, Twayne, 1983), 94.
26

It is the intention of this researcher to utilize a similar approach, identifying
individual topics as well as fusions of multiple topics, or "masks" Bolcom uses in his
settings of Songs of Innocence and of Experience. These topics and masks will be
analyzed following the templates of Agawu, Ratner, Hatten, and Wenk to determine not
merely what the individual movements mean, but how they mean. These possible
denotations will be compared to the accepted literary analyses of Blake's original poems
to determine if and how Bolcom's masks assist with painting the pictures Blake wished to
create. Finally, it should be emphasized that the extroversive style of semiotic analysis
present within this research intentionally does not include the idea of introversive
semiotics associated with the Schenkerian "Beginning-Middle-End" paradigm. However,
the researcher does recognize the importance and validity of this form of analysis.
Through this semiotic analysis, the researcher hopes to bring to fruition the words of
Robert Hatten,
Interpretation is the beginning and the end of all musical

understanding. Whether as performers, theorists, or
historians, we are constantly interpreting sounds through
time as meaningful - in other words, as music. The varieties
of patterns (one clue to the intentionality behind a musical
work) to the reconstruction of a style; from the processing
of musical relationships to the adducing of their expressive
correlates; from the kinetic energy transmitted by a
performance to the abstract speculation occasioned by the
contemplation of a work. Each of these approaches to
meaning is relevant from a semiotic standpoint. As a
performer and a listener I have experienced emotion and
thoughts directly evoked by the music, and I have also
known that aesthetic distance from which one recognizes
and appreciates expressed states without an empathetic
internalizing of actual emotions. Each of these responses is
semiotically relevant.72

72
Robert S. Hatten, Musical Meaning in Beethoven, 9.
27

CHAPTER 3 - WILLIAM BLAKE
William Blake was born on November 28, 1757 in the Soho district of London,
England.73 His father, James, earned a living as a shop owner and hosier, (also known as
a haberdasher) and supported the family in their home at 28 Broad Street.74 Blake’s
mother, Catherine, shared James’ Protestant religious views, and the two raised their five
children (William was the second) as devout Christians who opposed the Church of
England.75 Early in his childhood, William Blake showed amazing vision and
imagination. At age four he claims to have seen “God put his head to the window” of the
young boy’s bedroom, and later to have seen the prophet Ezekiel under a tree in the
fields. Additionally, Blake once witnessed a tree filled with angels and angels among the
haymakers in a meadow.76
As a child, Blake received no formal schooling, but learned to read and write at
home.77 By age ten, he entered Pars’ Drawing School in “The Strand” where he spent
four years studying the art of sketching.78 Following this educational experience, Blake
entered into the service of Master Engraver James Basire who taught his apprentice the
craft of copperplate engraving, after which Blake continued his service at the Royal
Academy and as an illustrator for local publishers.79 Throughout his adolescent

73 Grevel Lindop, "William Blake," in British Writers, ed. Jay Parini (New York: Charles Scribner and
Sons, 2002), 33-‐47.
74 Geoffrey Keynes, An Exhibition of the Illuminated Books of William Blake (Paris: Trianon Press,
1964).
75
Grevel Lindrop, "William Blake," 33.
76 Joseph Natoli, "William Blake," in A Critical Survey of Poetry, ed. Philip K. Jason (Pasadena: Salem
Press, Inc., 2003), 356-‐368.
77
Ibid.
78
Geoffrey Keynes, An Exhibition of the Illuminated Books of William Blake," 11.
79
Ibid.
28

education, Blake remained actively involved in political uprisings, supported small-scale
revolutionary efforts, and helped to spread religious fervor throughout London.80
In 1782, Blake married Catherine Boucher, a smart but uneducated daughter of a
Battersea Market gardener. He taught her to read and write through lessons that made it
easy for her to adopt his radical lifestyle, and, though they had no children, the two
remained married for twenty-five years.81
Early in their marriage, Blake supported his wife working as a designer and as an
engraver of book illustrations. In 1784, partnered with a former fellow-apprentice named
Parker, Blake opened a print shop in the house next door to his birthplace on Broad
Street. During these years, Blake's younger brother, Robert, came to live with the couple
and worked as an apprentice to Blake. However, in 1787 at the young age of 19, Robert
became ill and died. Soon thereafter, Blake ended the partnership with Parker and
relocated his family around the corner to Poland Street. It was in this home that Blake
first began to create his Illuminated Books.82
Throughout the final decade of the 1700s, Blake, along with his contemporaries
Thomas Stothard, John Flaxman, Henry Fuseli, Thomas Butts, and George Cumberland
corresponded regarding new techniques of printing from copper plates in order to save
time, money, and materials. Many of these ideas were of no consequence to Blake,
having spent many years in the engraving and printing business; however, their
discussions, along with discussions Blake had held with his late brother Robert, did lead
to the creation of a new technique in 1788.

80
Joseph Natoli, "William Blake," in A Critical Survey of Poetry, 357.
81 Abrams, M. H., "William Blake," in The Norton Anthology of English Literature Revised, Vol. 2 (New
York: Norton and Company, Inc., 1968.
82
Geoffrey Keynes, An Exhibition of the Illuminated Books of William Blake," 12.
29

Essentially, Blake's process is a reversal of the standard method of printing from
copper plates. Rather than etching text into the copper, filling the etchings with ink, and
pressing the plates onto paper with enough force to transfer the ink to the paper, Blake
pioneered a technique he referred to as "wood-cutting on copper." Through his methods,
Blake would create a stereotype of the page he wished to print by writing the text and
illustrations onto the plate with an acid-resistant chemical and then "biting" the plate with
acid leaving the text and illustrations in relief. The process was, undoubtedly, more
complex, but allowed Blake to print the desired number of copies with less energy and
much less waste.83
Using his new method, Blake continued to make a living though the commissions
afforded him only a meager lifestyle. In 1800, with assistance from the poet William
Hayley, Blake moved to a cottage at Felpham near Chichester on the Sussux coastline.
Hayley had aspirations of guiding Blake into a lucrative life as a conventional artist.
However, while living in Felpham, Blake engaged in an altercation with John Scholfield,
a private in the Royal Dragoons who refused to leave Blake's property. When Blake
forcefully removed the man by pushing him fifty yards down the street to the local inn,
Scholfield claimed that Blake had made seditious remarks about King and country, an
offence punishable by hanging during wartime. 84 Though he was acquitted, the
experience served to provide Blake with the belief that “ominous forces were at work in
the contemporary world. This belief led him to complicate the symbolic obliquities by
which he veiled the unorthodoxy of his political, religious, and moral opinions and the
radicalism of the many allusions to contemporary affairs that he worked into his

