INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY: LECTURER NOTES

FOR HEALTH SCIENCE STUDENTS

PREFACE

Sociology is a discipline that belongs to what conventionally is called the social science. The
discipline plays a leading role in the social sciences. The term sociology literally means the
science of society; for the term itself in its direct sense denotes that. Sociology as an academic
discipline arose in the first half of 19th century (in 1837, to mention the exact year) as a special
science dedicated to unravel the fundamental laws governing the societal phenomena and human
social relationship with primary interest in analyzing the problems and societies of the modern,
western world. It has, thus, conventionally been accepted to associate sociology with the study of
the modern, industrialized societies of western world.

Health science students learning this discipline have a great advantage of gaining fresh insights
and practical benefits in their personal lives and professional practices.

Its purpose is to provide the students with basic ideas and knowledge in the science of
sociology. By learning the materials presented in this lecture notes, it is believed that students
will be able to understand and appreciate the basic issues, principles and approaches of
sociology. Students may also gain an indirect benefit of appreciating the social, cultural, and
behavioral dimensions of health and disease.

Specifically, the main learning objective of introduction to sociology is to familiarize the

students with the basic ideas, issues, concepts and principles of sociology. Students will be able
to describe the meaning, scope, methods, history and importance of sociology, and its relations to
other disciplines. The students will also be able to appreciate the relevance of sociology in their
personal and future professional practice.

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 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Learning Objectives

At the end of this chapter, students will be able to:

•Define the term sociology;

•Describe the subject-matter, scope and basic concerns of sociology;

•Understand how sociology emerged and developed;
•Appreciate the personal and professional benefits derived from learning sociology;
•Understand the methods and approaches of sociology;
•Describe macro-sociology and micro-sociology;

•Appreciate the various views and concepts formulated by the founding fathers of sociology;
•Describe the relationship of sociology with other fields of study; and
•Appreciate the application of sociology in addressing contemporary societal problems.

1.1. Definition and Subject Matter of Sociology

1.1.1. What is Sociology?
Before attempting to define what sociology is, les us look at what the popular conceptions of the
discipline seem. As may be the case with other sciences, sociology is often misconceived among
the populace. Though many may rightly and grossly surmise that sociology is about people,
some think that it is all about “helping the unfortunate and doing welfare work, while others
think that sociology is the same as socialism and is a means of bringing revolution to our schools
and colleges” (Nobbs, Hine and Fleming, 1978:1).

The first social scientist to use the term sociology was a Frenchman by the name of Auguste
Comte who lived from 1798-1857. As coined by Comte, the term sociology is a combination of
two words.

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The first part of the term is a Latin, socius- that may variously
mean society, association, togetherness or companionship.

The other word, logos, is of Greek origin. It literally means to speak about or word. However,
the term is generally understood as study or science (Indrani, 1998). Thus, the etymological,
literal definition of sociology is that it is the word or speaking about society.
A simple definition here is that it is the study of societyand culture.

Box 1.1. A simple definition of sociology

Sociology is the study of society

Although the term “sociology” was first used by the French social philosopher august Comte, the
discipline was more firmly established by such theorists as Emile Durkheim, Karl Marx and Max
Weber (Nobbs, Hine and Fleming, 1978).

Before going any further, let us note that the concepts “society and “culture” are central in
sociology. While each concept shall be dealt with later in some detail, it appears to be
appropriate here to help students differentiate between these two important concepts. Society
generally refers to the social world with all its structures, institutions, organizations, etc around
us, and specifically to a group of people who live within sometype of bounded territory and who
share a common way of life. This common way of life shared by a group of people is termed as
culture (Stockard, 1997).

Box 1.2. Distinguishing between society and culture

Society: a group of people who live within some type of bounded territory and who share a
common way of life
Culture: is common way of life shared by a society or a group.

Now, turning to the definitional issues, it is important that in addition to this etymological
definition of the term, we need to have other substantive definitions.

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 Thus, sociology may be generally defined as a social science that studies such kinds of
phenomena as:

•The structure and function of society as a system;

•The nature, complexity and contents of human social behavior;
•The fundamentals of human social life;
•Interaction of human beings with their external environment;
•The indispensability of social interactions for human development;
•How the social world affects us, etc.
A more formal definition of sociology may be that it is a social science which studies the processes
and patterns of human individual and group interaction, the forms of organization of social
groups, the relationship among them, and group influences on individual behavior, and vice
versa, and the interaction between one social group and the other .
Sociology is the scientific study of society, which is interested in the study of social relationship
between people in group context. Sociology is interested in how we as human beings interact
with each other (the pattern of social interaction); the laws and principles that govern social
relationship and interactions; the /influence of the social world on the individuals, and vice
versa (Ibid.). It deals with a factually observable subject matter, depends upon empirical
research, and involves attempts to formulate theories and generalizations that will make sense of
facts (Giddens, 1982).

1.1.2. Brief Historical Overview

Sociology and other social sciences emerged from a common tradition of reflection of social
phenomena; interest in the nature of human social behavior and society has probably always
existed; however, most people in most past societies saw their culture as a fixed and god-
given entity.

This view gradually was replaced by more rational explanations beginning from the 17th century
especially in Western Europe (Rosenberg, 1987). The sociological issues, questions and
problemshad been raised and discussed by the forerunners starting from the ancient Greek and

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Roman philosophers' and Hebrew prophets' times.Sociology as an academic science was thus
born in 19th century (its formal establishment year being 1837) in Great Britain and Western
Europe, especially in France and Germany, and it greatly advanced through out 19th and
20th centuries. The development of sociology and its current contexts have to be grasped in the
contexts of the major changes that have created the modern world (Giddens, 1986). These
revolutions had brought about significant societal changes and disorders in the way society lived
in the aforementioned countries. Since sociology was born amidst the great socio-political and
economic and technological changes of the western world, it is said to be the science of modern
society. The pioneering sociologists were very much concerned about the great changes that
were taking place and they felt that the exciting sciences could not help understand, explain,
analyze and interpret the fundamental laws that govern the social phenomena. Thus sociology
was born out of these revolutionary contexts.

