CHRIST COLLEGE OF ENGG.

& TECH ECE DEPARTMENT

EC T43 - SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS

UNIT - I
REPRESENTATION AND CLASSIFICATION OF SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS

CLASSIFICATION OF SIGNALS
i) One channel and multi-channel signals
ii) One - dimensional and multi - dimensional signals
iii) Continuous - time and discrete - time signals
iv) Analog and Digital signals
v) Real and exponential signals
vi) Deterministic and Random (non-deterministic) signals
vii) Periodic and Non-periodic (Aperiodic) signals
viii) Symmetric (even) and asymmetric (odd) signals
ix) Energy and Power signals
x) Causal and anti-causal signals

CONTINUOUS TIME DISCRETE TIME

Sl.No.
SIGNALS SIGNALS
𝑥(𝑡 + 𝑇0 ) = 𝑥(𝑡)
𝑥(𝑛 + 𝑁0 ) = 𝑥(𝑛)
1. Periodic signals 2𝜋
𝜔0 = Ω0 𝑁 = 2𝜋 𝑚
𝑇0
Symmetric signals or
2. 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥(−𝑡) 𝑥(𝑛) = 𝑥(−𝑛)
even signal
Asymmetric or odd
3. 𝑥(𝑡) = −𝑥(−𝑡) 𝑥(𝑛) = 𝑥(−𝑛)
signal
1 1
4. Even part of x(t) 𝑥𝑒 (𝑡) = [𝑥(𝑡) + 𝑥(−𝑡)] 𝑥𝑒 (𝑛) = [𝑥(𝑛) + 𝑥(−𝑛)]
2 2
1 1
5. Odd part of x(t) 𝑥𝑜 (𝑡) = [𝑥(𝑡) − 𝑥(−𝑡)] 𝑥𝑜 (𝑛) = [𝑥(𝑛) − 𝑥(−𝑛)]
2 2
6. Energy signal E is finite or constant (0 < 𝐸 < ∞) ; 𝑃=0
7. Power signal P is finite or constant (0 < 𝑃 < ∞) ; 𝐸= ∞
+𝑇

𝐸 = Lt ∫ |𝑥(𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∝
−𝑇 +∞

8. Energy (or) 𝐸 = ∑ |𝑥(𝑛)|2

+∞
𝑛=−∞
𝐸 = ∫ |𝑥(𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡
−∞

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𝑁
𝑇/2
2
1 1
Lt ∫ |𝑥(𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡 Lt ∑ |𝑥(𝑛)|2
𝑇→∝ 𝑇 𝑁→∝ 𝑁
–𝑇/2 𝑁
𝑛=−
2
9. Power (or)
(or)
𝑇
1 𝑁
Lt ∫|𝑥(𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡 1
𝑇→∝ 2𝑇 Lt ∑ |𝑥(𝑛)|2
𝑁→∝ 2𝑁 + 1
–𝑇 𝑛=−𝑁

10. Causal signal 𝑥(𝑡) = 0; 𝑡 < 0 𝑥(𝑛) = 0; 𝑛 < 0

11. Anti-causal signal 𝑥(𝑡) = 0; 𝑡 > 0 𝑥(𝑛) = 0; 𝑛 > 0
12. Non-causal signal 𝑥(𝑡) exists for all t 𝑥(𝑛) exists for all n

REPRESENTATION OF SIGNALS
i) Functional representation
ii) Graphical representation
iii) Tabular representation
iv) Sequence representation

STANDARD SIGNALS

CONTINUOUS TIME SIGNALS DISCRETE TIME SIGNALS

∞; 𝑡=0
𝛿(𝑡) =
0; 𝑡≠0
∞; 𝑛=0
Impulse signal ∞ 𝛿(𝑛) =
0; 𝑛≠0
∫ 𝛿(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐴
−∞

∞; 𝑡=0
𝛿(𝑡) =
0; 𝑡≠0
Unit Impulse 1; 𝑛=0
∞ 𝛿(𝑛) =
signal 0; 𝑛≠0
∫ 𝛿(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = 1
−∞

𝐴; 𝑡 ≥ 0 𝐴; 𝑛 ≥ 0
Step signal 𝑢(𝑡) = 𝑢(𝑛) =
0; 𝑡 < 0 0; 𝑛 < 0
1; 𝑡 ≥ 0 1; 𝑛 ≥ 0
Unit Step signal 𝑢(𝑡) = 𝑢(𝑛) =
0; 𝑡 < 0 0; 𝑛 < 0
𝐴𝑡; 𝑡 ≥ 0 𝐴𝑛; 𝑛 ≥ 0
Ramp signal 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑛) =
0; 𝑡 < 0 0; 𝑛 < 0
𝑡; 𝑡 ≥ 0 𝑛; 𝑛 ≥ 0
Unit Ramp signal 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡) =
0; 𝑡 < 0 0; 𝑛 < 0

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𝐴𝑡 2 𝐴𝑛2
Parabolic signal 𝑥(𝑡) = 2 ; 𝑡 ≥ 0 𝑥(𝑛) = 2 ; 𝑛 ≥ 0
0; 𝑡 < 0 0; 𝑛<0
𝑡2 𝑛2
Unit Parabolic
𝑥(𝑡) = 2 ; 𝑡 ≥ 0 𝑥(𝑛) = 2 ; 𝑛 ≥ 0
signal
0; 𝑡 < 0 0; 𝑛 < 0

Sinusoidal signal 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴 sin(𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜙) 𝑥(𝑛) = 𝐴 sin(𝜔0 𝑛 + 𝜙)

Real exponential
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 𝑏𝑡
signal
Complex
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 𝑡
exponential signal
1; 𝑡 > 0
Signum signal 𝑠𝑔𝑛(𝑡) = 0; 𝑡 = 0
−1; 𝑡 < 0
sin 𝑡
Sinc signal sinc (𝑡) = ; −∞ < 𝑡 < ∞
𝑡
1 1
Unit pulse signal Π(𝑡) = 𝑢 (𝑡 + ) − 𝑢 (𝑡 − )
2 2

OPERATION ON SIGNALS
i) Amplitude scaling
ii) Time scaling
iii) Folding ( Reflection or Transpose )
iv) Time shifting
v) Addition
vi) Multiplication
vii) Differentiation
viii) Integration

𝑡2
𝛿(𝑡) 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑢(𝑡) 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
→ → (Unit ramp) → 2
(Impulse) (Unit step)
(Unit parabolic)

𝑡2
𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑢(𝑡) 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝛿(𝑡)
2 → (Unit ramp) → →
(Unit parabolic) (Unit step) (Impulse)

CLASSIFICATION OF SYSTEMS
i) Static (memoryless) and dynamic (memory) systems
ii) Time invariant and time variant systems