83
Geoffrey Keynes, An Exhibition of the Illuminated Books of William Blake," p. 13-16.
84
M. H. Abrams, "William Blake," in The Norton Anthology of English Literature Revised, Vol. 2, p. 42.
30

poems.”85 Despite this unfortunate event, Blake calmed considerably during the final
twenty years of his life, and when he died on August 12, 1827, he did so "singing the
glories he saw in heaven"86 and leaving behind him a plethora of engravings, sketches,
and poetry to be studied and enjoyed for centuries to follow.
While Blake spent a majority of his life as an engraver attempting to earn a living
as a visual artist, much of what is studied and analyzed today is the poetry Blake so
masterfully composed during his lifetime. According to Harold Bloom, "[Blake's] poems,
which are always poems, are astonishingly ambitious, even for the Romantic Age, into
which he survived. They propose nothing less than to teach us how to live, and to explain
to us what has made it so hard to live as fully human rather than merely natural beings."87
Blake authored one of his most famous collections of poems, Songs of Innocence,
in 1789. He later joined them with twenty-six contrasting poems labeling the complete
works Songs of Innocence and of Experience Shewing the Two Contrary States of the
Human Soul, creating a masterpiece of Romantic Era poetry. The epic combination is "an
astonishingly rich work, at once simple and complex, contradictory and unified."88
According to the Critical Survey of Poetry, "Since these songs are from within these
[opposing] states, [they] are not presented in their ideal forms. They are 'corrupted' and
display disproportionate contraries. Theoretically, each contrary state acts as a corrective
to the other, and contraries in Songs of Innocence and of Experience are suggested either
in the text of the poem or in the accompanying design."89 In Songs of Innocence, Blake
appears to be writing from an adolescent point of view; however, this text illustrates an

85
Ibid.
86
Philip K. Jason, Critical Survey of Poetry. (Pasadena: Salem Press, 2003), 357.
87
Harold Bloom. The Best Poems of the English Language. (New York: Harper Collins, 2004), 302.
88
Grevel Lindop, William Blake, 42.
89
Philip K. Jason, Critical Survey of Poetry, 359.
31

imperfect world as seen through inexperienced, harmless, naive eyes,90 which are
guiltless and free from sin.91 These poems "celebrate the spontaneous joy, trust, and
integrity of early childhood," but are laden with overtones and ironies that challenge
readers to question their own beliefs.92 On the other hand, within Songs of Experience,
Blake assumes an omniscient role, bringing to light the true meanings illustrated by the
Songs of Innocence, often by directly pairing poems from each set in direct contrast with
each other. These writings are paired due to their similar subject matter and similar
storylines, but oppose each other due to their conflicting points of view. Within these
parallel poems, Blake first illustrates the concepts of innocence with narratives and
descriptions of purity or inexperience. These stories often include satire and irony as
Blake utilizes phrases and stories within the Songs of Innocence that hint at and will
eventually be seen as elements of experience. In this way, the author suggests there is
always a hint of experience or even sin present within even the most innocent among us.
Bloom claims,
the relation of the matched pairs of poems, where they

exist, does not appear to be schematic, but varies from
instance to instance. The matching of "The Divine Image"
and "The Human Abstract" seems to be the crucial one,
since it shows the widest possibilities of the relationship,
and demonstrates vividly what readers are likely to forget,
which is that Innocence satirizes Experience just as
intensely as it itself is satirized by Experience, and also that
any song of either state is also a kind of satire upon itself.93
Speaking of the entire collection of poems, Alexander Gilchrist, the foremost scholar and
first biographer of William Blake, writes

90
M.H. Abrams, The Norton Anthology of English Literature, 43.
91
Harold Bloom, The Best Poems of the English Language, 308.
92
Grevel Lindop, William Blake, 36.
93
32

[Blake's lyrics] tell us of that immemorial wisdom which

Heaven gives to poetry. And the invocation to the Muses
has the great melody accent and an assured classic note,
though Blake had scarcely read a line of the Latin poets
whose verse it half recalls. 'Tis hard to believe these poems
were written in the author's teens. But, in fact, Blake,
writing at the end of the century, did, in the innocence of
his mind, the service of an inspired child to English lyric. It
was the deliverance it most needed, after the high rhetoric
and formal graces of the recognized masters a generation
before him.
Over the past two centuries, the beauty of the poems within these two
dichotomous texts has fascinated literary analysts and composers alike, leading to
numerous musical settings of individual poems by Ralph Vaughan Williams, John
Frandsen, Sven-David Sandström, and Benjamin Britten.94 Most recently, however,
contemporary American composer William Bolcom composed a musical setting of the
complete Songs of Innocence and of Experience.
Within the following chapter, the researcher will explore literary criticisms of
several of the more popular poems from Songs of Innocence and of Experience in an
attempt to gain a clearer understanding of Blake's intended meaning for these poems.
These analyses will include "The Lamb," "The Chimney Sweeper," and "Holy Thursday"
from Songs of Innocence, and "The Tyger," "The Chimney Sweeper," and "London" from
Songs of Experience. Afterward, utilizing a semiotic approach, the researcher will
analyze the musical settings, observing the similarities and differences between Bolcom's
apparent intentions and the supposed meanings of the original Blake texts. These
analyses will focus mainly on the individual poems and the musical settings Bolcom has

94
"Songs of Innocence and of Experience," http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Songs_of_Innocence, accessed 10
February 2012.
33

composed for them, but will also explore Blake's contraries and how Bolcom has
musically paralleled those dualities within his composition.
34

CHAPTER 4 - LITERARY ANALYSIS
If we are to determine how the topics and signs within Bolcom's musical setting
of Songs of Innocence and of Experience illustrate similar meanings to those intended by
Blake, the accepted literary meanings must first be determined. Under utopian
circumstances, all forty-five of Blake's poems would be analyzed, critiqued, and
compared to Bolcom's fifty-five compositions. However, in order to maintain a
manageable amount of material, and to fit within the parameters of this thesis, six poems
have been selected as a representation of Blake's entire collection. These poems, "The
Lamb," "The Chimney Sweeper," and "Holy Thursday" from Songs of Innocence, and
"The Tyger," "The Chimney Sweeper," and "London" from Songs of Experience were
chosen for several reasons. First and foremost, these are six of the most popular and
repeatedly analyzed poems from the collection, making critiques readily available for
review. Second, these poems are representative of what many critics call parallel or
partner poems that work together to show the transition from innocence to experience
through similar storylines. Finally, these poems serve as a microcosm of the entire set,
representing the main themes and topics Blake covers throughout the collection.
35

The Lamb
This literary analysis of William Blake's Songs of Innocence and of Experience
will begin with "The Lamb," which Edward Larrissy refers to as the "best-known of the
Songs of Innocence."95 On the surface, a lamb is a soft, gentle, young animal, and while
often preyed upon by those of a more fierce nature, is quite docile and harmless. Within
the first verse of "The Lamb," Blake uses words such as delight, softest, wooly, bright,
and tender to illustrate this "emblem of innocence"96 and gives the reader a tangible
image of the naïveté these poems represent. According to Grevel Lindop, a Blake
biographer, "Innocence is trustful, loving, and confident, and sees the world through the
radiance of a divine vision in which there can be no ultimate wrong."97
This entire verse is composed of a series of questions asking the lamb:
Little lamb, who make thee