The founders or the pioneering sociologists are the following:

•Auguste Comte, French Social Philosopher (1798- 1857)

Comte was the first social philosopher to coin and use the term sociology (Nobbs, Hine and
Fleming, 1978). He was also the first to regard himself as a sociologist.
He defined sociology as the scientific study of social dynamics and social static.
He argued that sociology can and should study society and social phenomena following the
pattern and procedures of the natural science. Comte believed that a theoretical science of society
and the systematic investigation of human behavior were needed to improve society. He argued
that the new science of society could and should make a critical contribution towards a new and
improved human society. Comte defined sociology as the study of social dynamic and social
static, the former signifying the changing, progressing and developmental dimensions of society,
while the latter refers to the social order and thoseelements of society and social phenomena
which tend to persist and relatively permanent, defying change.
•Karl Marx (German, 1818-1883)
Marx was a world-renowned social philosopher, sociologist and economic historian. He made
remarkable contributions to the development of various social sciences including sociology. He
contributed greatly to sociological ideas. He introduced key concepts in sociology like social

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class, social class conflict, social oppression, alienation, etc. Marx, like Comte, argued that
people should make active efforts to bring about societal reforms. According to Marx, economic
forces are the keys to underestimating society and social change. He believed that the history of
human society has been that of class conflict. He dreamed of, and worked hard towards
realizing, a classless society, one in which there will be no exploitation and oppression of one
class by another, and wherein all individuals will work according to their abilities and receive
according to their needs. Marx introduced one of the major perspectives in sociology,
called social conflict theory (Macionis, 1997)

•Herbert Spencer, British Social Philosopher,

(1820-1903)
Spencer was a prominent social philosopher of the 19th century. He was famous for the organic
analogy of human society. He viewed society as an organic system, having its own structure and
functioning in ways analogous to the biological system. Spencer's ideas of the evolution of
human society from the lowest ("barbarism") to highest form ("civilized") according to fixed
laws were famous. It was called "Social Darwinism", which is analogous to the biological
evolutionary model. Social Darwinism is the attempt to apply by analogy the evolutionary
theories of plant and animal development to the explanation of human society and social
phenomena .
•Emile Durkheim, French Sociologist, (1858-1917)
Durkheim was the most influential scholar in the academic and theoretical development of
sociology. He laid down some of the fundamental principles, methods, concepts and theories of
sociology; he defined sociology as the study of social facts. According to him, there are social
facts, which are distinct from biological and psychological facts. By social facts, he meant the
patterns of behavior that characterize a social group in a given society. They should be studied
objectively. The job of a sociologist, therefore, is to uncover social facts and then to explain
them using other social facts. Some regard Durkheim as the first sociologist to apply statistical
methods to the study of social phenomena (Macionis, 1997; Clahoun, et al, 1994).

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 • Max Weber, German Sociologist (1864-1920)
Weber was another prominent social scientist. According to him, sociology is the scientific study
of human social action. Social action refers to any “action oriented to influence or influenced by
another person or persons.
It is not necessary for more than one person to be physically present for action to be regarded as
social action. It is concerned with the interpretive understanding of human social action and the
meaning people attach to their own actions and behaviors and those of others.
Weber was a renowned scholar who like Marx, wrote in several academic fields. He agreed with
much Marxian theses but did not accept his idea that economic forces are central to social
change. Weber argues that we cannot understand human behavior by just looking at statistics.
Every activity and behavior of people needs to be interpreted. He argued that a sociologist must
aim at what are called subjective meanings, the ways in which people interpret their own
behavior or the meanings people attach their own behavior (Henslin and Nelson, 1995;
Rosneberg, 1987).

Box 1.3. Pioneering founders of sociology

August Comte, French, 1798-1857; key concepts: social static and social dynamic
Karl Marx, German, (1818-1883), key concepts: class conflict, alienation, historical materialism,
etc Emile Durkheim, French, 1858-1917; key concept: social fact
Max Weber, German, 1864=1920; key concepts: social action; subjective meanings
1.1.3.Subject Matter, Scope and Concerns of Sociology
The scope of sociology is extremely wide ranging, from the analysis of passing encounter
between individuals on the street up to the investigation of global social processes The discipline
covers an extremely broad range that includes every aspect of human socialconditions; all types
of human relationships and forms of social behavior (Indrani, 1998). Sociologists are primarily
interested in human beings as they appear in social interaction and the effects of this interaction
on human behavior. Sociologists are interested to know what processes lead to these interactions,
what exactly occurs when they take place, and what their short run and long run consequences
are.
Sociologists are keen to understand, explain, and analyze the effect of social world, social
environment and social interaction on our behavior, worldviews, lifestyle, personality, attitudes,
decisions, etc., as creative, rational, intelligent members of society; and how we as such create
the social reality.

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1.1.4.Levels of Sociological Analysis and Fields of Specializations in Sociology

There are generally two levels of analysis in sociology, which may also be regarded as branches
of sociology: micro-sociology and macro- sociology (Henslin and Nelson, 1995). Micro-
sociology is interested in small- scale level of the structure and functioning of human social
groups; whereas macro-sociology studies the large-scale aspects of society.

Macro-sociology focuses on the broad features of society. The goal of macro-sociology is to

examine the large-scale social phenomena that determine how social groups are organized and
positioned within the social structure. Micro-sociological level of analysis focuses on social
interaction. It analyzes interpersonal relationships, and on what people do and how they behave
when they interact. This level of analysis is usually employed by symbolic interactionist
perspective.

Some writers also add a third level of analysis called meso-level analysis, which analyzes human
social phenomena in between the micro- and macro-levels.

Reflecting their particular academic interest sociologists may prefer one form of analysis to the
other; but all levels of analysis are useful and necessary for a fuller understanding of social life in
society.

