Applied Physics

Topics 1
Dr Andrey Varvinskiy
Consultant Anaesthetist
Torbay Hospital, UK
EDAIC Paper B Lead and Examiner
 TOPICS 1
SI System
Force and Pressure
Flow
Tension
Bernoulli principle
Venturi effect
Coanda effect
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 SI system 1960

Base SI Units
1. Time
2. Distance
3. Amount
4. Current
5. Luminous intensity
6. Mass
7. Temperature

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 Base SI Units
1. Second – duration based on frequency of radiation emitted
from caesium-133
2. Metre - distance light travels in vacuum in a specified fraction
of a second
3. Mole - amount of substance which contains as many
elementary particles as there are atoms in 0.012kg of carbon-12
4. Ampere - current which produces a force of 2x10-7 newtons
per metre between 2 conductors 1 metre apart in a vacuum

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 Base SI Units
5. Candela (means candle) – luminous intensity, in a given
direction of a source that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency
540×1012 Hz
6. Kilogram - based on mass of a 1kg prototype held at Sevres near
Paris

5. Kelvin – unit of thermodynamic T, is the fraction 1/273.16

of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water

Temperature (K) = Temperature (°C) + 273.16

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SMMACKK

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 Derived Units
1. Force (Newton) • 1N=1kg m s-2
a force of 1 N will give a mass of
1 kg an acceleration of 1 m per s
per s
2. Pressure (Pascal) • 1Pa=1N m-2

3. Energy (Joule)
J is the energy expended when the
point of application of a force of
• 1J =1Nm
1N moves 1m in the direction of
the force

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 Derived Units
4. Power (Watt) • 1W = 1J s-1
- rate of energy expenditure

5. Frequency (Hertz)
• 1Hz=1 cycle per s
6. Volume
(Cubic metre and litre) • 1L=10-3 m3 or 1m3 = 1000L

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 Force
that which changes or tends to change the
state of rest or motion of an object

Or F = M x A (2nd Newton’s law)

Newton N = kg m s-2
a force of 1 N will give a mass of 1 kg an
acceleration of 1 m per s per s

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 Weight and mass
• The Weight (W) of a body is a measurement of
the gravitational force exerted upon it
• Measured in Newtons (N)
• In everyday life we use units of Mass (M) in Kg
to quote Weight
• The actual Weight depends on the size of a
planet and the distance you are from it
• W=MG (G- acceleration in ms-2)

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 HOW HEAVY IS ONE NEWTON?

Force of gravity 9.81 m s-2 = 1N

Therefore force of gravity on mass
of 1 kg = 9.81N
Known as 1kg weight so 1N=1/9.81
So 1N = 102 g weight

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 Pressure
Pressure is the force applied
over a surface
expressed as force per unit
area
1 Pascal is a pressure of 1 N
acting over area of 1m2
102g/1m2 - tiny!
That is why we use kPa

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 Pressure equivalents

101.325kPa = 1Bar =
750mmHg=1 Atm

14.5 lb per inch-2 =1 Bar

7.5 torr = 1kPa

1torr=1mmHg
7.3mmHg = 10cm H2O

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 Gauge and Absolute
pressures
Absolute pressure =
Gauge pressure +
Atmospheric pressure

In full oxygen cylinder

gauge pressure= 137
bar
absolute pressure = 138
bar
Examples of Gauge P :
ventilator, arterial and
venous pressure

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 Flow
Quantity of a fluid (gas or liquid) passing a point per unit
time

F = Q/t
L/min

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 Laminar Flow
• Fluid moves in steady manner
• Flow greatest in centre
(x2 of average flow)
• Virtually no flow
near edges
• Flow ∞ pressure
• Low velocity

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Hagen-Poiseuille equation

Q-flow through a
tube
P-pressure across
tube
r –radius of tube
l-length of tube
η – viscosity of fluid