Dost thou know who made thee,
Gave thee life, and bid thee feed
By the stream and o'er the mead;
Gave thee clothing of delight,
Softest clothing, wooly bright;
Gave thee such a tender voice,
Making all the vales rejoice?
Little Lamb, who made thee?
Dost thou know who made thee?"98
Within the second verse of "The Lamb," the questions posed by the first verse are
answered suggesting God as the creator of the innocent animal.
Little Lamb, I'll tell thee;

Little lamb, I'll tell thee:
He is called by thy name,
For He calls Himself a Lamb

95
Edward K. Larrissy. William Blake. (Oxford: Basil Blackwell), 1985.
96
Ibid.
97
Grevel Lindop. British Writers ed. Jay Parini (New York: Charles Scribner and Sons, 2002), 33-47.
98
William Blake. Songs of Innocence and of Experience.
36

He is meek, and He is mild,

He became a little child.
I a child, and thou a lamb,
We are called by His name.
Little Lamb, God bless thee!
Little Lamb, God bless thee!99
Within these lines, each noun and pronoun referring to God is capitalized, a practice
common in The Bible, church hymns, and most other religious texts, verifying this
assumption that the heavenly Father is the creator of the innocent lamb. Blake extends
this creator-creation relationship even further asserting that God himself is referred to as
an innocent lamb when pictured in human flesh as the meek, mild, little infant
Christchild. The images of a child and a lamb, combined with the reference to the baby
Jesus as the Lamb of God, illustrate the harmony between all creatures and the reciprocal
warmth that marks all relationships.100 Lindop states plainly, "Humanity and nature are
one in God."101 According to the Critical Survey of Poetry,
The equation is formed thus: the lamb is Christ the lamb,

the child is Christ as a child, and the lamb and the child are
therefore joined by their mutual identity with Christ. In
Innocence, all life is perceived as one and holy. Since there
are two contrary states of the human soul and "The Lamb"
is a product of only one, Innocence, it is not possible to
conclude that this poem depicts Blake's paradisiacal state.
The vines in the design are twisting about the sapling on
both sides of the engraving, indicating in traditional
symbolism the importance of going beyond childhood into
Experience. If the child-speaker can see all life as one, can
imaginatively perceive the whole, he cannot perceive the
particularity, the diversity, which comprises that unity,
which Experience's reason so meticulously numbers and
analyses. Even as the adult speaker of "The Tyger" can see
only a fragmented world, which his imagination is too
weak to unify, so the child-speaker cannot see the
fragments that comprise the world. The spontaneity and

99
William Blake. Songs of Innocence and of Experience, 8.
100
Martin Price. To the Palace of Wisdom. (New York: Doubleday, 1964), 392.
101
Grevel Lindop. British Writers,43.
37

carefree abandon of the lamb in Innocence can in

Experience no longer be perceived in the form of a lamb.
The perceiver in Experience fears the energy of Innocence
and therefore shapes it into a form which his reason has
deemed frightening, that of a tiger.102

102
38

The Tyger
If "The Lamb" is the best-known of the Songs of Innocence, its partner, "The Tyger," is
the most famous and frequently interpreted of the Songs of Experience.103 In opposition
to his own definition of Innocence, Grevel Lindop offers a definition for Experience
writing,
Experience, on the other hand, is dominated by an

awareness of pain and conflict, of problems that have no
likely solution and of bitter feelings that cannot be
resolved. Its vision is discontented and often political.
Many of the most powerful Songs of Experience are
mysterious poems oven whose meanings readers have
always argued. "The Tyger," for example, with its
pounding rhythms and fiery visual imagery, is probably
Blake's most widely known poem, yet it remains a
challenge to interpretation.104
A tiger is a fierce, ferocious, dangerous animal, which stands in direct contrast to the
docile innocence of a lamb, and its forbidding appearance and menacing purpose oppose
the lamb's softness and gentle existence. Within the first two verses of this six-stanza
poem, Blake utilizes three written representations of fire to illustrate the power and
ferocity of beast:
Tyger, tyger, burning bright

In the forest of the night.
What immortal hand or eye
Could Frame thy fearful symmetry?
In what distant deeps or skies

Burnt the fire of thine eyes?
On what wings dare he aspire?
What the hand dare seize the fire?105

103
Martin Price. To the Palace of Wisdom, 400.
104
Grevel Lindop. British Writers, 42.
105
39

Later, in verses three and four, Blake turns to images of the actual creation of "The
Tyger," utilizing words and phrases that bring to mind pain, discomfort, and punishment,
making the beast even more menacing to the reader:
And what shoulder, and what art

Could twist the sinews of thy heart?
And, when thy heart began to beat,
What dread hand and what dread feet?
What the hammer? What the chain?

In what furnace was thy brain?
What the anvil? What dread grasp
Dare its deadly terrors clasp?106
Larrissy explains,
The fire in the Tyger's eyes is treated as the essence of

Tyger, to be given body in the manufacturing-process
which follows. It is a natural fire, but one which seems to
remember its heavenly home. The manufacture is violent
and harsh. And that violence and harshness are mirrored in
the creation, which seems to be inhuman and pitiless - it is
as if a monster were being created: 'And when thy heart
began to beat,/ what dread hand & what dread feet?' An
effect as of Frankenstein is achieved by a gradual
progression: from the sense of natural forces as raw
material (the fire in the eyes) to specific organs being
manipulated ('twisting' the 'sinews of the heart') to the
image of manufacture ('hammer', 'chain', 'furnace', and
'anvil'). 107
Within the Critical Survey of Poetry, the "fearful symmetry" of the tyger is
described as a metaphor for the negative energy being created by those who have
prejudices regarding their view of reality ('Tyger, tyger, buring bright'). While these
sinners are able to suppress their immorality and passion in the back of their minds ('the
forest of the night'), the tyger is too strong to be contained or accepted and therefore
burns brightly in the unconscious mind. When the tyger inevitably causes a negative

106
Ibid, 39.
107
Edward K. Larrissy, William Blake, 57.
40

impact, the perceiver refuses to question himself, but instead questions the tyger's creator
("What immortal hand or eye/ Could Frame thy fearful symmetry?'). It is determined that
the creation cannot be greater than its creator, and therefore the creator must hold the
same fearful and sinful qualities of the tyger. Borrowing a vivid visual image from
Milton's Paradise Lost, the perceiver questions who this creator might be. (When the
stars threw down their spears,/ And watered heaven with their tears,/ Did he smile his
work to see?/ Did he who made the lamb make thee?)108 Not wanting to admit that his
own creator, and the creator of the lamb, could have ever created such a beast, the
perceiver places the blame on Satan and the fires of Hell for creating the tyger. In reality,
these two contrasting poems show two sides of the same God, one who is visible to those
in who have their innocence, and one who is visible to those who have achieved
experience.109 In the end, the reader must face the fact that the tyger represents the evil
that exists within everyone, and will forever be in conflict with the lamb, which
represents everything within us that is good.110 This poem "haunts its readers partly
because its 'meaning' can never be resolved. As so often, Blake's evident purpose is to
challenge thought and stimulate mental vision, thereby sharing something of his own
dauntingly beautiful imaginative world."111