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 Box 1.4. Levels of analysis in sociology

Micro-sociology: Analyzing small scale social phenomena

Macro-sociology: analyzing large-scale social phenomena
Meso-sociology: analysis of social phenomena in between the micro- and macro- levels.Within
these general frameworks, sociology may be divided into specific sub-fields on the basis of
certain criteria. The most important fields of sociology can be grouped into six areas (World
Book Encyclopedia, 1994:

Vol. 18; Pp. 564-568).

•The Field of Social Organization and Theory of Social Order: focuses on institutions and
groups, their formation and change, manner of functioning, relation to individuals and to each
other.

•Social Control: Focuses on the ways in which members of a society influence one another so as to
maintain social order.
•Social Change: Focuses on the way society and institutions change over time through technical
inventions, cultural diffusion and cultural conflict, and social movements, among others.
•Social Processes: Focuses on the pattern in which social change takes place, and the modes of such
processes.
•Social Groups: Focuses on how social groups are formed, structured, and how they function and
change.
•Social Problems: Focuses on the social conditions which cause difficulties for a large number of
persons and which the society is seeking to eliminate. Some of the problems may include:
juvenile delinquency, crime, chronic alcoholism, suicide, narcotics addiction, racial prejudice,
ethnic conflict, war, industrial conflict, slum, areas, urban poverty, prostitution, child abuse,
problem of older persons, marital conflicts, etc.

Currently, sociology has got quite several specific sub- divisions or fields of specialization in it:
some of these include the following: criminology; demography; human ecology; political
sociology; medical sociology; sociology of the family; sociology of sports; sociology of
development; social psychology; socio- linguistics; sociology of education; sociology of religion;

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 sociology of knowledge; sociology of art; sociology of science and technology; sociology of law;
urban sociology; rural sociology; economic sociology; and industrial sociology.

1.1.5.Major Theoretical Perspectives in Sociology

Sociology as science employs perspectives or theories to understand, explain, analyze and

interpret social phenomena. To interpret social facts, they must be subjected to a theoretical
framework. A theory may be defined as a general statement about how some parts of the world
fit together and how they work (Macionis, 1997). Scupin and DeCorse (1995) define a theory as
a set of interconnected hypotheses that offer general explanations for natural or social
phenomena.

It should also be noted that the terms “perspectives” and “schools of thought” are often used
interchangeably with the term “theory”.
There are three major theoretical perspectives in sociology that have provided an overall
framework for sociological studies. These are structural- functionalism, social conflict
theory and symbolic interactionism. There are also theories that have emerged challenging
these major ones (see below).

The Structural-Functionalist Theory

This is one of the dominant theories both in anthropology and sociology. It is sometimes called
functionalism. The theory tries to explain how the relationships among the parts of society are
created and how these parts are functional (meaning having beneficial consequences to the
individual and the society) and dysfunctional (meaning having negative consequences). It
focuses on consensus, social order, structure and function in society.

The structural-functionalist theory sees society as a complex system whose parts work together
to promote solidarity and stability; it states that our social lives are guided by social structure,
which are relatively stable patterns of social behavior (Macionis, 1997). Socialstructure is
understood in terms of social function, which are consequences for the operations of society. All
social structure contributes to the operation of society. The major terms and concepts developed

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by anthropologists and sociologists in this theory include (or the theory focuses on): order,
structure, function (manifest or direct functions and latent or hidden, indirect functions), and
equilibrium.
Those hold this view ask such questions as: what hold society together? What keeps it steady?
The Structural- functionalist theory pays considerable attention to the persistence of shared ideas
in society. The functional aspect in the structural-functionalisttheory stresses the role played by
each component part in the social system, whereas the structural perspective suggests an image
of society wherein individuals are constrained by the social forces, social backgrounds and by
group memberships.
Many of the great early founding sociologists such as August Comte, Emile Durkheim and
Herbert Spencer and later American sociologists like Talkot Parsons andRobert K Merton.
Structural -functionalist theorists in modern sociology are more likely to follow in the tradition
of the writings of particularly Emile Durkheim, who is regarded as the pioneering proponent of
this perspective (Hensiln and Nelson, 1995).

After dominating sociology and anthropology for a long time, this theory was challenged by its
main critics, notably those who proposed the social –conflict theory (see below). The theory was
attacked for its emphasis on stability and order while neglecting conflict and changes which so
vital in any society.

The Social Conflict Theory

This theory is also called Marxism; to indicate that the main impetus to the theory derives from
the writings of Karl Marx This theory sees society in a framework of class conflicts and focuses
on the struggle for scarce resources by different groups in a given society. It asks such questions
as what pulls society apart. How does society change? The theory holds that the most important
aspect of social order is the domination of some group by others, that actual or potential conflicts
are always present in society. The writings of Karl Marx are generally in the spirit of conflict
theory, and Marxism influences most of conflict theorists in modern sociology.

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The theory is useful in explaining how the dominant groups use their power to exploit the less
powerful groups in society. Key concepts developed in this perspective include: conflict,
complementation, struggle, power, inequality, and exploitation.

Although this theory gained fame in recent decades, it came under sharp criticism, for its
overemphasis on inequality and division, for neglecting the fact of how shared values and
interdependence generate unity among members of society; it is also criticized for its explicit
political goals. Another critique, which equally applies also to structural functionalism, is that it
sees society in very broad terms, neglecting micro-levelsocial realities (Macionis 1997).

Symbolic Interactionism

This theory was advanced by such American sociologists as Charles Horton Cooley (1864-
1929)William I Thomas (1863-1947) and George Herbert Mead (1863-1931) in early 20th
century. This perspective views symbols as the basis of social life. Symbols are things to which
we attach meanings. The theory stresses the analysis of how our behaviors depend on how we
define others and ourselves. It concentrates on process, rather than structure, and keeps the
individual actor at the center. According to symbolic interactionism, the essence of social life
and social reality is the active human being trying to make sense of social situations.

