CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Statement of the Problem

Establishment of relationships for predicting the lateral drift demands of near-fault

ground motions is one of the major challenges in earthquake engineering. Excessive
lateral drifts caused by earthquake ground motions are the major causes of structural
damage observed in structures. A large amount of research has been performed on the
estimation of global displacement demands, such as roof drift. In the last decade there
has been a growing interest in the estimation of local displacement demands. The
unexpected level of damage observed in well-engineered structures after the 1994
Northridge and 1995 Kobe earthquakes forced the engineering community to focus on
the effects of near-fault ground motions. Studies on the effects of near-fault ground
motions on structures showed that the strong ground motion pulses observed in some of
the near-fault ground motions might have resulted in unexpectedly high local
displacement demands. A number of methods for estimating the local displacement
demands of structures subjected to near-fault ground motions have been developed.
Iwan(1997) have introduced the drift spectrum, a measure of local displacement demand
imposed on structures. This drift spectrum was based on wave propagation analysis of a
shear beam model. Gülkan and Akkar (2002) have proposed a simple method for

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estimating the elastic ground story drift, based on the first mode response of a shear
beam. Use of shear beam model may provide sufficiently good estimates for the ground
story drifts of frames having beams relatively stiffer than columns (shear frames).
However, for the frames having beams and slabs relatively more flexible than columns
the use of shear beam model results in inaccurate estimates of the ground story drift. To
overcome this inaccuracy, this study aims to introduce a set of modifying coefficients to
the approximate equation proposed by Gülkan and Akkar (2002).

This study also presents an initial survey for estimating the inelastic displacement
demands of structures subjected to near-fault ground motions. Estimation of inelastic
displacement demands, based on the elastic analysis of structures subjected to near-fault
ground motions would provide a useful tool for seismic engineering practice. Although
a number of methods exists in the literature for estimating the inelastic demands based
on elastic analysis, a method directly taking into account the intrinsic features of near-
fault ground motions has not been proposed. This study is an initial survey for such a
method. Furthermore, as it will be seen in Chapter 4, C1 coefficient employed in
FEMA356(2000), which is one of the most discussed technical documents on inelastic
analysis, may provide alarmingly inaccurate estimates of inelastic displacements for the
case of near-fault ground motions. A set of preliminary equations was established for
estimating the inelastic displacement demands imposed on inelastic non-degrading
SDOF systems subjected to near-fault ground motions based on elastic analysis of the
systems.

Integration of the two procedures stated above would provide a useful tool for
estimating the local inelastic displacement demands of moment resisting frames
subjected to near-fault ground motions. However, it should be noted that such an
integration process requires a comprehensive research on the effects of nonlinearity on
the response of frame structures subjected to near-fault ground motions. Such a
comprehensive research is beyond the scope of this study.

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1.2 Review of Past Studies

Several researchers have performed experimental and analytical studies on the

estimation of lateral displacements of building type of structures since the 1960s. A
number of analytical procedures and computer programs have been developed for this
purpose. Also a number of static and dynamic tests have been conducted for evaluating
and further improving these methods. Some of the major studies on estimation of
displacement demands, effects of near-fault ground motions and characteristic properties
of near-fault ground motions are summarized below.

1.2.1 Past Studies on the Characteristics of Near-Fault Ground Motions

Somerville et al., (1997) studied the fundamental characteristics of near-fault

ground motions. They stated that, when the velocity of rupture is close to the shear
wave velocity of the rock near the source, a series of waves resulting from each
dislocation are accumulated in the direction of rupture. Accumulation of pulses in the
direction of rupture results in a single large pulse of strong ground motion at the
beginning of the record. This pulse represents the cumulative effect of almost all of the
seismic radiation from the fault. The resulting phenomenon, which is closely related to
the Doppler effect in physics, is called forward directivity. The large pulse of motion is
generally observed at the beginning of velocity or displacement traces of the near-fault
strong motion records affected by forward directivity. Somerville et al. (1997), stated
that forward rupture directivity effects are observed when the rupture front propagates
through the site and the direction of slip on the fault is aligned with the site. Somerville
et al. (1997) also stated that, according to the theory of seismic wave propagation, strike
normal components of near-fault ground motions have greater damage-causing potential
compared to other components. It should be noted that if most of the seismic energy is
released at the beginning or end of rupture, directivity effects would not be significant.
In other words, energy release through the rupture should be nearly uniform for
directivity effects to be noticeable (Steward et al., 2001). Somerville et al., (1997)