108
Wiliam Blake, Songs of Innocence and of Experience, 39.
109
Edward K. Larrissy. William Blake, 56.
110
111
41

The Chimney Sweeper (Songs of Innocence)
If "The Lamb" and "The Tyger" illustrate Blake's use of religious satire, both
poems titled "The Chimney Sweeper" are prime examples of Blake's political angst and
desire to bring to light the horrors of a life of poverty. "The Chimney Sweeper" found in
Songs of Innocence tells the story of the orphan living a life of anguish in the streets of
London. These children find themselves working for the middle and upper crust as
chimney sweepers, an uncomfortable and unsafe occupation for children of any age, but
one that inevitably helps them survive. Simply put, the orphans are lost in their
innocence, attempting to make the best of a bad situation.
The poem is narrated by one of the chimney sweepers who was sold into servitude
at a very young age:
When my mother died I was very young,

And my father sold me while yet my tongue
Could scarcely cry "Weep! weep! weep! weep!"
So your chimneys I sweep, and in soot I sleep.112
He tells the story of Tom Dacre, another orphan, who first wept over having his curly hair
shaved, before having a haunting nightmare involving their friends:
There's little Tom Dacre, who cried when his head,

That curled like a lamb's back, was shaved; so, I said,
"Hush, Tom!" never mind it, for, when your head's bare,
You know that the soot cannot spoil your white hair."
And so he was quiet, and that very night,

As Tom was a-sleeping, he had such a sight! --
That thousands of sweepers, Dick, Joe, Ned, and Jack,
Were all of them locked up in coffins of black.
Thankfully, the nightmare is resolved by divine intervention, complete with a moral
suggested by Blake's hand:

112
42

And by came and Angel, who had a bright key,

And he opened the coffins, and let them all free;
Then down a green plain, leaping, laughing, they run,
And wash in a river, and shine in the sun.
Then naked and white, all their bags left behind,

They rise upon clouds, and sport in the wind;
And the Angel told Tom, if he'd be a good boy,
He'd have God for his father, and never want joy.
However, the line of this poem most often discussed and analyzed comes at the close of
the final stanza where Blake calls out those in a position to make a change:
And so Tom awoke, and we rose in the dark,

And got with our bags and out brushes to work.
Though the morning was cold, Tom was happy and warm:
So, if all do their duty, they need not feel harm.
While these final words may be comforting for the orphan chimney sweeper, most
literary critics believe the line to be a veiled threat to adults. Plainly, what Blake is
suggesting with this statement is that it is every citizen's sacred duty to prevent the
exploitation of children and press for change. Their plight is horrific, and they deserve the
freedom to dream and love.113 This shameless use of his literary popularity to advance his
political beliefs is not uncommon for Blake. "Many of Blake's poems are criticisms of
oppressive uses of power on many levels, and they imply that there is a link between the
use of power when one individual belittle another and the use of power on a large
political and economic scale."114

113
114
43

The Chimney Sweeper (Songs of Experience)
Blake pairs this poem with "The Chimney Sweeper" from Songs of Innocence as
two points of view on a similar subject. While the former is a story told by one of the
orphans himself, this parallel poem allows the reader to look at the same issue of poverty
and class inequity through the eyes of the experienced to see the true horrors faced by the
children. Specifically, Blake is attempting to expound upon his opinions of child labor in
eighteenth-century London.115 Once again, the author relies on sarcasm and irony to
highlight the prevalence of these issues as the child responds to the question regarding the
whereabouts of his parents:
A little black thing in the snow,

Crying "weep! weep!" in notes of woe!
"Where are thy father and mother? Say!" --
"They are both gone up to the church to pray.
"Because I was happy upon the heath,

And smiled among the winter's snow,
They clothed me in the clothes of death,
And taught me to sing the notes of woe.
"And because I am happy and dance and sing,

They think they have done me no injury,
And are gone to praise God and his priest and king,
Who make up a heaven of our misery."116
At the end of the first verse, the child chimney sweeper claims that his parents
have "gone up to the church to pray." According to The Critical Survey of Poetry, there
are several accepted actual meanings for this statement, all of which might assist Blake in
communicating his main theme for this poem. First, and most simply, the line may be a
euphemism for saying the young boys parents have died. The words "up to the church to
pray" may stand for having gone to Heaven to speak directly with God. This possibility

115
Ibid, 22.
116
44

would allow Blake to speak candidly regarding the prevalence of child poverty and the
lack of support these children receive from society. Secondly, the line may be the honest
truth, suggesting the parents have actually gone to church leaving their child crying in the
snow, covered in the soot of dirty chimneys. If this is the case, Blake is clearly
communicating the hypocrisy of parents who would leave their young child in such a
state while they visit the church to pray as practicing Christians. Lastly, if the reader is
permitted to assume that these parents are the same parents who sold their young child
into the labor force in the first "Chimney Sweeper" poem, the line could be Blake's
attempt to satirize the high level of greed that pervades London's society. Not only did
this couple sell their child into indentured servitude in exchange for financial gain, but
they attend church to also receive spiritual gain.
Contrary to "The Chimney Sweeper" from Songs of Innocence, which is filled
with veiled threats and other passive-aggressive speech, this poem from Songs of
Experience is plainly Blake's straightforward attempt at an anti-child labor statement,
however, written in a satirical and ironic fashion. Blake may be approaching this issue
from either the political or religious standpoint, but in either case, this poem shows that
the two parallel "Chimney Sweepers" are definitely satirical and do not illustrate pure joy
on the part of the young boys, even in the seemingly light-hearted version from Songs of
Innocence. What Blake is illustrating instead is a sense of phony innocence and joy, a
characteristic of nearly all of the poems in this collection.
45

Holy Thursday (Songs of Innocence)
Combining both his political and religious agendas, Blake composed the poem
"Holy Thursday" for Songs of Innocence, illustrating the image of young, innocent
children attending church on the title holiday. These children, who enter the church like
lambs in a very organized two by two fashion, are dressed in bold, untainted spring
colors, and led by their wise (grey-headed) disciplinarians who carry "wands as white as
snow." After entering the church's imposing structure, the children sing songs of praise to
heaven, representing London's sinless population.
'Twas on a Holy Thursday, their innocent faces clean,

Came children walking two and two, in red, and blue, and green:
Grey-headed beadles walked before, with wands and white as snow,
Till into the high dome of Paul's they like the Thames waters flow.
Oh what a multitude they seemed, these flowers of London town!