As indicated above, there are contemporary sociological theories that have emerged in recent
decades that have heavily influenced sociological and anthropological thinking. These include
the following:

Feminism

This theory takes as its central theme the place and facts of women’s underprivileged status and
their exploitation in a patriarchal dominated society. Feminist sociology focuses on the particular
disadvantages, including oppression and exploitation faced by women in society. This theory
ranges from liberal feminism, which recognizes inequalities but believes that reform can take
place without a fundamental restructuring of the social system, to radical feminism, which
advocates the fundamental need for societal change (Marcus and Ducklin, 1998: 32)

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Social Exchange Theory

This theory focuses on “the costs and benefits which people obtain in social interaction,
including money, goods, and status. It is based on the principle that people always act to
maximize benefit. However, to receive benefits, there must always be an exchange process with
others” (Marcus and Ducklin, 1996: 26)

Public Choice Theory: This theory states that collective organizations such as political parties
act rationally to maximize their own benefits. It argues that individual differences are best
resolved by collective involvement within organizations. The role of the state is important in
arbitrating between large-scale interests (Ibid, same page).

Rational Choice Theory: This theory assumes that individuals will operate in rational way and
will seek to benefit themselves in the life choices they make (ibid).

Structuralism

This theory denies any basis for humans being active, since human consciousness is no longer
seen as the basis of meaning in language.

Structuralism differs from the mainstream traditional theories in that it rejects objective social
facts and a concept of society as an objective, external entity. It defines social reality in terms of
the relations between events, not in terms of things and social facts. Its basic principle is that the
observable is meaningful only in so far as it can be related to an underlying structure or order
(Swingwood, 1984).

The equivalent of structuralism in anthropology, advanced by its famous French structuralist

anthropologist, Claude Levi-Strauss, states that “the origin of universal principles that order the
ways in which we behave and think about the world is to be found in the structure of human
thought.”(Howard and Dunaif- Hattis, 1992:373). The problem with this theory is that they view
societies as static and do not help very much in explaining variation among societies. The theory
treats culture as a given order and fails to explain the adaptive dimensions of culture.

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 Post-Structuralism and Post-modernism:

Post –structuralism: focuses on the power of language in constructing knowledge and identity.
The writers in this field have emphasized the role of language in human life, how language
dictates the thoughts we have, and how it constructs meanings for us. Post- structuralists argue
that humans cannot arrive anything they can confidently call the (universal) truth. There is no
link between the words (language) ideas, and the real world. It denies the sociological idea that
our conceptshave some relationship to the real world. It is not possible to arrive at a sociological
truth, and such attempts are dangerous (Bliton, et al. 1996; Kirby, et al. 2000).

Post-modernism: The basis of post-modernism was post-structuralism. Post-modernism is

defined as a cultural and aesthetic phenomenon which mainly rejects order and progress,
objective and universal truth; and supports the need for recognizing and tolerating different
forms of reality. It tends to celebrate chaos and disorder, diversity and fragmentation in the
modern global society rather than wanting to achieve order. This theory maintains that there is no
ultimate reason in human life and existence (Bliton, et al. 1996; Kirby, et al. 2000).

Postmodernists argue, “Power has become decentralized and fragmented in contemporary

societies“ (Torres and Mitchel, 1998). The theorists of post- structuralism share a lost with post-
modernists.
A note on applying sociological theories to health, culture and society may be important here.
Each of he above sociological theories may have its own views on medicine and society. But for
the sake of brevity, I would just focus on the three major theories:

•Structural functionalism: the version of this theory as applied to medicine ad society may be
termed as the “medical ecological approach. The structural functionalist theory views medicine
and the systems of health care as important social institutions; and it focuses on the functions and
roles played by the institution in maintaining odder and stability in society. The medical
institutions whether scientific or traditional and the various practitioners exist to meet the needs
of individuals and society (Henslin and Nelson, 1995).

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•Symbolic interactionist theory: This theory as applied to medicine and society may be termed as
the culturalinterpretationist approach. This approach focuses on the social and cultural
constructions of health, illness and disease.

According to this theory, illnesses and health are not just things that exist “out there”; they are
productions of the complex social interactions; and health and illness are highly shaped by the
manner in which people as actors give meanings to them and how the actors respond to them
in socio-culturally sanctioned ways.

•Conflict theory: The equivalent of this theory in medical sociology and anthropology may be
termed as “the critical” or “radical political economy” approach.

It is an approach, which stresses on the socio-economic inequality in power and wealth, which in
turn significantly affects the health status and access to health care facilities. Individuals, groups,
communities and even nations thus tend to have unbalanced share of health resources; and these
often leads to the unequal distribution of morbidity and mortality patterns among a given society;
those in power and dominance enjoy better health and the marginalized groups suffer from the
burden of diseases (Turner, 1987).

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Table 1.1. Summary of sociological theories
S. Name of the What does it Key concepts Its weaknesses
No. theory state?
1. Structural Sees society as a Consensus, Emphasis On
Functionalism Complex system social order, stability and Order
Whose parts work structure and while Neglecting
together to promote function in conflict And
Solidarity and society. changes which So
Stability vital in any society
2. Social conflict Sees society in a Class conflict; For Its
theory framework of class alienation; overemphasis On
Conflicts and competition; inequality And
Focuses on the domination division, For
Struggle for scarce neglecting the Fact
Resources by of how Shared
different groups in a values And
given society Interdependence
generate Unity
among members of
society; it is Also
criticized for Its
explicit Political
goals.
3. Symbolic Stresses the Symbols; Too Much
interactionism analysis of how our processes; emphasis on micro-
Behaviors depend interaction; level analysis;
on how we define meaning neglect of Larger
Others and social processes
ourselves. It
Concentrates on
process, rather than

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 structure, and
keeps the individual
actor at the center.