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 Turbulent flow
Occurs if constriction reached which results in fluid
velocity increasing
Fluid swirls in eddies
Resistance higher than
for same laminar flow
Flow is not directly
proportional to
pressure

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 Laminar versus Turbulent

Occurs if constriction reached which results in fluid velocity increasing

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Onset of turbulent flow > 2000

• d = the diameter of the tube

• v = the velocity of flow(m/s)
• p = rho, the density of the fluid
in kg.m-3
• η = eta, the viscosity of the
fluid in pascal seconds or
(kg/m.s)

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 Clinical Application
of turbulent flow
For typical anaesthetic mix:

critical flow (l/min) ~ airway

diameter (mm)
i.e. in 9mm tube becomes
turbulent if flow exceeds 9 l/min

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 Clinical Applications
Respiratory cycle

Turbulent flow usually predominates in peak flow (>50

l/min)
Otherwise flow laminar
Laminar flow in the bronchi and smaller airways due
to reduction in velocity
In general
quiet breathing – laminar
speaking, coughing, deep breathing - turbulent in larger
airways

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 Viscosity
• for a given set of conditions flow is
inversely proportional to viscosity

• blood viscosity increases with:

• low temperatures
• increasing age
• cigarette smoking
• increasing haematocrit
• abnormal elevations of
plasma proteins

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 Tension (Laplace Law)
Cylinders P = T/R

Spheres P = 2T/R
P = pressure gradient
across wall
T = tangential force
acting along a length of
wall (N/m)

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 Tension.
Clinical aspects
As diameter of a vessel becomes smaller collapsing force
becomes greater
=>vessel closure at low pressures: critical closing pressure

Alveoli - unless surfactant present small alveoli tend to

empty into larger

Aortic aneurysm P = T/R. 80mmHg = T/2cm

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 The Bernoulli Principle

• The total energy in a

steadily flowing fluid
system is a constant
along the fluid path

• Fluid pressure is
inversely proportional
to its velocity
• 1726

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 Bernoulli Principle

based on law of conservation of energy

the total energy of a fluid flow is given by

E = PV + mgh + ½mv2
PV = the potential energy of pressure
mgh = the potential energy due to gravity
½mv2 = the kinetic energy of motion (flow)

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 Bernoulli Principle
Velocity of flow ↑ due to
flow through constriction
=> gain of kinetic energy
Pressure ↓ (↓ potential
energy)
Total energy constant
Laminar flow important for
efficiency

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Bernoulli Principle

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 Bernoulli Principle

An increase in the flow

velocity of an ideal fluid
will be accompanied by a
simultaneous reduction in
its pressure
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Venturi Effect
Opening of a side tube
causes entrainment of
another fluid
Nebulisers, O2 masks,
injectors, suction

ER = Entrained Flow / Driving

Flow

5 to 1 = 5 l/min of air is
entrained by 1l/min of O2

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HydroCision

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VENTRAIN
Expiratory Ventilation Assistance

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 Coanda effect
• Henri Marie Coandă
1885-1972
The tendency of
a fluid jet to be
attracted to a
nearby surface.

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 Coanda effect
If no opening on the side
of a narrowing in a tube a
region of low pressure is
established
stream tends to adhere to
the wall
if tube then diverges
stream may adhere to
either wall diverting flow
to one or other lumen

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 Coanda effect application

• Mucus plug at the branching of tracheo-

bronchial tree may cause maldistribution of
respiratory gases
• Unequal flow may result because of
atherosclerotic plaques in the vascular tree
• Fluid logic used in ventilators employs this
principle to replace valves

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 Coanda effect as an explanation for unequal
ventilation of the lungs in an intubated patient?

Qudaisat I Y Br. J. Anaesth. 2008;100:859-860

© The Board of Management and Trustees of the British Journal of Anaesthesia 2008. All rights
reserved. For Permissions, please e-mail: [email protected]
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QUESTIONS?

Davis and Kenny

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