Seated in companies they sit, with radiance all their own.
The hum of multitudes was there, but multitudes of lambs,
Thousands of little boys and girls raising their innocent hands.
Now like a mighty wild they raise to heaven the voice of song,
Or like harmonious thunderings the seats of heaven among:
Beneath them sit the aged man, wise guardians of the poor.
Then cherish pity, lest you drive and angel from your door.117
Unlike the other poems that have been analyzed through this research, these
verses illustrate a very clear, albeit symbolic meaning. Larrissy agrees within his
analytical text Songs of Experience claiming "[Blake's] language is not always figurative.
But when it is, it is straight forward...shows the innocent speaker as impressionable."118
The sentiment is also shared by John Gielgud, who writes in his text Six Centuries of
Verse, "['Holy Thursday' is] so clear and transparent that often [it feels] like an
anonymous children's song, lyrics that have been there from the beginning.

117
Ibid, 17.
118
46

The text is filled with religious connotations such as the lamb as a satirical victim, and
numerous similes and metaphors comparing the young children to the flowing waters of
the Thames, flowers of London, multitudes of lambs, a mighty wind, and harmonious
thunderings from heaven.
In essence, the intended meaning of this poem is to show the importance of youth,
innocence, and childlike faith in the face of a society, which attempts to suppress and
stifle that energy. Larrissy writes,
Holy Thursday is here Ascension Day, when six thousand

or so children from London charity schools would go to St.
Paul's to listen to a sermon and sing hymns in front of their
benefactors, who were presumably pleased to be thanked so
ostentatiously in the presence of the Almighty. Blake's
irony is plain in the sly platitude of the last line. And one os
alerted on reading this, if not before, to the regimentation of
the children by the hoary discipline of 'grey headed beadles'
with 'wands as white as snow', ready to freeze the energies
of youth.119

119
47

London
One of the darkest, most depressing of the Songs of Experience is Blake's satirical
London, which depicts the most horrific aspects of the capital city.
I wandered through each chartered street,

Near where the chartered Thames does flow,
A mark in every face I meet,
Marks of weakness, marks of woe.
In every cry of every man,

In every infant's cry of fear,
In every voice, in every ban,
The mind-forged manacles I hear:
How the chimney-sweeper's cry

Every blackening church appalls,
And the hapless soldier's sigh
Runs in blood down palace-walls.
But most, through midnight streets I hear

How the youthful harlot's curse
Blasts the new-born infant's tear,
And blights with plagues the marriage-hearse.
The speaker of this poem is clearly experienced. He sees the truth and the
darkness in everything our minds create that shackle us to the negative. The city, the
river, the people, the chimney-sweeper, the church, the soldier, and the prostitute are all
characterized by these negative aspects, and the combination of them creates a chaotic,
wild, and uncontrolled atmosphere. Specifically, the impoverished adolescent chimney-
sweeper reflects poorly on the church (and religion in general), which shows little regard
for preventing child labor; the spilled blood of the soldier reflects poorly on the ruling
class who sent him to war; and the corrupt prostitute who infects the entire city with her
disease, passing it to her illegitimate child and the married men who enjoy her company.
This anarchic environment stands in direct contrast to the order and discipline of "Holy
48

Thursday," which conversely illustrates innocent lives praising heaven. "The clearest way
for the reader to interpret Songs of Experience is as an unveiling of the horrors hidden
from the eye of Innocence. The system of parallels, where an Experience song has the
same title as an Innocence one with which it is contrasted, makes this a natural
reading."120 Larrissy continues later in his text with an extended quote from Johnathan
Culler who attempts to explain whether this poem is a critique of a social system or an
ironic satire about the speaker:
it is important to stress that if we want to understand the

nature of literature and of our adventures in language we
will have to recognize that the 'openness' and 'ambiguity' of
literary works result not from vagueness nor from each
reader's desire to project himself into the work, but from
the potential reversibility of every figure. Any figure can be
read referentially or rhetorically. 'My love is a red, red rose'
tells us, referentially, of desirable qualities that the beloved
possesses. Read rhetorically, in its figurality, it indicates a
desire to see her as she is not: as a rose. 'Charter'd street' in
the first stanza of 'London' tells us, referentially, of an
ordered city its streets full of chartered institutions.
Rhetorically, it is hyperbole: to speak as if even the streets
had royal charters is excessive, ironic. One can, of course,
go on to read this irony referentially, as a suggestion that
too many characters enslave: London is so restrictive the
even streets and charters need to exist. But one can also in
turn reverse this figure, and, reading the irony in its
figurality, say that the act of seeing streets as if they were
chartered as an example of another kind of enslavement:
enslavement to one's own fiction. These four readings are
generated by two elementary operations which, as a a pair,
constitute the possibility of figural reading.121

120
121
Ibid, 47.
49

CHAPTER 5 - MUSICAL ANALYSIS
With these literary analyses and critiques of Blake's poems in mind, their
corresponding musical arrangements can now be examined to determine if and how
Bolcom attempts to convey Blake's intended meanings through musical signs and topics.
It should be noted that though Blake authored only forth-five poems (Appendix A),
Bolcom's complete musical setting contains fifty-five movements (Appendix B), the extra
ten resulting from added interludes, additional poems, an introduction, a nocturne, and a
coda. Bolcom also altered the order in which the Blake poems are presented. This
reorganization of material may be Bolcom's attempt to group similar topics together, to
assist with maintaining the overall narrative of the collection, or simply to make possible
the various staging and ensemble changes that occur throughout the composition.
In an effort to help recognize and understand the topics and signs at work within
"The Lamb," "The Chimney Sweeper (Innocence)," "Holy Thursday (Innocence)", "The
Tyger," "The Chimney Sweeper (Exprience)," and "London," certain compositional
aspects typical of Bolcom's style have been chosen for analysis. These compositional
techniques include, but are not limited to: instrumentation choices, use of silence,
utilization of different types of choir, use of vocal solos, tonal organizations, dark versus
bright keys, dissonance versus consonance, homophony versus polyphony, and choice of
musical style. Furthermore, these aspects of Bolcom's compositional style have been
organized into four musical categories: orchestration (including treatment of the text and
treatment of the accompaniment), harmonic language, rhythmic characteristics, and
overall style. Bolcom's musical representation of Blake's ironies and dualities must also
be taken into account. The composer achieves this literary concept by accompanying
50

ironic lines with dissonant harmonies, humorous sarcasm, and direct contrast between the
lyrics and the music itself. Basically, Bolcom does not allow for true innocence
suggesting that nobody is truly devoid of sin or able to avoid experience. With all of
these compositional techniques in mind, each of the six poems will be passed through the
figurative sieve in the style of Wenk in order to garner a more complete understanding of
both Bolcom's and Blake's intended meanings.
51