4 Feminism Feminist sociology Women; Some Extreme

focuses On the gender; views such As
Particular exploitation; radical Feminism
disadvantages, male seem unrealistic
Including supremacy
Oppression and
Exploitation faced
by Women in
society
5. Social Focuses on the - -
Exchange costs and benefits
theory which people obtain
in social interaction,
Including money,
goods, And status.
It is based on the
Principle that
people always act
to maximize benefit.
6. Rational Assumes that -- --
choice theory Individuals will
operate In rational
way and will seek to
benefit themselves
in the Life choices
they make

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7. Structuralism Denies Any basis Underlying Views societies As
for Humans being structures; static and do Not
active, since human language help very much in
consciousness is explaining Variation
no Longer seen as among societies;
the basis of treats culture as a
Meaning in given order And
Language fails to explain The
adaptive
dimensions Of
culture.

8. Post- Argues that -- --

structuralism humans cannot
arrive anything they

can confidently call

the (universal) truth.
There is no link
between the words
(language) ideas,
and the real world
Post- Argues power has Modernity; Denial of objective,
modernism become post- Sociological
Decentralized and modernity; Knowledge
fragmented in subjective
Contemporary reality
societies

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1.2.The Significance of Learning Sociology

Generally, learning sociology provides us with what sociologists call the sociological
imagination.
Sociological imagination is a particular way of looking at the world around us through
sociological lenses. It is a way of looking at our experiences in light of what is going on in the
social world around us. This helps us to appreciate the social and non-biological forces that
affect, influence and shape our lives as individuals, groups, and communities (Giddens, 1982).
Sociological imagination helps us look beyond individual psychology to the many and varied
facets of social and cultural forces, and "the recurring patterns in peoples' attitudes and actions,
and how these patterns vary across time, cultures and social groups." (Henslin and Nelson, 1995)

Learning sociology helps us understand how social forces influence our goals, attitudes,
behavior, and personality. We become more sensitive towards the social issues. Furthermore,
learning sociology helps to cast aside our own biased assumptions, stereotypes and ethno-
centric thinking and practices to become more critical, broad- minded and respectful in our
interpersonal and inter- group relationships.

By learning sociology, we can be more human and people – centered; we give high value to
human dignity.

In general, sociology increases our self-knowledge.

Learning sociology can provide us with self- enlightenment. When we learn sociology, we gain
more knowledge about the conditions of our own lives, and about the way our society and social
system function. As such knowledge increases, we can be more empowered to influence the
direction of forces and circumstances that affect our lives. We can also be more responsive to the
various policies set by governments; and can suggest our own policy initiatives and alternatives
(Giddens, op cit).

In addition to the aforementioned theoretical benefits, sociology has certain practical benefits.

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There is what we call applied sociology, the application of sociological knowledge, principles,
methods, concepts and theories to provide the solutions to the contemporary social pathologies.
Sociology plays practical roles to tackle social pathologies.Sociological knowledge is highly
applicable in dealing with today's most crucial social problems, and in facilitating developmental
activities in socioeconomic sectors.

1.3. Sociological Research Methods

1.3.1. The Scientific Method Inductive vs.Deductive Approaches

Sociology is a science. As such, it is concerned with systematically observing and classifying
facts, and establishing verifiable laws. It, like any other science employs scientific method,
which is the source for scientific knowledge.
The scientific method is a logical system used to evaluate data derived from systematic
observation. The scientific method as a precise way of designing and conducting research
consists of the following basic steps: “(1) establishing a hypothesis, a general statement based on
observed facts; 2) determining ways to test the hypothesis, incorporating them in research
design; 3) testing the hypothesis through research and further observation…” (Howard
and Dunaif-Hattis, 1992:7)

Sociology as a science employs the two very important approaches in research design and in the
overall research framework: inductive methods and deductive method. Inductive method is a
method by which the scientist first makes observation and collects data, on the basis of which he
or she formulates hypothesis and theories (Scupin and DeCorse, 1995). The researcher tries to
build theories from particular observations and instances. Induction moves from the particular to
the general; where as deduction moves from the general to the particular. In deductive approach,
the researcher attempts to derive specific assertions and claims from a general theoretical
principle.

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 Box 1.5. Inductive vs. deductive approaches

•Inductive method is a method by which the scientist first makes observation and collects data, on
the basis of which he or she formulates hypothesis and theories

•In deductive approach, the researcher attempts to derive specific assertions and claims from a
general theoretical principle. As a science, the primary aim of sociology is doing research; to
produce, accumulate, and disseminate scientific knowledge on society and social phenomena.
However, there are some people who question the scientific status of sociology and other social
sciences. They argue that sociology is not strictly science because its subject matter is very much
complex. It is not possible to subject human behavior into laboratory manipulations. People have
their own motives and hidden aspirations and other complex aspects. However, it is generally
accepted that sociology is a science in the sense that its primary aim is doing scientific research
to promote scientific knowledge. Sociology can and should employ the scientific methods.

The scientific method is defined as a method of observing the world critically, empirically and
rationally to collect and analyze data systematically to arrive at a scientific knowledge.

1.3.2. Steps in Sociological Research

Generally, there are about seven steps in doing a sociological research. These steps are not,
however, typical to sociology alone. It should also be noted that these steps are not fixed ones.
Some steps may not necessarily be followed in some research projects. They steps may not
necessarily be put in sequential order.

1. Identification of Research Problems

The first step in doing sociological research (for that matter, any other research) is to come up
with a research problem. Identification of research problem basically involves choosing a
research topic. The ways and manners in which researchers identify a research problem and
choose a topic vary according to various factors. The research interests of sociologists are, often,
triggered by their own life experiences and observations (Howard and Dunaif-Hattis, 1992). The
initial ideas for research thus may occur at any time and place for a researcher.
Once a research topic comes to our mind, we should ask the following questions:
•Is it researchable?

21
 •Is it sociologically/ socially significant?

•What is new about it?

•What gap will it fill?

•Is it manageable in terms of time, money, expertise and other resources? In other words, do you
have the needed resources to do the research?

If you answer these and other related questions adequately, then you are on the right track to
conduct the research.

2. Literature Review
This step involves familiarizing or orienting yourself with the concepts, theories and the works
already done pertaining to the topic identified. Relevant available literature on the topic chosen
should be reviewed; we should also check out what works have already been done by others,
what gaps are remaining, what questions remain unanswered, etc.