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noticed that when the rupture propagates away from the site, arrivals of seismic waves
are distributed in time and named this phenomenon as backward directivity. They
observed that backward directivity resulted in long duration motions having low
amplitudes at long periods. Akkar and Gülkan (2002) examined the forward directivity
effects in the near-fault strong ground motion records taken during the 17 August 1999
Kocaeli and 12 November 1999 Bolu-Düzce earthquakes. They observed that the
ground motion component with highest displacement demands were not always in the
fault normal direction. Akkar and Gülkan (2002) stated that the ground motion
components in the maximum ground velocity direction does correlate better with the
larger drift demands, compared to the strike normal component for the near-fault ground
motion records taken from the 17 August 1999 Kocaeli and 12 November 1999 Bolu-
Düzce earthquakes.

1.2.2 Past Studies on the Estimation of Displacement Demands Imposed on Frame

Structures

Blume (1968) investigated the modal characteristics of a number of frames. He

examined the effects of the various types of degrees of freedom, joint rotation, axial
deformation of columns and base rocking, on the overall response of building type of
structures. He established a set of equations and graphs for estimating the dynamic
characteristics of frame type of buildings with joint rotation, overall flexure and base
motion, using simple rigid-floor shear frame analysis. Diaz et al. (1994) examined the
validity of alternate models (i.e., rigid frame model, equivalent shear-beam model and
equivalent shear-frame model) of building frames by comparing the ductility demands
found for two idealized buildings excited by five simulated ground motions. Results of
the study showed that a model that neglects the joint rotations may produce significant
errors in estimating the lateral drift demands of frame type of systems.

Heidebrecth and Stafford Smith (1973) studied the interaction of shear walls and
frames and derived closed form solutions for lateral displacements. Using these closed

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form solutions Miranda (1999) set up an approximate procedure for estimating the
maximum lateral deformations, maximum roof displacement and maximum interstory
drifts of frame type of structures with uniform stiffness. Miranda and Reyes (2002)
further improved the approximate method proposed by Miranda (1999), by adding the
capability of estimating the lateral displacements of frame structures with non-uniform
stiffness distribution.

Anderson and Bertero in 1986 examined the significant displacement demands

imposed on frame type of structures by near-fault strong ground motions. However, it
was after the 1994 Northridge and 1995 Kobe earthquakes that engineering community
recognized the inadequacy of current seismic design and evaluation methodologies for
the case of near-fault excitations.

Chopra and Cruz (1986a) analyzed the accuracy of response spectrum analysis
using a set of 5 story generic frames having various fundamental periods of vibration
and beam-to-column stiffness ratios. Comparisons of the response quantities obtained
from response spectrum analysis with the elastic response history analysis for 8
simulated ground motions showed tolerable errors. Making use of those results they
proposed a method called Simplified Response Spectrum Analysis (Chopra and Cruz
1986b). This method involved a practical procedure to estimate the first two
fundamental modes, periods of vibration and modal participation factors.

Realizing the fact that local displacements are of primary importance,

particularly under near-fault excitations, researchers attempted to develop some practical
tools for measuring local displacement demands. Iwan (1997) developed the drift
spectrum concept which was summarized in Section 1.1. Iwan (1997) demonstrated that
the single-degree-of-freedom (SODF) response spectrum is an inadequate tool for
measuring the interstory drift demands, particularly for near-fault ground motions.
Similarly, Heidebrecht and Naumoski (1997) developed an alternative method for
establishing a drift spectrum. They utilized the shear-beam theory together with

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approximate equivalent shear stiffness formula for portal frames, derived by Heidebrecht
and Stafford Smith (1973). Heidebrecht and Rutenberg (2000) further improved this
method by employing the approximate fundamental period formulas for frame
structures. Gülkan and Akkar (2002) developed a simpler procedure, utilizing the shear-
beam model, for constructing the drift spectrum.

Chopra and Chintanapakdee (2001a) compared the ground story drift ratios
found from response spectrum analysis with that of drift spectrum analysis and stated
that the difference is due to effects of higher modes. They also pointed out that a
sufficient degree of accuracy may be obtained using response spectrum method, if at
least five modes are included in the analysis.