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Response of delayed input

Delay System
x(t) x(t-m) y1(t)

Delayed response

System Delay
x(t) y(t) y2(t) = y(t-m)

Time Invariant system  𝑦1 (𝑡) = 𝑦2 (𝑡)

iii) Linear and nonlinear systems

iv) Causal and non-causal systems
v) Stable and unstable systems
vi) Finite impulse response (FIR) and Infinite impulse response (IIR) systems
vii) Recursive and non-recursive systems
viii) Feedback and non-feedback systems
ix) Analog and digital systems

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PROPERTIES OF SYSTEMS

Continuous – time LTI system Discrete – time LTI system

𝑡 𝑡 𝑛 𝑛

Causality 𝑦(𝑡) = ∫ ℎ(𝜏)𝑥(𝑡 − 𝜏)𝑑𝜏 = ∫ 𝑥(𝜏)ℎ(𝑡 − 𝜏)𝑑𝜏 𝑦(𝑛) = ∑ ℎ(𝑘)𝑥(𝑛 − 𝑘) = ∑ 𝑥(𝑘)ℎ(𝑛 − 𝑘)

0 0 𝑘=0 𝑘=0

∞ ∞

Stability ∫ |ℎ(𝑡)| < ∞ ∑ |ℎ[𝑘]| < ∞

−∞ 𝑘=−∞

Time
𝓕{𝑥(𝑡 − 𝜏)} = 𝑦(𝑡 − 𝜏) 𝓕{𝑥[𝑛 − 𝑘]} = 𝑦[𝑛 − 𝑘]
Invariant
Linearity 𝓕{𝑎1 𝑥1 (𝑡) + 𝑎2 𝑥2 (𝑡)} = 𝑎1 𝓕{𝑥1 (𝑡)} + 𝑎2 𝓕{𝑥2 (𝑡)} 𝓕{𝑎1 𝑥1 (𝑛) + 𝑎2 𝑥2 (𝑛)} = 𝑎1 𝓕{𝑥1 (𝑛)} + 𝑎2 𝓕{𝑥2 (𝑛)}
∞ ∞
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡) ∗ ℎ(𝑡) = ∫ 𝑥(𝜏)ℎ(𝑡 − 𝜏)𝑑𝜏 𝑦(𝑛) = 𝑥(𝑛) ∗ ℎ(𝑛) = ∑ 𝑥(𝑘)ℎ(𝑛 − 𝑘)
Convolution −∞ 𝑘=−∞
∞ ∞

= ∫ ℎ(𝜏)𝑥(𝑡 − 𝜏)𝑑𝜏 = ∑ ℎ(𝑘)𝑥(𝑛 − 𝑘)

−∞ 𝑘=−∞

Properties of convolution
Commutative
𝑥1 (𝑡) ∗ 𝑥2 (𝑡) = 𝑥2 (𝑡) ∗ 𝑥1 (𝑡) 𝑥1 (𝑛) ∗ 𝑥2 (𝑛) = 𝑥2 (𝑛) ∗ 𝑥1 (𝑛)
property
Associative
[𝑥1 (𝑡) ∗ 𝑥2 (𝑡)] ∗ 𝑥3 (𝑡) = 𝑥1 (𝑡) ∗ [𝑥2 (𝑡) ∗ 𝑥3 (𝑡)] [𝑥1 (𝑛) ∗ 𝑥2 (𝑛)] ∗ 𝑥3 (𝑛) = 𝑥1 (𝑛) ∗ [𝑥2 (𝑛) ∗ 𝑥3 (𝑛)]
property

Distributive 𝑥1 (𝑡) ∗ [𝑥2 (𝑡) + 𝑥3 (𝑡)] 𝑥1 (𝑛) ∗ [𝑥2 (𝑛) + 𝑥3 (𝑛)]

property = [𝑥1 (𝑡) ∗ 𝑥2 (𝑡)] + [𝑥2 (𝑡) ∗ 𝑥3 (𝑡)] = [𝑥1 (𝑛) ∗ 𝑥2 (𝑛)] + [𝑥2 (𝑛) ∗ 𝑥3 (𝑛)]

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TWO MARK QUESTION AND ANSWERS

1. Define Signal.
A signal is a physical quantity that varies with one or more independent variables
which conveys certain information.
Eg: Radio signal, TV signal, Telephone signal etc.

2. Define System.
A system is a set of elements or functional blocks that are connected together to
produce an output in response to an input signal.
Eg: An audio amplifier, attenuator, TV set etc.

3. Define CT (Continuous time) signals.

Continuous time signals are defined for all values of time. It is also called as an
analog signal and is represented by x(t).
Eg: AC waveform, ECG etc.

4. Define DT (Discrete time) signal.

Discrete time signals are defined at discrete (or) definite instances of time. It is
represented by x(n).
Eg: Amount deposited in a bank per month.

5. Define deterministic and random signals.

A deterministic signal is one which can be completely represented by Mathematical
equation at any time. In a deterministic signal there is no uncertainty with respect to its
value at any time. Eg: x(t) = cos ωt, x(n) = 2πfn
A random signal is one which cannot be represented by any mathematical equation.
Eg: Noise generated in electronic components, transmission channels, cables etc.

6. Compare power and energy signals.

Sl.No POWER SIGNAL ENERGY SIGNAL
The normalized average Total normalized energy is finite and
1.
power is finite and non-zero non- zero.
Practical periodic signals are power Non-periodic signals are energy
2.
signals signals

7. Define linear and non-linear systems.

A system is said to be linear if superposition theorem applies to that system. The
principle of superposition states that “The response of a system to a weighted sum of the
signals is equal to the corresponding weighted sum of the responses to each of the
individual input signals”.
A linear system satisfies the condition
𝓕{𝑎1 𝑥1 (𝑡) + 𝑎2 𝑥2 (𝑡)} = 𝑎1 𝓕{𝑥1 (𝑡)} + 𝑎2 𝓕{𝑥2 (𝑡)}
If it does not satisfy the superposition theorem, then it is said to be a nonlinear system.

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8. Define odd and even signals.

When a signal exhibits symmetry with respect to 𝑡 = 0, then it is called an even
signal. Even signal satisfies the condition, 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥(−𝑡). Eg: cos signal
When a signal exhibits antisymmetry with respect to 𝑡 = 0, then it is called an odd
signal. Odd signal satisfies the condition, 𝑥(𝑡) = −𝑥(−𝑡). Eg: sin signal

9. Define periodic and aperiodic signals.

A signal is said to be periodic signal if it repeats at equal intervals. A CT signal which
satisfies the equation 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡 + 𝑇) is said to be periodic and a DT signal which
satisfies the equation 𝑥(𝑛) = 𝑥(𝑛 + 𝑁) is said to be periodic.
Aperiodic signals do not repeat at regular intervals.