Research work normally proceeds by reviewing earlier works on a specific research problem one
has identified. The researcher will need to review past works on the question he or she is raising
(Dooley, 1995). The traditionally dominant source for literature review has been libraries and
documentation centers where books and various references are found in card catalogued manner.
Nowadays, most libraries maintain a computerized filing system, whereby references are made
available via electronic online methods. Searching literature has become very easy, thus, with the
computerization of library sources; one can easily access them if Internet connection is available
(Rosnow and Rosenthal, 1996)

Literature review is necessitated by the fact that a researcher is probably not the first person to
develop an interest in a particular problem; and hence, he or she need to spend some time in the
library reviewing what theories and methods others have used to the topic in the past and what
findings are there (Macionis, 1997). According to Marshal and Rossman (1989: 35), review of
literature has the following four purposes:

22
 First, it demonstrates the underlying assumptions behind the general research question….
Second, it demonstrates that the researcher is thoroughly knowledgeable about related research
and the intellectual traditions that surround and support the study. Third, it shows that the
researcher has identified some gaps in previous research and that the proposed study will fill a
demonstrated need. And finally, the review refines and redefines the research questions and
related tentative hypotheses by embedding those questions in larger empirical traditions.

3. Hypothesis Formulation
Hypothesis is a statement that can be proved to be correct or incorrect. Hypothesis formulation
involves identifying basic research objectives and determining research questions. This should be
tested empirically. We put some guiding assumptions to the research in this step. We ask some
basic research questions. However, we may note that this may not be always the case. The type
of research may determine whether hypothesis is needed or not. For example, in exploratory
studies hypothesizing may not be needed.

4. Selections and Designing of Methods of Data Collection

Here the researcher determines data collection methods and prepares data collection instruments.
He/she chooses from among the different data collection methods. There are generally two
categories of methods: Quantitative methods and qualitative methods. Quantitative methods
focus on measuring quantity of information: terms such as prevalence, scope, percentage,
frequency, magnitude, etc are very important. On the other hand, qualitative methods focus on
depth and quality of information. The complex, detailed and sensitive aspects; belief, attitudinal
and knowledge dimensions etc are usually studied by qualitative methods.

5. Conducting Data Gathering Activity

This is the step in which the researcher engages in collecting the needed data by using the
various methods and instruments. The researcher goes to the field and collects the data. He/ she
trains data collectors, supervises the overall data collection process, and so on.

Data collected thus may be of two types: primary and secondary data. Primary data are
firsthand and original information; the researcher firsthand collects them. They are collected by

23
the sociology themselves during their own research using research tools such as experiment,
survey, questionnaire, interviews and observation (Chapman, 2000).

On the other hand, secondary data are those which are already collected by some one else found
in various sources as documents or archives. They include: official statistical documents, mass
media sources (such as electronic media – radio, television, films, etc; and print media such as
newspapers, magazines, journals, posters, brochures, leaflets, sign broads, etc.)

Some of the methods of data collection in sociology include:

Surveys

One of the dominant quantitative techniques is the survey method, which involves sampling,
impersonal data collections, and sophisticated statistical analysis. Of all the social sciences
research techniques, survey research probably seems to be the most visible and pervasive form
research in the social and behavioral sciences (Jones, 1995). . In survey research, people who
provide information are termed as respondents, (unlike in anthropology, where we call them
informants); these respondents are often selected on random sample basis, wherein all members
of a population have equal chances of being included in the study population

There are three types of survey research: cross sectional survey, which aims to find out what
opinions research participants across sections of society have about a certain phenomena at a
given point of time his survey represents fixed reflections of one moment in time. Longitudinal
survey is conducted on the same type of people over long period of time, as long as sometimes
20 to 30 years. This type provides us with a moving picture of the changes over time in a given
area. The third type is called panel surveys, which are alternative versions of longitudinal
surveys. It usually lasts shorter period of time and asks questions of panel members on a frequent
basis. A panel member may be asked question every month for a couple of years, while in
longitudinal survey, people are asked often once a year (Moore, 2001).

Traditionally, the survey techniques has been considered the domain of disciplines such as
sociology, psychology, political science, and economics, which often work mainly in large,

24
complex and populous societies, unlike anthropologists, which have traditionally worked
among small-scale societies.

Experimentation: This quantitative method is sometimes used in sociology. Sociologists

conduct experimental studies, following the procedures and principles of experimentation. This
is done usually to explore cause and effect relationship between one and the other social
phenomena. What causes what? What is the effect of one social phenomenon on the other?
Key Informant Interview: This is a qualitative method in which a knowledgeable person in
study site or community is contacted and interviewed by the researcher or data collector.
Questions for the interview session may be prepared in advance, or sometimes only guiding
themes are prepared for the session. This method is similar with in-depth interview, in that in
most cases one individual person is contacted and interviewed at a time. However, in the latter,
the researcher/ interviewer digs deep into issues (Macionis, 1997).

Focus Group Discussion: This is a form of qualitative data collection method in which intends
to make use of the explicit interaction dynamic among group members which may yield
important information on certain topic. This qualitative method of data collection has become so
popular particularly in the recent decades; it is highly being used by researchers from
crosscutting fields such as public health, anthropology, and other behavioral sciences disciplines.

Case Study: This method involves investigating a certain issue as a case taking longer time and
investigating the phenomenon in depth. A case study may be about an individual person, a social
group, a family, or an organization. The case chosen is regarded as a representative of the wider
group or context from which it is derived. This method may involve elements of both
quantitative and qualitative aspects.

Observation: This qualitative method involves collecting data on social phenomena by carefully
observing the social processes, events, activities, behaviors, actions, etc., they take place. All
relevant events, actions, places, objects, etc must be observed and recorded (Marshal and
Rossman, 1989). One of the key procedures in these techniques is called participant
observation, the active involvement in community life while studying it.

25
 The researcher participates in a research setting while observing what is happening in that setting
(Henslin and Nelson, 1995).