The Lamb
Within "The Lamb," Bolcom employs a string quartet along with a celeste, a harp,
and woodwinds to elicit the folk sounds and smooth articulations typical of the pastoral
genre. Additionally, the lyrics are performed by a solo female voice, suggesting feminine
and innocent characteristics. Furthermore, Bolcom composes moments of silence for the
accompaniment during the most poignant lines within "The Lamb," serving to highlight
their importance to the overall meaning of the poem. Harmonically, Bolcom utilizes
dissonant sonorities created by tritones, seconds, sevenths, and ninths throughout the
setting. These harmonies are paralleled by the angular melody complete with melodic
seconds, sevenths, ninths, and tritones within the vocal solo, and work together with the
Andante Misterioso tempo marking to parallel the mysterious nature of the poem and its
incessant questions regarding the creator of the lamb. Rhythmically, Bolcom exhibits
contrast pitting the intricate, flowing accompaniment from measures 6 through 16 and
measures 29 through 41 against the homophonic block chords in measures 17 through 23
and measures 42 through 53. This contrast parallels the contrasting 5/8 and 3/4 meters
Bolcom also exhibits throughout this setting. Stylistically, "The Lamb" is characterized
by a relaxed, smooth, pastoral quality throughout. However, due to the absence of a tonal
center, the constant dissonance, the lack of formal phrase structure and cadences, the
unpredictable rhythms, and the shifting meter, the overall mood of the movement is one
of unsettling calmness, relaxed intensity, and uncertain truth. These ironic descriptions
perfectly parallel Blake's contraries between innocence and experience and the ironies he
employs throughout the poem.
52

The Chimney Sweeper (Innocence)
The orchestration of the instrumental accompaniment for "The Chimney
Sweeper" takes a back seat to the treatment of the meaningful Blake text. While nearly
every other poem within Bolcom's setting employs a choir or vocal soloist to sing the
text, this particular poem is presented by a male narrator freely speaking Blake's words in
a way that assists with telling the story of the poem. Meanwhile, the accompaniment
includes standard triadic harmonies and lyric melodies played by solo euphonium,
saxophone, cornet, trombone, and cello. These melodies are reminiscent of the "Sunday
in the Park" solos played by Herbert L. Clarke with The Goldman Band in New York
City during the "Golden Age" of the American concert band. Additionally, the
accompaniment includes a female choir creating an ethereal, heavenly atmosphere during
the lyrics that mention angels. Once again, Bolcom composes silence under the words
"Weep, Weep," some of the most important, meaningful words of the poem.
Harmonically, Bolcom utilizes three techniques to illuminate the meaning of Blake's text.
First, to illustrate the dark mood of the subject matter, Bolcom chooses A Flat Major, the
darkest major key, to accompany the first half of the poem. Second, at measure thirty-
two, Bolcom modulates into F Sharp Major, a much brighter key, to accompany the verse
that mentions an angel with a bright key. Last, after harmonizing the entire poem with
consonant, tertian harmonies, Bolcom chooses to utilize dissonance to set the line "So, if
all do their duty, they need not fear harm," signifying the more significant, unfortunate
meaning of the line. Rhythmically, Bolcom also treats the third verse of this poem as a
separate entity, a barcarolle, accompanying it with a slow, lilting 6/8, typified by the
eighth note-sixteenth rest-sixteenth note-eighth note dance rhythm. Stylistically, "The
53

Chimney Sweep" is characterized by a relaxed, freely spoken narration, accompanied by
the lyric, flowing eighth note melodies of the accompaniment. The barcarolle introduces
rhythmic interest and intensity, but at a slow tempo, keeping the style relaxed and calm.
Once again, Bolcom's use of contrary compositional techniques parallels Blake's ironies
and dualities throughout the poem.
54

Holy Thursday
In "Holy Thursday" (Innocence), Bolcom utilizes several different types of choir,
the dancelike madrigal genre, and specific tonal harmonies as musical topics to assist
with conveying his compositional meanings. The setting begins with a female madrigal
choir, singing a cappella in homophonic texture and compound-duple meter.
Rhythmically, Bolcom employs the quarter-eighth-quarter-eighth rhythm typical of the
English madrigal almost exclusively throughout the setting. After just two lines, a full
female choir enters to sing the remainder of the first verse, which ends as a trio of
Janissary percussion ushers in the parade of children to St. Paul's cathedral. A men's choir
begins verse two, and from then on, Bolcom combines the voices of the choir in
seemingly random fashion. The second half of the setting also includes accompaniment
from the orchestra. Bolcom utilizes consonant, tertian harmonies throughout the setting,
and also employs a falling fourth sequence and a falling fifth sequence during the middle
portion of the poem. The notated key changes frequently, but Bolcom often explores
other keys through chromaticism and tonicization. One of these tonicizations cadences at
measure thirty-seven in the bright key of E Major, where the choir sings of raising their
song to heaven. The accompanimental rhythm is also very repetitive and includes bass
voices playing on both macro beats, tenor voices on micro beats two through six, and
treble voices on beats two, three, and four. Stylistically, Bolcom maintains the madrigal
style throughout the piece, bringing in the Janissary percussion to elicit the feeling of
being in a parade as well.
55

The Tyger
Within his setting of "The Tyger," Bolcom employs a men's choir performing a
spoken, chant-like text along with percussion and pizzicato strings to illustrate the strong,
driving, rhythmic pulse associated with the poem. This orchestration pervades the setting
until measure twenty-seven when altos and sopranos begin to join the texture. The
women of the choir take sole responsibility for the text beginning at measure forty-four -
"when the stars threw down the spears..." They continue with the text "Did He who made
the lamb make thee?" harkening back to the soprano soloist who sang about the lamb in
Songs of Innocence. Harmonically, Bolcom uses a minor flair and polytonal clusters
throughout to accompany the chant-like text of the men's choir. Bolcom adds the most
interest to the setting with rhythmic intensity. The beginning of the movement is
characterized by driving, accented, sixteenth note subdivisions of the beat performed by
four timpani. Tom drums and cymbals soon introduce a triplet pattern simultaneous with
the timpani, creating a four against three composite rhythm, and the bass drum interjects
individual segments of sound. Additionally, the rhythm of the text is composed of quarter
notes and eighth notes which fall typically on strong beats, but which are occasionally
syncopated and include accents on weak beats and upbeats contrary to the percussive
accompaniment. Stylistically, "The Tyger" is the most intense of the Songs of
Experience. This intensity is a result of the percussive, accented, and articulate text and
accompaniment Bolcom composed, and is in direct contrast to the relaxed, lyrical,
flowing, smooth, and flowing style of "The Lamb." According to the literary analysis
discussed in Chapter 4, "The Tyger" is essentially static in nature, demonstrating a
56

complete absence of evolution within the work. Musically, Bolcom parallels this stasis by
maintaining a consistent mood, style, and genre throughout the setting.
57