10. Define Causal and non-Causal systems.

A system is said to be a causal if its output at anytime depends upon present input,
past inputs and past outputs only. Eg: 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑡 𝑥(𝑡)
A system is said to be non-causal system if its output depends upon future inputs or
outputs also. Eg: 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑡 𝑥(𝑡 + 1)

11. Define time invariant and time varying systems.

A system is time invariant if its input output characteristics do not change with time.
A system which does not satisfy the above condition is time variant system.

12. Define stable and unstable systems.

When the system produces bounded output for bounded input (BIBO), then the
system is called bounded input, bounded output stable.
A system which doesnot satisfy the above condition is called as unstable system.

13. Define Static and Dynamic system.

A system is said to be static or memory less if its output at any instant of time depends
upon the present input only.
A system is said to be dynamic or with memory if its output depends upon the
present, past and future input values.

14. What is recursive system and Non recursive system?

A system whose output y(n) at time n depends on any number of past output values as
well as present and past inputs is called recursive system.
A system whose output y(n) at time n does not depend on past output but depends
only on the present and past input is called non-recursive system.

15. What is FIR system and IIR system?

The Impulse response which consists of finite number of samples is called Finite
Impulse Response (FIR) system.
The Impulse response which consists of infinite number of samples is called Infiinite
Impulse Response (FIR) system.

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Prepared by : A.Sharmila, AP/ECE
CHRIST COLLEGE OF ENGG. & TECH ECE DEPARTMENT

UNIT – II
ANALYSIS OF CONTINUOUS TIME SIGNALS

Sl.No. Fourier Series Fourier Transform

Applicable for periodic and aperiodic
1. Applicable only for periodic signals.
signals.
Representation using continuous
Representation using discrete sum of
2. superposition or integral of complex
complex exponentials.
exponentials.

Trigonometric (Quadrature) Form of Fourier Series

∞ ∞
𝑎0
𝑥(𝑡) = + ∑ 𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛ω0 𝑡 + ∑ 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛ω0 𝑡
2
𝑛=1 𝑛=1

+𝑇 ⁄2 𝑇
2 2
𝑎0 = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 (or) 𝑎0 = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑇 𝑇
−𝑇 ⁄2 0

+𝑇 ⁄2 𝑇
2 2
𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡) cos 𝑛ω0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 (or) 𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡) cos 𝑛ω0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 𝑇
−𝑇 ⁄2 0

+𝑇 ⁄2 𝑇
2 2
𝑏𝑛 = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡) sin 𝑛ω0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 (or) 𝑏𝑛 = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡) sin 𝑛ω0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 𝑇
−𝑇 ⁄2 0

Exponential Form of Fourier Series

+∞

𝑥(𝑡) = ∑ 𝑐𝑛 𝑒 𝑗𝑛ω0 𝑡
𝑛=−∞

+𝑇⁄2 𝑇
1 1
𝑐𝑛 = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑗𝑛ω0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 (or) 𝑐𝑛 = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑗𝑛ω0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 𝑇
−𝑇 ⁄2 0

Fourier Coefficients of Signals with Symmetry

i) Even Symmetry
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥(−𝑡)

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𝑇 ⁄2
4
𝑎0 = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑇
0
𝑇 ⁄2
4
𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡) cos 𝑛ω0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇
0

𝑏𝑛 = 0

ii) Odd Symmetry

𝑥(𝑡) = −𝑥(−𝑡)

𝑎0 = 0

𝑎𝑛 = 0
𝑇 ⁄2
4
𝑏𝑛 = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡) sin 𝑛ω0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇
0

iii) Half Wave Symmetry ( Alternation Symmetry)

𝑇
𝑥 (𝑡 ± ) = −𝑥(𝑡)
2
Fourier series consists of odd harmonic terms alone.

iv) Quarter Wave Symmetry

x(t) has even and half wave symmetry x(t) has odd and half wave symmetry

𝑇 𝑇
𝑥(−𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡) and 𝑥 (𝑡 ± 2) = −𝑥(𝑡) 𝑥(−𝑡) = − 𝑥(𝑡) and 𝑥 (𝑡 ± 2) = −𝑥(𝑡)

Fourier series will have odd harmonics of Fourier series will have odd harmonics of
cosine terms sine terms

FOURIER TRANSFORM
+∞

𝐹{𝑥(𝑡)} = 𝑋(𝑗ω) = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑗ω𝑡 𝑑𝑡

−∞

INVERSE FOURIER TRANSFORM

+∞
1
𝐹 −1 {𝑋(𝑗ω)} = 𝑥(𝑡) = ∫ 𝑋(𝑗ω) 𝑒 𝑗ω𝑡 𝑑ω
2𝜋
−∞

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FOURIER TRANSFORM PAIR

Signal Transform
x(t) X(jω)

(𝑡) 1

(𝑡 − 𝑡0 ) 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡0

A 2𝜋𝐴 𝛿(𝜔)

1
𝑢(𝑡) 𝜋 𝛿(𝜔) +
𝑗𝜔
2
𝑠𝑔𝑛(𝑡)
𝑗𝜔
1
𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)
(𝑗𝜔)2
𝑡 𝑛−1 1
𝑢(𝑡)
(𝑛 − 1)! (𝑗𝜔)𝑛
𝑛!
𝑡 𝑛 𝑢(𝑡)
(𝑗𝜔)𝑛+1
1
𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)
𝑗𝜔 + 𝑎
1
𝑡 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)
(𝑗𝜔 + 𝑎)2
2𝐴𝑎
𝐴 𝑒 −𝑎|𝑡|
𝑎2 + 𝜔2

𝐴 𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 𝑡 2𝜋𝐴 𝛿(𝜔 − 𝜔0 )

𝜋
sin 𝜔𝑡 [𝛿(𝜔 − 𝜔0 ) − 𝛿(𝜔 + 𝜔0 )]
𝑗

cos 𝜔𝑡 𝜋[𝛿(𝜔 − 𝜔0 ) + 𝛿(𝜔 + 𝜔0 )]

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PROPERTIES

FOURIER SERIES FOURIER TRANSFORM LAPLACE TRANSFORM

𝓕𝑺 {𝐴𝑥1 (𝑡) + 𝐵𝑥2 (𝑡)} 𝓛{𝑎1 𝑥1 (𝑡) + 𝑎2 𝑥2 (𝑡)}

Linearity 𝓕{𝑎1 𝑥1 (𝑡) + 𝑎2 𝑥2 (𝑡)} = 𝑎1 𝑋1(𝑗𝜔) + 𝑎2 𝑋2 (𝑗𝜔)
= 𝐴𝑐𝑛 + 𝐵𝑑𝑛 = 𝑎1 𝑋1 (𝑠) + 𝑎2 𝑋2 (𝑠)