1.2.3 Past Studies on the Estimation of Inelastic Displacement Demands Imposed

on Single Degree of Freedom Systems

Estimation of inelastic displacement demands from elastic displacements is the

most popular research area in earthquake engineering. Among these methods some are
based on the modification of elastic spectral ordinates by functions of period (T) and
ductility (µ) (Newmark and Hall, 1982; Nassar and Krawinkler, 1991; Vidic et al., 1994;
Miranda, 2001). The displacement coefficients method employed in FEMA356 (2000)
is based on the amplification of elastic displacements for estimating the inelastic
displacement demands according to strength reduction factor, natural period and
characteristic site period. FEMA356 (2000) employs the inverted form of an equation
which was originally derived for constant ductility by Vidic et al. (1994). This inversion
of the equation proposed by Vidic et al. (1994) from constant ductility form to constant
strength form resulted in loss of accuracy. Aydınoğlu and Kaçmaz (2002) have
addressed this inaccuracy and performed regression analysis directly on the spectral
coefficients depending on R and T. It should be noted that all these studies were

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primarily based on far-field ground motions whose characteristics are very different
from near-fault excitations.

Baez and Miranda (2000) studied the inelastic displacement demands imposed
on single degree of freedom systems by near-fault ground motions. They stated that
structures subjected to ground motions with large velocity pulses may experience
maximum inelastic deformations larger than those subjected to ground motions that do
not have these pulses, even if the linear elastic ordinates in the short period spectral
region are similar.

(Chopra and Chintanapakdee, 2001b) compared the responses of single-degree-

of-freedom (SDOF) systems to 15 near-fault and 15 far-fault strong ground motions,
they concluded that near-fault ground motions had much narrower velocity sensitive
regions. Chopra and Chintanapakdee (2001b) further indicated that, the design
equations proposed by Veletsos and Newmark (1960), which are mainly derived for far-
field ground motions, are valid for near-fault ground motions also, as long as spectral
regions are defined appropriately.

Another set of methods (Rosenblueth and Herera, 1964, Gülkan and Sözen,
1974, Iwan 1980) are based on equivalent linearization. In equivalent linearization
methods maximum response of the inelastic system is approximated by the elastic
response of a linear elastic system with increased damping and lowered stiffness.
Capacity Spectrum Method is a method developed by Freeman et al. (1975), and based
on the iterative use of equivalent linearization. Capacity spectrum method is employed
in ATC-40 (1996), which is one of the most debated technical documents on inelastic
analysis of structures.

All of these studies provided considerable information on the nature of near-fault

ground motions, response of frame structures and inelastic displacement demands
imposed on single degree of freedom systems by near-fault ground motions.

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1.3 Object and Scope

This study examines the properties of near-fault ground motions and effects of
ground motions containing pulses on the response of structures. Important
characteristics of near-fault ground motions were studied for this purpose. Performances
of various attenuation relationships were evaluated. Effects of various parameters on the
characteristic properties of near-fault ground motions were examined.

Modal properties of frames having different overall lateral deformation patterns

were analyzed. A set of idealized moment resisting frames having various numbers of
stories and beam-to-column stiffness ratios was utilized for this purpose. A set of
equations, estimating the elastic ground story and maximum interstory drift ratios for
moment resisting frames, was established. Principles of modal analysis were utilized in
the derivation of these equations. The equations were based on the equation proposed
by Gülkan and Akkar (2002) for estimating ground story drift.

Another set of equations have been established for estimating the inelastic
deformation demands of non-degrading SDOF systems, based on the maximum elastic
displacement demand imposed on SDOF systems with the same natural period and
damping. Equations for estimating the inelastic displacements were established by
directly performing regression analysis on elastic to inelastic displacement ratio, natural
period and strength reduction factor. This study is an attempt for establishing a direct
link between the strength capacity of the structure and inelastic displacement demand.
Such a methodology may serve as a convenient and practical tool for performance
evaluation of existing structures excited by near-field earthquakes.

This thesis is composed of five main chapters and two appendices. Contents of
each chapter may be summarized as follows:

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Chapter 1 Statement of the problem and review of past studies on the estimation of
the displacement demands imposed on structures, effects of near-fault
ground motions on the response of structures and fundamental
characteristics of near-fault ground motions.

Chapter 2 Inspection of some of the fundamental characteristics of near-fault

ground motions records used in the study. Evaluation of performances
of some of the attenuation relationships for the case of near-fault ground
motions.

Chapter 3 Inspection of the effects of near-fault ground motions on moment

resisting frames. Derivation of the equations for estimating the elastic
ground story and maximum interstory drifts of moment resisting frames.
Establishment of equations for estimating the maximum inelastic
displacement demands imposed on non-degrading SDOF systems
subjected to near-fault ground motions.

Chapter 4 Statistical study on the errors of the proposed equations. Comparison of

the error ranges with other studies available in the literature.

Chapter 5 Summary and conclusions.

Appendix A List of the near-fault strong ground motion records used.

Appendix B Coefficients of the attenuation relationships referred to in Chapter 2.