The Chimney Sweeper (Experience)
In his orchestration of "The Chimney Sweeper (Experience)," Bolcom includes
percussion, horns, woodwinds, and a xylophone for a brief introduction before employing
a homophonic a cappella choral passage separated into women's choir, men's choir, and
full mixed choir sections. The accompaniment returns quickly and serves mainly to
support the choral sounds with homophonic block chords. This homophony continues
accompanied by tambourines as a conclusion to the movement once the text has ended.
Harmonically, Bolcom utilizes mainly consonant, triadic harmonies throughout the poem.
Rhythmically, Bolcom utilizes, once again, the characteristic sounds of a dance-like
madrigal, notated in 3/4 time rather than 6/8. The rhythms are homophonic throughout,
purposefully reminiscent of those from "Holy Thursday" in Songs of Innocence. This
setting also directly parallels the madrigal choir setting of "Holy Thursday (Innocence)"
stylistically. Bolcom's use of dance-like rhythms and a homophonic choral texture serve
as the basis for this comparison.
58

London
For "London," Bolcom employs his eclectic, 20th-Century style by composing
two contrasting sections in an AB (Binary) structure. The entire poem is scored for full
orchestra complete with strings, brass, woodwinds, and percussion. The setting even
includes electric violin, electric guitar, and a male rock singer. Harmonically, Bolcom
begins the movement with clusters of dissonance, which are built one tone at a time in
pyramid style. Nine of these clusters are presented, each one increasing in tempo,
thickness of scoring, range/tessitura, and intensity. These declamatory statements evoke
the aural image of London's Elizabeth Tower, also known as "Big Ben," ringing in the
streets, their dissonant clashing a symbol of the chaotic unrest of the heathen city. These
nine chimes also signify an English tradition known as the Silent Minute of Prayer, which
began during World War II. Each evening, at the beginning of the nine o'clock news, the
television network would broadcast the familiar chimes of Big Ben throughout the
country, uniting the entire nation in a silent prayer for peace. The practice has survived
and is still in use today.
The intense introduction gives way quickly to the tertian harmonies of a driving,
apocalyptic rock structure in E Flat Minor. Other than a handful of chromatic passing
harmonies, this portion of the movement remains static and tonal throughout, ending in
the same E Flat Minor key area. Rhythmically, the dissonant introduction is altered for
each chime through the addition of new pitches, which serve to intensify each pyramid's
composite rhythm within the rock section. The rhythm is fairly homophonic and
repetitive throughout, characterized by simple syncopated patterns and an incessant
sixteenth note descant. Stylistically, the movement is consistently intense throughout.
59

Dynamics are loud, articulations are accented and clear, and the rock tempo is constant.
Specifically, Bolcom refers to it as an apocalyptic rock tempo. In many ways, this
musical illustration of Blake's chaotic London contrasts the meticulous order orchestrated
in "Holy Thursday," serving to demonstrate the vast difference between the two parallel
poems.
60

CHAPTER 6 - CONCLUSIONS
According to Harold Bloom's The Best Poems of the English Language,
The Songs of Innocence are indeed 'of' and not 'about' the
state if innocence. There is much critical debate about
Blake's Innocence, and little that is definitive can be said
about it. The root meaning of 'innocence' is 'harmlessness';
the derived meanings, 'guiltlessness' and 'freedom from sin.'
But Blake uses the work to mean 'inexperience' as well,
which is a very different matter. As the contrary of
Experience, Innocence cannot be reconciled with it within
the context of natural existence.122
Furthermore, within Unsteady States: Songs of Innocence and of Experience,
We have seen that both Songs of Innocence and of

Experience contain poems that are ironic about the
limitations of the represented speaker, and about their own
means of expression. One way in which they suggest this
irony is by is by implying the perspective of the opposing
state. Thus 'The Chimney Sweeper" hints at the perspective
of Experience. It's easy to see this stratagem at work in
some of the songs. The Innocence "Holy Thursday"
provides a case almost exactly parallel with that of "The
Chimney Sweeper": one reading is usually sufficient to
disturb our confidence in Innocence.123
Bolcom illustrates the innocence within "The Lamb" through the use of the
pastoral genre and the female vocal soloist in his musical setting. He also includes
satirical references to Blake's ironies and dualities with his dissonant harmonies and
uneven, alternating meters. The silence Bolcom employs highlights the most poignant
lyrics of the poem, typically assisting with presenting the true meaning of the poem.
Within "The Chimney Sweeper" (Innocence), Bolcom highlights the innocence of
the poem with tonal, consonant, and lyric solos, and the use of a bright key for the lyric
that mentions an angel. This innocence is satirized by the use of a dark key for the

122
123
61

remainder of the setting and the use of dissonant harmonies to accompany the lyric "So if
all do their duty, they need not fear harm." This lyric may, in fact, be the most poignant,
satirical lyric of the entire poem, and Bolcom's harmonic treatment is clearly meant to
draw attention to it.
"Holy Thursday" tells the story of young children marching into St. Paul's
cathedral in an orderly, organized fashion. On the surface, Bolcom's musical setting
illustrates the innocence of these children through his utilization of a girls choir, dance-
like rhythms, bright major keys, and Janissary percussion to accompany the text.
However, digging deeper, the listener notices ironies or contraries within the setting.
First, Bolcom employs a madrigal (secular) choir to tell the story of children going to
church, a sacred event. Second, he utilizes the ordered, rhythmic homophony to mock the
organized parade of children.
Moving to the Songs of Experience, Bolcom sets "The Tyger" to some of the most
intense music of the work. He uses a men's choir to illustrate the strength of the tiger, a
minor tonality to signify the foreboding nature of the beast, an intense chanted text to
demonstrate the primal force at work within the tiger, and hard accents to show intensity.
Bolcom loosely contrasts some of these compositional techniques by incorporating the
women of the choir for the lyric "Did He who make the lamb make thee?" Overall, while
this one compositional decision links the two parallel poems as similar, the orchestration,
dynamic, harmonic, and stylistic differences between the two set them in opposition
musically just as Blake had intended to set them apart originally.
Later, in "The Chimney Sweeper" (Experience), Bolcom employs mostly ironic
compositional techniques to illustrate Blake's intended meanings. To accompany the
62