Time Shifting 𝓕𝑺{𝑥(𝑡 − 𝑡0 )} = 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔0 𝑡 𝑐𝑛 𝓕{𝑥(𝑡 − 𝑡0 )} = 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡0 𝑋(𝑗𝜔) 𝓛{𝑥(𝑡 ± 𝑎)} = 𝑒 ±𝑎𝑠 𝑋(𝑠)

1 𝑗𝜔 1 𝑠
Time Scaling 𝓕𝑺{𝑥(𝑎𝑡)} = 𝑐𝑛 𝓕{𝑥(𝑎𝑡)} = 𝑋( ) 𝓛{𝑥(𝑎𝑡)} = 𝑋( )
|𝑎| 𝑎 |𝑎| 𝑎

Time Reversal 𝓕𝑺{𝑥(−𝑡)} = 𝑐−𝑛 𝓕{𝑥(−𝑡)} = 𝑋(−𝑗𝜔) -

Conjugation 𝓕𝑺{𝑥 ∗ (𝑡)} = 𝑐 ∗ −𝑛 𝓕{𝑥 ∗ (𝑡)} = 𝑋 ∗ (−𝑗𝜔) -
Frequency
- 𝓕{𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 𝑡 𝑥(𝑡)} = 𝑋(𝑗(𝜔 − 𝜔0 )) 𝓛 {𝑒 ±𝑎𝑡 𝑥(𝑡)} = 𝑋(𝑠 ∓ 𝑎)
Shifting

Time 𝑑 𝑑
- 𝓕{ 𝑥(𝑡)} = 𝑗𝜔 𝑋(𝑗𝜔) 𝓛{ 𝑥(𝑡)} = 𝑠 𝑋(𝑠) − 𝑥(0)
Differentiation 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑡
Time 1 𝑋(𝑠) [∫ 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡]|𝑡=0
- 𝓕 { ∫ 𝑥(𝜏) 𝑑𝜏} = 𝑋(𝑗𝜔) 𝓛 {∫ 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡} = +
Integration 𝑗𝜔 𝑠 𝑠
−∞

Frequency 𝑑 𝑑
Differentiation
- 𝓕{𝑡 𝑥(𝑡)} = 𝑗 𝑋(𝑗𝜔) 𝓛 {𝑡 𝑥(𝑡)} = − 𝑋(𝑠)
𝑑𝜔 𝑑𝑠

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∞
Frequency 1
- - 𝓛 { 𝑥(𝑡)} = ∫ 𝑋(𝑠) 𝑑𝑠
Integration 𝑡
𝑠

𝓕{𝑥1 (𝑡) ∗ 𝑥2 (𝑡)} = 𝑋1 (𝑗𝜔)𝑋2 (𝑗𝜔)

Frequency convolution
Convolution
𝓕𝑺{𝑥1 (𝑡) ∗ 𝑥2 (𝑡)} = 𝑇𝑐𝑛 𝑑𝑛 ∞ 𝓛{𝑥1 (𝑡) ∗ 𝑥2 (𝑡)} = 𝑋1 (𝑠)𝑋2 (𝑠)
Theorem 1
𝓕{𝑥1 (𝑡) 𝑥2 (𝑡)} = ∫ 𝑋1 (𝑗𝜆)𝑋2 (𝑗(𝜔 − 𝜆))
2𝜋
𝜆= −∞

𝑇
1
Periodicity - - 𝓛{𝑥(𝑡 + 𝑛𝑇)} = ∫ 𝑥1 (𝑡) 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
1 − 𝑒 −𝑠𝑇
0

Initial value Lt 𝑥(𝑡) = Lt 𝑠𝑋(𝑠)

- -
theorem 𝑡→0 𝑠→∞

Final value Lt 𝑥(𝑡) = Lt 𝑠𝑋(𝑠)

- -
theorem 𝑡→∞ 𝑠→0
𝑡0 +𝑇 ∞
1
∫ 𝑥1 (𝑡) 𝑥2 ∗ (𝑡) = ∑ 𝑐𝑛 𝑑𝑛 ∗
𝑇
𝑡0 𝑛=−∞
Rayleigh’s Energy Theorem
(or) ∞ ∞
Parseval’s 1 -
Theorem Parseval’s Power Theorem 𝐸 = ∫ |𝑥(𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ |𝑋(𝑗𝜔)|2 𝑑𝜔
2𝜋
𝑡0 +𝑇 ∞ −∞ −∞
1
𝑃 = ∫ |𝑥(𝑡)|2 = ∑ |𝑐𝑛 |2
𝑇
𝑡0 𝑛=−∞

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LAPLACE TRANSFORM
+∞

ℒ {𝑥(𝑡)} = 𝑋(𝑠) = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡

−∞
INVERSE LAPLACE TRANSFORM
𝑠 = 𝜎+𝑗𝜔
1
ℒ −1 {𝑋(𝑠)} = 𝑥(𝑡) = ∫ 𝑋(𝑠) 𝑒 𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑠
2𝜋𝑗
𝑠 = 𝜎−𝑗𝜔

LAPLACE TRANSFORM PAIR

Signal Transform
ROC
x(t) X(s)

(𝑡) 1 Entire s-plane

1
𝑢(𝑡) 𝜎>0
𝑠
1
𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) 𝜎>0
𝑠2
𝑡 𝑛−1 1
𝑢(𝑡) 𝜎>0
(𝑛 − 1)! 𝑠𝑛
1
𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) 𝜎 > −𝑎
𝑠+𝑎
1
−𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑢(−𝑡) 𝜎 < −𝑎
𝑠+𝑎
𝑛!
𝑡 𝑛 𝑢(𝑡) 𝜎>0
𝑠 𝑛+1
1
𝑡𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) 𝜎 > −𝑎
(𝑠 + 𝑎)2
𝑡 𝑛−1 1
𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) 𝜎 > −𝑎
(𝑛 − 1)! (𝑠 + 𝑎)𝑛
𝑛!
𝑡 𝑛 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) 𝜎 > −𝑎
(𝑠 + 𝑎)𝑛+1
𝜔0
sin 𝜔0 𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) 𝜎>0
𝑠2 + 𝜔0 2
𝑠
cos 𝜔0 𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) 𝜎>0
𝑠2 + 𝜔0 2

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𝜔
sinh 𝜔0 𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) 𝜎 > 𝜔0
𝑠2 − 𝜔2
𝑠
cosh 𝜔0 𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) 𝜎 > 𝜔0
𝑠2 − 𝜔0 2
𝜔0
𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 sin 𝜔0 𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) 𝜎 > −𝑎
(𝑠 + 𝑎)2 + 𝜔0 2
𝑠+𝑎
𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 cos 𝜔0 𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) 𝜎 > −𝑎
(𝑠 + 𝑎)2 + 𝜔0 2

TWO MARK QUESTION AND ANSWERS

1. State Dirichlets conditions. (or) State the conditions for the existence of fourier series.
(i) The function x(t) should be single valued within the interval T.
(ii) The function x(t) should have atmost a finite number of discontinuities in the interval T.
(iii) The function x(t) should have finite number of maxima and minima in the interval T
(iv) The function should have absolutely integrable.