A variant of this method is non-participantobservation – collecting data without participating

in what the informants or the subjects do.
Unobtrusive Measures: Most of the research techniques are obtrusive, meaning the data are
gathered while the study subjects’ behaviors actions are directly observed and they know that
they are being researched. To avoid the risks of the research act intruding on the subject of study
thereby affecting the research findings, sociologists have developed what is called unobtrusive
measures. When a researcher takes unobtrusive measures, people's behavior is observed while
they are not aware of it.

Here, this method involves techniques that do not interfere with the objects or events studied.
Sociologist study many social phenomena using this methods such how people behave in the
public arena, the way people wear and decorate themselves, the way they sit or stand relative to
others, etc (Rosenberg, et al, 1987).

6.Data Organization, Analysis, Interpretation, and Report Writing

The most challenging task is how to manage, handle, store and arrange the raw data as cautiously
aspossible. Data may get lost, if not handled well. The researcher here carefully stores the data,
manages them, organizes and systematically arranges.

Various ways of analyzing data are used both in qualitative and quantitative methods (Henslin
and Nelson, 1995). For quantitative data researchers use sophisticated statistical techniques using
computer models. Plans for data analysis are often made as early before the data are collected
(Mann, 1976).

Analysis of qualitative data also actually begins while the researcher is in the field recording his/
her field notes, tape recording and transcribing the interviews.

26
Tape-recording the interview process and transcribing are the essential components of analysis
(Jones 1995). In analyzing the data, the researcher must distinguish between his own views and
the views of the people being studied (Scupin and DeCorse, 1995). There are many possible
analytic schemes and some computer models for analyzing qualitative data are also available.
After the data are entered into a computer for easy processing, tabulation, and analysis, the
researcher interprets the data and writes up the findings.
The hypotheses are tested, comparisons are made with similar kinds of studies conducted
elsewhere or done before, conclusions are drawn, and recommendations are made, depending on
the type of research, such as basic or applied.

7. Dissemination of Research Findings

This is the final step in which the researcher shares the findings with all concerned bodies.
Dissemination of the research findings is possible via scientific journals, seminars, symposiums,
conferences and other forums.
Figure 1.1 Steps in the Research Process (Adapted from Anthony Giddens, Sociology. 1996)
DEFINE THE PROBLEM: Select a topic for research information
REVIEW THE LITERATURE: Familiarize your self with existing research
FORMULATE A HYPOTHESIS: What do you intend to test? What is the relationship
between the variables?
SELECT A RESEARCH DESIGN: Choose one or more research methods: experiment,
survey, observation, use of existing sources, etc
CARRY OUT THE RESEARCH: Collect your data
INTERPRET YOUR RESULTS
Work out the implications of the data collected
REPORT THE RESEARCH FINDING
What is their significance? How do they relate to previous findings?

Your findings are registered and discussed in the wider academic circles

27
1.4.The Relationship between Sociology and Disciplines
Sociology occupies an important position among the disciplines, usually called the social
sciences. These include sociology, anthropology, psychology, economics, political science,
history and human geography. These disciplines are sometimes also referred to as behavioral
sciences, as they study the principles governing human social behavior.

How is sociology related to other sciences? What are the similarities and differences? These are
important questions. Sociology is similar with all other sciences in that it employs the scientific
methods and its major aim is production of scientific knowledge. Sociology is related to other
social and behavioral sciences in that all of them have more or less similar subject matter; they
all in one way or another study society, human culture, social phenomena; and aim at
discovering the laws that govern the social universe.

However, sociology differs from other social sciences in terms of its focus of study, approach of
study, and the method of study. The closest discipline to sociology is social anthropology. The
two share concepts, theories and methods, and have similar historical background. However,
they are different in that sociology is primarily interested in the problems of modern society,
whereas anthropology is primarily interested in the problem of traditional, non-western society.
(It should be noted here that this conventional distinction between the two is now disappearing.)
Further, sociology focuses mainly on quantitative techniques where as anthropology on
qualitative research techniques. Perhaps, the methods of research are more important in
differentiating the two.
Anthropology's heavy focus on qualitative method and sociology's on quantification are still
persistent natures of the two disciplines. Further, one point of difference worth mentioning is that
sociology is narrower in scope than anthropology, which has four sub fields; and anthropologists
tend to stay in the field for long period (several months to few years) while sociologists prefer
brief stay (weeks to few months).

1.5. Chapter Summary

The term sociology is a combination of two words, socius and logos, which mean
respectively society and study. Thus, a simple etymological definition of sociology is that it is the

28
science of society. Sociology is a social or behavioral science that originated in the 19th century
in Western Europe; its main concern is discovering the basic laws and principles that govern
human social life, the social world, the working and development of society and its institutions.
It grew out of the great revolutionary contexts, with great concern to address the social changes,
disorders and problems of the modern world.

Micro-sociology studies the micro aspects of human society, that is the social processes and
phenomena taking place at small scale levels; macro-sociologystudies the macro aspects, that is,
the overall structure, functioning, change, development and processes of social phenomena
at large-scale levels. The six major filed of study in sociology are social organization andsocial
theory, social change, social problems, social processes, social groups, and social control.

Learning sociology provides us with sociological imagination, an illuminating way of

understanding the forces and factors that affect our lives as individuals, groups, communities and
nations. Sociology provides us with much practical benefit and it contributes greatly to the
solutions for contemporary societal problems.

Research is very important in sociology. Although some challenge its scientific status, it uses the
scientific method to produce, store and disseminate scientific knowledge on society and social
phenomena. A typical sociological research may involve seven steps, and each step is very
important and has to be carefully followed to do standard and quality research.

Sociology is not an island; it is interdependent with other sciences; and as to its subject matter it
is more or less similar with the other social or behavioral sciences such as anthropology, social
psychology, political science, economics, and human geography. However, as to its methods,
focus, unit of analysis, and approaches, it is different.

The closest discipline to sociology is social anthropology; they share similar historical
development, concepts, theories, and approaches; although the former focuses on modern
societies and quantitative research and the latter focuses on traditional societies and qualitative
research techniques.