heartbreaking text, Bolcom utilizes compositionally pleasant ideas such as the dance-like
rhythms, the madrigal choir, and the rhythmic homophony from "Holy Thursday"
(Innocence). Not only do these musical characteristics contrast with the text of this poem,
they also serve to set this poem in contrast with "The Chimney Sweeper" (Innocence) and
"Holy Thursday" (Innocence), texts that Blake would agree are in complete opposition.
Lastly, within "London," Bolcom uses dissonant chord clusters and the minor
rock structure to give life to the poem. With these musical ideas, Bolcom illustrates the
jaded, cynical, experience pervading the chaotic streets of London in Blake's text. Most
importantly, this musical chaos stands in direct contrast to the meticulous order and
innocence of "London's" parallel poem "Holy Thursday."
Overall, Bolcom clearly utilizes musical topics and signs to assist with
communicating both his and Blake's intended meanings for the Songs of Innocence and of
Experience. Many of these signs serve to illustrate the simplest intentions of the author,
while others delve deeper into Blake's contraries, dualities, and ironies to bring to light
his more complex ideas. Through this research, it has become clear to the author that both
Blake and Bolcom share many of the same philosophical ideals with regard to contrast.
The similarities between their writing and compositional styles have allowed this
partnership to be immensely successful, and have resulted in one of the most poignant
musical settings of Songs of Innocence and of Experience. Utilizing the techniques of
Arthur Wenk, V. Kofi Agawu, Robert Hatten, Leonard Ratner and other semioticians
who have applied their philosophies to musical analysis, this research has illustrated how
both the author and the composer have created such meaningful works of art. It is the
63

author's hope this research will spark a complete analysis of the collection, detailing how
the musical genius of William Bolcom has given new life to the poetry of William Blake.
64

APPENDIX A
William Blake's Songs of Innocence and of Experience
Songs of Innocence Songs of Experience
Introduction Introduction
The Shepherd Earth's Answer
The Echoing Green The Clod and the Pebble
The Lamb Holy Thursday
The Little Black Boy The Little Girl Lost
The Blossom The Little Girl Found
The Chimney Sweeper The Chimney Sweeper
The Little Boy Lost Nurse's Song
The Little Boy found The Sick Rose
Laughing Song The Fly
A Cradle Song The Angel
The Divine Image The Tyger
Holy Thursday My Pretty Rose Tree
Night Ah! Sunflower
Spring The Lily
Nurse's Song The Garden of Love
Infant Joy The Little Vagabond
A Dream London
On Another's Sorrow The Human Abstract
Infant Sorrow
A Poison Tree
A Little Boy Lost (at wikisource)
A Little Girl Lost
To Tirzah
The Schoolboy (at wikisource)
The Voice of the Ancient Bard
65

APPENDIX B
William Bolcom's Songs of Innocence and of Experience
Songs of Innocence Part II
Part I Nurse's Song

The Fly
Introduction The Tyger
The Echoing Green The Little Girl Lost
The Lamb In the Southern Clime
The Shepherd The Little Girl Found
Infant Joy
The Little Black Boy Part III
Part II The Clod and the Pebble

The Little Vagabond
Laughing Song Holy Thursday
Spring The Poison Tree
A Cradle Song The Angel
The Nurse's Song The Sick Rose
Holy Thursday To Tirzah
The Blossom
Interlude Volume 2 - Part IV
The Chimney Sweeper
The Divine Image The Voice of the Ancient Band
My Pretty Rose Tree
Part III Ah! Sun-Flower
The Lilly
Nocturne
Night Part V
A Dream
On Another's Sorrow Introduction to Part V
The Little Boy Lost The Garden of Love
The Little Boy Found A Little Boy Lost
Coda A Little Girl Lost
Infant Sorrow
Songs of Experience Vocalise
Volume 1 - Part I Part VI
Introduction London
Hear the Voice of the Bard The School-Boy
Interlude The Chimney Sweeper
Earth's Answer The Human Abstract
Interlude: Voces Clamandae
A Divine Image
66

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71

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The Pennsylvania State University

The Graduate School

BEHIND THE MASK:

A SEMIOTIC ANALYSIS OF WILLIAM BOLCOM'S

SONGS OF INNOCENCE AND OF EXPERIENCE

©2013 Eric M. Hahn

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment

*Signatures are on file in the Graduate School.

The purpose of this study is to utilize semiotic analysis as a method to determine

Bolcom's musical masks and determine his intended musical meanings.

Chapter 1. WILLIAM BOLCOM........................................................................................1

Chapter 3. WILLIAM BLAKE..........................................................................................28

Chapter 4. LITERARY ANALYSIS.................................................................................35

Chapter 5. MUSICAL ANALYSIS...................................................................................50

Appendix A: William Blake's Songs of Innocence and of Experience..............................65

Appendix B: WIlliam Bolcom's Songs of Innocence and of Experience..........................66

Table 1. Agawu's Topics I.................................................................................................20

Table 2. Agawu's Topics II................................................................................................21

Table 3. Dickensheets' Topics...........................................................................................22

Table 4. Grabócz' Topics...................................................................................................23

Table 5. Agawu's Topics....................................................................................................24

Table 6. Mirka's Topics.....................................................................................................25

adviser and first reader to lead me through the program.

to work with such a distinguished professor.

CHAPTER 1 - WILLIAM BOLCOM

William Bolcom has been described as an unrepentant eclectic composer of

contemporary music.1 This description is supported by a perusal of his compositional

chamber and symphonic works.”3 Additionally, Bolcom regularly performs an eclectic

from a variety or organizations including two Guggenheim Fellowships, two

songs alone demonstrates Bolcom’s eclectic compositional style as it includes settings of

chorus. Steven Blier writes,

as an eclectic. In a 1990 concert review of Bolcom’s Piano Concerto, performed by

concretely, suggesting one of his compositions might include sections of atonality,

his review of Bolcom’s Symphony No. 5, “Eclecticism, rather than a post-modern

philosophy appeared to guide Bolcom in his musical choices.”10

Music Symposium, 30/1 (1990), 59-­‐63.

its expressive potential in your music.”13

In Bernard Holland’s New York Times article, “Composing a Kinship Between

an amalgamation of these elements can help to expand appreciation and understanding

setting of Songs of Innocence and of Experience, Bolcom reflects,

The whole piece is about dualities or ‘contraries,’ as Blake called them.

Bolcom’s use of compositional dichotomies or “contraries” has continued to pervade his

William Bolcom completed his musical setting of Songs of Innocence and of

It is the belief of this researcher that Songs of Innocence and of Experience

Bolcom's compositional catalogue.20 Therefore, while the inclusion of Bolcom's entire

It is the goal of this researcher to complete a semiotic analysis of selected

typical compositional techniques or "topics," combine those techniques into musical

illumination of Blake's poetry, eliciting the intended audience response. In order to

as a method for paralleling the contextual meanings of William Blake.

upon the psychological workings of the human mind. 21

prompted a posthumous publication of his course notes titled Course in General

time, Saussure examined the inner-workings of language at a given point. In essence,

Saussure studied language synchronically rather than diachronically.23 Within his

spoken words) and langue (language as a whole).25

Saussure's study of semiotics is based on the concept of a two-pronged model or

researcher, Charles Peirce.

expanded Saussure's two-pronged dyad into a triadic theory composed of a

representamen, an interpretant, and an object.31 Within this tripartate structure, the

as the mental image or effect created by the sign/representamen that leads to

understanding the object. Peirce writes,

Music Symposium, 30/1 (1990), 59-‐63.