2. State Rayleigh’s energy theorem.

Rayleigh’s energy theorem states that the energy of the signal frequency domain is the
superposition of energies due to individual spectral frequencies of the signal.
∞ ∞
1
𝐸= ∫ |𝑥(𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ |𝑋(𝑗𝜔)|2 𝑑𝜔
2𝜋
−∞ −∞

3. State Parseval’s power theorem.

Parseval’s power theorem states that the total average power of a periodic signal x(t) is
equal to the sum of the average power of its phasor components.
𝑡0 +𝑇 ∞
1
𝑃 = ∫ |𝑥(𝑡)|2 = ∑ |𝑐𝑛 |2
𝑇
𝑡0 𝑛=−∞

4. State the conditions for the existence of fourier transform.

Fourier Transform of a signal x(t) exists if the signal x(t) is absolutely integrable.
∞

∫ |𝑥(𝑡)| 𝑑𝑡 < ∞
−∞

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5. State the conditions for the convergence of laplace transform.

The necessary condition for convergence of the laplace transform is 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝜎𝑡 should be
absolutely integrable. X(s) exists only if
∞

∫ |𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝜎𝑡 | < ∞

−∞

6. What is Region of convergence (ROC) ?

The Region of convergence of X(s) is the set of all values of  for which the Laplace
transform converges.

7. Compare double sided and single sided spectrums.

The method of representing spectrums of positive as well as negative frequencies are
called double sided spectrums.
The method of representing spectrums only in the positive frequencies is known as
single sided spectrums.

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UNIT III
ANALYSIS OF DISCRETE TIME SIGNALS

DISCRETE TIME FOURIER TRANSFORM

∞

𝐹{𝑥(𝑛)} = 𝑋(𝑒 𝑗ω ) = ∑ 𝑥(𝑛)𝑒 −𝑗ωn

𝑛=−∞

INVERSE DISCRETE TIME FOURIER TRANSFORM

+𝜋
1
𝐹 −1 {𝑋(𝑒 𝑗ω )} = 𝑥(𝑛) = ∫ 𝑋(𝑒 𝑗ω ) 𝑒 𝑗ωn 𝑑ω
2𝜋
−𝜋

𝓩 – TRANSFORM
∞

Ƶ𝒵{𝑥(𝑛)} = 𝑋(𝑧) = ∑ 𝑥(𝑛)𝑧 −𝑛

𝑛=−∞

INVERSE 𝓩 – TRANSFORM

1
Ƶ𝓩−1 {𝑋(𝑧)} = 𝑥(𝑛) = ∮ 𝑋(𝑧) 𝑧 𝑛−1 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑗
𝑐

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PROPERTIES

DISCRETE TIME FOURIER TRANSFORM Z - TRANSFORM

Linearity 𝓕{𝑎1 𝑥1 (𝑛) + 𝑎2 𝑥2 (𝑛)} = 𝑎1 𝑋1 (𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ) + 𝑎2 𝑋2 (𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ) Ƶ𝒵{𝑎1 𝑥1 (𝑛) + 𝑎2 𝑥2 (𝑛)} = 𝑎1 𝑋1 (𝑧) + 𝑎2 𝑋2 (𝑧)

Non-causal Ƶ𝒵{𝑥(𝑛 + 𝑚)} = 𝑧 𝑚 𝑋(𝑍)

signal,
for all n Ƶ𝒵{𝑥(𝑛 − 𝑚)} = 𝑧 −𝑚 𝑋(𝑍)
𝑚−1
−𝑗𝜔𝑚 𝑗𝜔
Time Shifting 𝓕{𝑥(𝑛 − 𝑚)} = 𝑒 𝑋(𝑒 ) Ƶ𝒵{𝑥(𝑛 + 𝑚)} = 𝑧 𝑚 𝑋(𝑧) − ∑ 𝑥(𝑖) 𝑧 (𝑚−𝑖)
for causal signal 𝑖=1
𝑚
𝑛≥0
Ƶ𝒵{𝑥(𝑛 − 𝑚)} = 𝑧 −𝑚 𝑋(𝑧) + ∑ 𝑥(−𝑖) 𝑧 −(𝑚−𝑖)
𝑖=1
−𝑗𝜔 −1 )
Time Reversal 𝓕{𝑥(−𝑛)} = 𝑋(𝑒 ) Ƶ𝒵{𝑥(−𝑛)} = 𝑋(𝑧
Conjugation 𝓕{𝑥 ∗ (𝑛)} = 𝑋 ∗ (𝑒 −𝑗𝜔 ) Ƶ𝒵{𝑥 ∗ (𝑛)} = 𝑋 ∗ (𝑧 ∗ )

Frequency Shifting 𝓕{𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 𝑛 𝑥(𝑛)} = 𝑋(𝑒 𝑗(𝜔−𝜔0 ) ) -

𝜋
1
Multiplication 𝓕{𝑥1 (𝑛)𝑥2 (𝑛)} = ∫ 𝑋1 (𝑒 𝑗𝜆 ) 𝑋2 (𝑒 𝑗(𝜔−𝜆) ) 𝑑𝜆 -
2𝜋
−𝜋

Frequency 𝑑 𝑑 𝑚
Differentiation 𝓕{𝑛 𝑥(𝑛)} = 𝑗 𝑋(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ) Differentiation in Z-domain 𝑚
Ƶ𝒵{𝑛 𝑥(𝑛)} = (−𝑧 ) 𝑋(𝑧)
𝑑𝜔 𝑑𝑧

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Scaling in z -
- Ƶ𝒵{𝑎𝑛 𝑥(𝑛)} = 𝑋(𝑎−1 𝑧)
domain
Convolution
𝓕{𝑥1 (𝑛) ∗ 𝑥2 (𝑛)} = 𝑋1 (𝑒 𝑗𝜔 )𝑋2 (𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ) Ƶ𝒵{𝑥1 (𝑛) ∗ 𝑥2 (𝑛)} = 𝑋1 (𝑧)𝑋2 (𝑧)
Theorem

Complex
1 𝑧
convolution - Ƶ𝒵{𝑥1 (𝑛) 𝑥2 (𝑛)} = ∮ 𝑋1 (v) 𝑋2 ( ) v −1 dv
theorem 2𝜋𝑗 v
𝑐

Ƶ𝒵{𝑟𝑥𝑦 (𝑚)} = 𝑋(𝑧)𝑌(𝑧 −1 )

∞
Correlation 𝓕{𝑟𝑥𝑦 (𝑚)} = 𝑋(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 )𝑌(𝑒 −𝑗𝜔 )
𝑟𝑥𝑦 (𝑚) = ∑ 𝑥(𝑛) 𝑦(𝑛 − 𝑚)
𝑚=−∞

Periodicity 𝑋(𝑒 𝑗(𝜔+2𝜋𝑚) ) = 𝑋(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ) -

Initial value 𝑥(0) = lt 𝑋(𝑧)

-
theorem 𝑧→∞

Final value 𝑥(∞) = lt (1 − 𝑧 −1 )𝑋(𝑧)

-
theorem 𝑧→1

∞ 𝜋
1
∑ 𝑥1 (𝑛) 𝑥2 ∗ (𝑛) = ∫ 𝑋1 (𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ) 𝑋2 ∗ (𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ) 𝑑𝜔
2𝜋 ∞
𝑛=−∞ −𝜋
Parseval’s 1 1
Theorem ∑ 𝑥1 (𝑛) 𝑥2 ∗ (𝑛) = ∮ 𝑋1 (𝑧) 𝑋2 ∗ ( ∗ ) 𝑧 −1 𝑑𝑧
∞ 𝜋 2𝜋𝑗 𝑧
1 2 𝑛=−∞ 𝑐
𝐸 = ∑ |𝑥(𝑛)|2 = ∫|𝑋(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 )| 𝑑𝜔
2𝜋
𝑛=−∞ −𝜋

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𝓩- TRANSFORM PAIR

Signal Transform
ROC
x(t) X(z)

 (𝑛) 1 all z

𝑧
𝑢(𝑛) |𝑧| > 1
𝑧−1
𝑧
𝑎𝑛 𝑢(𝑛) |𝑧| > |𝑎|
𝑧−𝑎
𝑎𝑧
𝑛𝑎𝑛 𝑢(𝑛) |𝑧| > |𝑎|
(𝑧 − 𝑎)2
𝑎𝑧(𝑧 + 𝑎)
𝑛2 𝑎𝑛 𝑢(𝑛) |𝑧| > |𝑎|
(𝑧 − 𝑎)3
𝑧
−𝑎𝑛 𝑢(𝑛 − 1) |𝑧| < |𝑎|
𝑧−𝑎
𝑎𝑧
−𝑛𝑎𝑛 𝑢(−𝑛 − 1) |𝑧| < |𝑎|
(𝑧 − 𝑎)2

Tz
𝑛𝑇 𝑢(𝑛𝑇) |𝑧| > 1
(𝑧 − 1)2
T 2 z(z + 1)
(𝑛𝑇)2 𝑢(𝑛𝑇) |𝑧| > 1
(𝑧 − 1)3
𝑧
𝑒 −𝑎𝑛𝑇 𝑢(𝑛𝑇) |𝑧| > |𝑒 −𝑎𝑇 |
𝑧 − 𝑒 −𝑎𝑇
zT 𝑒 −𝑎𝑛𝑇
𝑛𝑇𝑒 −𝑎𝑛𝑇 𝑢(𝑛𝑇) |𝑧| > |𝑒 −𝑎𝑇 |
(𝑧 − 𝑒 −𝑎𝑛𝑇 )2

TWO MARK QUESTION AND ANSWERS

1. State the conditions for the existence of discrete time Fourier transform.
The sufficient condition for the existence of DTFT of an aperiodic sequence x(n) is
∞

∑ |𝑥(𝑛)| < ∞
𝑛=−∞

2. What is meant by “ROC” of a linear system?

The region of convergence of X(z) is the set of all values of z, for which X(z) attains a
finite value.

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3. What are the properties of Region of convergence?

i) ROC for a finite duration signal includes the entire z-plane expect 𝑧 = 0 or|𝑧| = ∞
(or both).
ii) The ROC of a right sided signal is of the form |𝑧| > 𝑎.
iii) The ROC of a left sided signal is of the form |𝑧| < 𝑎.
iv) The ROC of a two sided signal is of the form 𝑎2 < |𝑧| < 𝑎1 .
v) ROC cannot contain any poles.

4. What is the relation between z-transform and Fourier transform of a DT signal?

Fourier transform of a given signal is given as
∞

𝐹{𝑥(𝑛)} = 𝑋(𝑒 𝑗ω ) = ∑ 𝑥(𝑛)𝑒 −𝑗ωn

𝑛=−∞
.
𝒵 transform of a given signal is given as
∞

Ƶ𝒵{𝑥(𝑛)} = 𝑋(𝑧) = ∑ 𝑥(𝑛)𝑧 −𝑛

𝑛=−∞
Comparing the two equations, 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑗𝜔

5. State the methods to find inverse z transform.

The methods to find inverse z transform are
i) Partial fraction method
ii) Power series expansion method (or) long division method.
iii) Residue method (or) contour integration method.
iv) Convolution method.

6. Write the formula for Cauchy integral or residue method?

𝑥(𝑛) = ∑[(𝑧 − 𝑝𝑖 ) 𝑋(𝑧) 𝑧 𝑛−1 |𝑧=𝑝𝑖 ]

𝑖=1

where N – number of poles of 𝑋(𝑧) 𝑧 𝑛−1 lying inside the contour C.

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UNIT IV
CONTINUOUS AND DISCRETE TIME SYSTEMS

TWO MARK QUESTION AND ANSWERS

1. Define natural response.

The response/output of the system to unit impulse input is called impulse response.

2. Define LTI ( linear time invariant ) system.

A system is linear if it obeys the principle of superposition and it is time invariant if
its input-output relationship does not change with time. When a system satisfies the
properties of linearity and time invariance then it is called an LTI system.

3. Define natural response (or) free response (or) zero-input response.

Natural response is the response of the system with zero input. It depends on the
initial state of the system. It is denoted by 𝑦𝑓𝑛 (𝑡).

4. Define forced response (zero-state response).

Forced response is the response of the system due to input alone when the initial state
of the system is zero. It is denoted by 𝑦𝑓 (𝑡).

5. Define complete response (total response).

The complete response of a LTI-CT system is obtained by adding the natural response
and forced response.

6. Define Homogeneous solution.

Homogeneous solution is the response of the system when there is no input.

7. Define particular solution.

The particular solution is the solution of difference equation for specific input signal
𝑥(𝑡); 𝑡 ≥ 0.

8. Write the stability criterion for a causal system?

A system is said to be stable, if and only if all poles of H(z) are inside the unit circle.
∞

∑|ℎ(𝑛)| < ∞
𝑛=0

For causal system,

∞

𝐻(𝑧) = ∑ ℎ(𝑛)𝑧 −𝑛
𝑛=0

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9. Define system function.

The system function of the LTI system with input x(n) and output sequences y(n) is
defined as the ratio of Y(z) and X(z).

𝑌(𝑧)
𝐻(𝑧) =
𝑋(𝑧)

10. What are the methods of evaluating linear convolution ?

i) Tabulation method
ii) Matrix method
iii) Graphical method

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Convolution integral Convolution Sum

∞ ∞

Formula 𝑥1 (𝑡) ∗ 𝑥2 (𝑡) = ∫ 𝑥1 (𝜆)𝑥1 (𝑡 − 𝜆) 𝑑𝜆 𝑥1 (𝑛) ∗ 𝑥2 (𝑛) = ∑ 𝑥1 (𝑘)𝑥2 (𝑛 − 𝑘)

−∞ 𝑘=−∞

∞ ∞

𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡) ∗ ℎ(𝑡) = ∫ 𝑥(𝜆)ℎ(𝑡 − 𝜆) 𝑑𝜆 𝑦(𝑛) = 𝑥(𝑛) ∗ ℎ(𝑛) = ∑ 𝑥(𝑘)ℎ(𝑛 − 𝑘)

−∞ 𝑘=−∞

Properties

Associative property 𝑥1 (𝑡) ∗ 𝑥2 (𝑡) = 𝑥2 (𝑡) ∗ 𝑥1 (𝑡) 𝑥1 (𝑛) ∗ 𝑥2 (𝑛) = 𝑥2 (𝑛) ∗ 𝑥1 (𝑛)

Commutative
[𝑥1 (𝑡) ∗ 𝑥2 (𝑡)] ∗ 𝑥3 (𝑡) = 𝑥1 (𝑡) ∗ [𝑥2 (𝑡) ∗ 𝑥3 (𝑡)] [𝑥1 (𝑛) ∗ 𝑥2 (𝑛)] ∗ 𝑥3 (𝑛) = 𝑥1 (𝑛) ∗ [𝑥2 (𝑛) ∗ 𝑥3 (𝑛)]
property

𝑥1 (𝑛) ∗ [𝑥2 (𝑛) + 𝑥3 (𝑛)]

Distributive property 𝑥1 (𝑡) ∗ [𝑥2 (𝑡) + 𝑥3 (𝑡)] = [𝑥1 (𝑡) ∗ 𝑥2 (𝑡)] + [𝑥2 (𝑡) ∗ 𝑥3 (𝑡)]
= [𝑥1 (𝑛) ∗ 𝑥2 (𝑛)] + [𝑥2 (𝑛) ∗ 𝑥3 (𝑛)]

Convolution with an
𝑥(𝑡) ∗ 𝛿(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑥(𝑛) ∗ 𝛿(𝑛) = 𝑥(𝑛)
impulse signal

𝑡 𝑛
Convolution with an
𝑥(𝑡) ∗ 𝑢(𝑡) = ∫ 𝑥(𝜆) 𝑑𝜆 𝑥(𝑛) ∗ 𝑢(𝑡) = ∑ 𝑥(𝑘)
unit step signal
−∞ 𝑘=−∞

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UNIT V
DISCRETE FOURIER TRANSFORM

DISCRETE FOURIER TRANSFORM

𝑁−1
𝑗2πnk
𝐷𝐹𝑇{𝑥(𝑛)} = 𝑋(𝑘) = ∑ 𝑥(𝑛)𝑒 − 𝑁
𝑛=0
where k = 0,1,2,...., N-1

INVERSE DISCRETE FOURIER TRANSFORM

𝑁−1
1 𝑗2πnk
𝐼𝐷𝐹𝑇{𝑋(𝑘)} = 𝑥(𝑛) = ∑ 𝑋(𝑘)𝑒 𝑁
𝑁
𝑛=0
where k = 0,1,2,....,N-1

PROPERTIES OF DFT

Linearity 𝐷𝐹𝑇{𝑎1 𝑥1 (𝑛) + 𝑎2 𝑥2 (𝑛)} = 𝑎1 𝑋1 (𝑘) + 𝑎2 𝑋2 (𝑘)

−𝑗2𝜋𝑘𝑚
Circular Time Shifting 𝐷𝐹𝑇{𝑥(𝑛 − 𝑚)𝑁 } = 𝑋(𝑘)𝑒 𝑁

Time Reversal 𝐷𝐹𝑇{𝑥(𝑁 − 𝑛)} = 𝑋(𝑁 − 𝑘)

𝑥(𝑛 + 𝑁) = 𝑥(𝑛)
Periodicity
𝑋(𝑘 + 𝑁) = 𝑋(𝑘)

Conjugation 𝐷𝐹𝑇{𝑥 ∗ (𝑛)} = 𝑋 ∗ (𝑁 − 𝑘)

𝑗2𝜋𝑚𝑛
Circular Frequency Shifting 𝐷𝐹𝑇 {𝑥(𝑛)𝑒 𝑁 } = 𝑋(𝑘 − 𝑚)𝑁

1
Multiplication 𝐷𝐹𝑇{𝑥1 (𝑛). 𝑥2 (𝑛)} = [𝑋 (𝑘) ⊛ 𝑋2 (𝑘)]
𝑁 1

Circular Convolution 𝐷𝐹𝑇{𝑥1 (𝑛) ⊛ 𝑥2 (𝑛)} = 𝑋1 (𝑘)𝑋2 (𝑘)

Circular Correlation 𝐷𝐹𝑇{𝑟̅𝑥𝑦 (𝑚)} = 𝑋(𝑘)𝑌 ∗ (𝑘)

𝑁−1 𝑁−1
1
Parseval’s relation 𝐷𝐹𝑇 {∑ 𝑥1 (𝑛)𝑥2 ∗ (𝑛)
} = ∑ 𝑋1 (𝑘)𝑋2 ∗ (𝑘)
𝑁
𝑛=0 𝑘=0

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TWO MARK QUESTION AND ANSWERS

1. Define Twiddle factor.

−𝑗2𝜋
Twiddle factor is a vector on the unit circle and is given by 𝑊𝑁 = 𝑒 𝑁 .

2. Properties of Twiddle factor.

i) Periodicity property
𝑊𝑁𝑘+𝑁 = 𝑊𝑁𝑘

ii) Symmetry property

𝑁
𝑘+
𝑊𝑁 2
= − 𝑊𝑁𝑘

3. What is meant by radix-2 FFT?

If the number of output points ‘N’ can be expressed as a power of 2,
𝑁 = 2𝑚
then this algorithm is called radix-2 FFT algorithm.

4. How many multiplications and additions are required to compute N point DFT
using radix-2 FFT?
𝑁
The entire FFT requires log 2 𝑁 complex multiplications and 𝑁 log 2 𝑁 complex
2
additions.

5. Write the difference between DIT and DIF algorithm.

Decimation in time (DIT) Decimation in frequency (DIF)

The input sequence is in bit reversal order. The input sequence is in normal order.
For 4-point : (0, 2, 1, 3) For 4-point : (0, 1, 2, 3)
For 8-point : (0, 4, 2, 6, 1, 5, 3, 7) For 8-point : (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7)

The input sequence is in normal order. The input sequence is in bit reversal order.

A 𝐴 + (𝑊𝑁𝑘 𝐵) A 𝑊𝑁𝑘 𝐴+𝐵

(𝐴 − 𝐵)(𝑊𝑁𝑘 )
𝑊𝑁𝑘 𝐴 − (𝑊𝑁𝑘 𝐵)
B B

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6. State the reason why FFT is an efficient DFT algorithm?

FFT requires less number of computations than that of direct method of DFT. It
reduces the computation time required to compute a DFT.

7. Give the applications of FFT algorithm.

Applications of FFT algorithm include linear filtering, correlation, pattern recognition
and spectrum analysis.

8. What are the classifications of FFT?

The two classes of FFT algorithm are decimation in time (DIT) and decimation in
frequency (DIF).

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IMPORTANT MATHS FORMULAE

𝑏
𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑗𝜃 ; 𝑟 = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 ; 𝜃 = tan−1 𝑎

𝑒 ±𝑗𝜃 = cos 𝜃 ± 𝑗 sin 𝜃

𝑒 𝑗𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝑗𝜃
cos 𝜃 =
2

𝑒 𝑗𝜃 − 𝑒 −𝑗𝜃
sin 𝜃 =
2

sin 2𝜃 = 2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃

1 + cos 2𝜃
cos2 𝜃 =
2

1 − cos 2𝜃
sin2 𝜃 =
2

cos(A − B) − cos(A + B)
sin 𝐴 sin B =
2

cos(A − B) + cos(A + B)
cos 𝐴 cos B =
2

s in(A + B) + sin(A − B)
sin 𝐴 cos B =
2

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EC T43-SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS

UNIT I
REPRESENTATION AND CLASSIFICATION OF SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS:
Continuous time signals - Discrete time signals – Representation of signals – Step, Ramp, Pulse,
Impulse, Sinusoidal, Exponential signals, Classification of continuous and discrete time signals -
Operations on the signals.
Continuous time and discrete time systems: Classification of systems – Properties of systems.

UNIT II
ANALYSIS OF CONTINUOUS TIME SIGNALS: Fourier series: Properties - Trigonometric
and Exponential Fourier Series -Parsavel‘s relation for periodic signals - Fourier Transform:
Properties - Rayleigh‘s Energy Theorem - Laplace Transformation: Properties, R.O.C -Inverse
Laplace transform

UNIT III
ANALYSIS OF DISCRETE TIME SIGNALS: Discrete Time Fourier Transform: Properties;
Z- Transformation: Properties – Different methods of finding Inverse Z-Transformation

UNIT IV
CONTINUOUS AND DISCRETE TIME SYSTEMS: LTI continuous time systems-
Differential equations – Transfer function and Impulse response – Convolution Integral- Block
diagram representation and reduction -State variable techniques – State equations
LTI Discrete time systems – Difference equations – System function and impulse response –
Convolution Sum – Block diagram representation – Convolution Sum – State equations for
discrete time systems

UNIT V
DISCRETE FOURIER TRANSFORM: DFT – Properties - FFT algorithms –advantages over
direct computation of DFT – radix 2 algorithms – DIT and DIF algorithms – Computation of
IDFT using FFT.

Text Books:
1. Simon Haykins and Barry Van Veen, ―Signals and Systems‖, Second Edition, John Wiley and
Sons, 2002.
2. Allan V. Oppenheim, Allan S.Willsky and S.Hamid Nawab, ―Signals and Systems‖, Second
Edition, PHI Learning, New Delhi, 2007.

Reference Books:
1. Douglas K. Lindner, ―Signals and Systems‖, McGraw-Hill International Edition, 1999.
2. P. Ramesh Babu, ―Signals and Systems‖, Fifth Edition, Scitech Publishers,2014.

Web References:
1.http://www.cdeep.iitb.ac.in/nptel/Electrical%20&%20Comm%20Engg/Signals%20and%20Syst
em/Course%20Objective.htm
2. http://ocw.mit.edu/resources/res-6-007-signals-and-systems-spring-2011/
3. http://www.ece.jhu.edu/~cooper/courses/214/signalsandsystemsnotes.pdf
4. http://techteach.no/publications/discretetime_signals_systems/discrete.pdf

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1. Define signal.
2. Define system.
3. Define Static and Dynamic system.
4. Define step function.
5. Define impulse function.
6. Compare power and energy signals.
7. Define fourier transform pair.
8. Define Z transform pair.
9. Define Laplace transform pair.
10. Write the pair equation of DTFT.
11. Write the pair equation of DFT.
12. Write down the exponential form of the fourier series representation of a
periodic signal?
13. Write down the trigonometric form of the fourier series representation of a
periodic signal?
14. State parseval’s relation for continuous time fourier transform.
15. State Time Shifting property in relation to fourier series.
16. What is the relation between z-transform and Fourier transform of a DT signal?
17. Write the relation between Fourier transform and Laplace transform?
18. Define correlation property with respect to DTFT.
19. Write the formula for Cauchy integral or residue method?
20. What is meant by “ROC” of a linear system? what are its properties.
21. What are the classifications of FFT?
22. Write the difference between DIT-FFT & DIF-FFT?
23. What are the twiddle factor for 8 point DFT.
24. State the reason why FFT is an efficient DFT algorithm?
25. What are the properties of Linear convolution.
26. What are the properties of circular convolution.
27. Two LTI systems with impulse responses h1(t) and h2(t) are cascaded. What is
the impulse response of the over all system?
28. List the difference between linear convolution and circular convolution.
29. Differentiate convolution integral and convolution sum.

Simple problems on
30. Classification of signals. Eg: Determine the odd and even part of the given
signal
31. Classification of system. Eg: Determine whether the system is time invariant or
not.
32. Obtain z transform of the given signal.
33. Find the Fourier transform of the given signal.

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