29
 Review Questions

1.What is sociology? Explain it using your own words.

2.How can we differentiate sociology from other social sciences, which also study society and
human culture?

3.Discuss the main sociopolitical and economic factors behind the emergence of sociology.

4.Discuss the personal and professional benefits of learning sociology.

5.Consider the issue of students’ sexual behavior in your University. Discuss those aspects that
would be interesting to study for a sociologist. What aspects might not be interesting
sociologically? Why?

6.Discuss the main differences between qualitative and quantitative methods of doing research.

7.Identify the factors to be considered when one is considering choosing a certain issue or issues as
research topic.

CHAPTER TWO

SOCIETY AND CULTURE

Learning Objectives

At learning this chapter, students will be able to:

•Define the concept of society;

•Describe the basic characteristics of a society;

•Conceptualize society as having different levels;

•Describe the different types of society on the basis of various parameters;

•Explain how society functions as a system;

•Define the concept of culture;

30
 •Describe the basic features of culture;

•Identify the key elements of culture; and

•Understand other main concepts related to culture

2.1. The Concept of Society

2.1.1. Definition

The term society as mentioned earlier is derived from a Latin word socius. The term directly
means association, togetherness, gregariousness, or simply group life. The concept of society
refers to a relatively large grouping or collectivity of people who share more or less common and
distinct culture, occupying a certain geographical locality, with the feeling of identity or
belongingness, having all the necessary social arrangements or insinuations to sustain itself.We
may add a more revealing definition of society as defined by Calhoun et al (1994): "A society is
an autonomous grouping of people who inhabit a common territory, have a common culture
(shared set of values, beliefs, customs and so forth) and are linked to one another through
routinized social interactions and interdependent statuses and roles."

Society also may mean a certain population group, a community.

The common tendency in sociology has been to conceptualize society as a system, focusing on
the bounded and integrated nature of society. Great founders of sociology had also focused on
the dynamic aspect of society. Such early sociologists as Comte, Marx and Spencer grasped the
concept of society as a dynamic system evolving historically and inevitably towards complex
industrial structures (Swingwood, 1991:313).
2.1.2. Basic Features of a Society
First, a society is usually a relatively large grouping of people in terms of size. In a very
important sense, thus, society may be regarded as the largest and the most complex social group
that sociologists study. Second, as the above definition shows, the most important thing about a
society is that its members share common and distinct culture. This sets it apart from the other
population groups. Third, a society also has a definite, limited space or territory. The populations

31
that make up a given society are thus locatable in a definite geographical area. The people
consider that area as their own. Fourth, the people who make up a society have the feeling of
identity and belongingness. There is also the feeling of oneness. Such identity felling emanates
from the routinized pattern of social interaction that exists among the people and the various
groups that make up the society. (Henslin and Nelson, 1995; Giddens, 1996; Calhoun et al.,
1994)
Fifth, members of a society are considered to have a common origin and common historical
experience. They feel that they have also common destiny. Sixth, members of a society may also
speak a common mother tongue or a major language that may serve as a national heritage.
Seventh, a society is autonomous and independent in the sense that it has all the necessary social
institutions and organizational arrangements to sustain the system. However, a society is not
an island, in the sense that societies are interdependent. There has always been inter– societal
relations. People interact socially, economically and politically.
It is important to note that the above features of a society are by no means exhaustive and they
may not apply to all societies. The level of a society’s economic and technological development,
the type of economic or livelihood system a society is engaged in, etc may create some variations
among societies in terms of these basic features.

2.1.3. Conceptualizing Society at Various Levels

As indicated above, in a general sense and at an abstract level, all people of the earth may be
considered as a society. The earth is a common territory for the whole world's people. All people
of the earth share common origin; inhabit common planet; have common bio psychological
unity; and exhibit similar basic interests, desires and fears; and are heading towards common
destiny (Calhoun, et al., 1994).

At another level, every continent may be considered as a society. Thus, we may speak of the
European society, the African society, the Asian society, the Latin American society, etc. This
may be because, each of these continents share its own territory, historical experiences, shared
culture, and so on.
At a more practical level, each nation-state or country is regarded as a society. For example, the
people of Ethiopia or Kenya, Japan are considered as a society.
2.1.4. Types or Categories of Societies
Sociologists classify societies into various categories depending on certain criteria. One such
criterion is level of economic and technological development attained by countries. Thus, the
countries of the world are classified as First World, Second World, and Third World; First World

32
Countries are those which are highly industrially advanced and economically rich, such as the
USA, Japan, Britain, France, Italy, Germany, and Canada and so on. The Second World
Countries are also industrially advanced but not as much as the first category. The Third World
societies are thus which are least developed, or in the process of developing. Some writers add a
fourth category, namely, Fourth World countries. These countries may be regarded as the
"poorest of the poor" (Giddens, 1996).

Another important criterion for classifying societies may be that which takes into account
temporal succession and the major source of economic organization (Lensiki and Lensiki, 1995).
When societies modernize they transform from one form to another. The simplest type of society
that is in existence today and that may be regarded the oldest is that whose economic
organization is based on hunting and gathering. They are called hunting and gathering
societies. This society depends on hunting and gathering for its survival. The second types are
referred to as pastoral and horticultural societies. Pastoral societies are those whose livelihood
is based on pasturing of animals, such as cattle, camels, sheep and goats. Horticultural
societies are those whose economy is based on cultivating plants by the use of simple tools, such
as digging sticks, hoes, axes, etc.

The third types are agricultural societies. This society, which still is dominant in most parts of
the world, is based on large-scale agriculture, which largely depends on ploughs using animal
labor.

The Industrial Revolution

which began in Great Britain during 18th century, gave rise to the emergence of a fourth type of
society called the Industrial Society. An industrial society is one in which goods are produced
by machines powered by fuels instead of by animal and human energy (Ibid.). Sociologists also
have come up with a fifth emerging type of society called post-industrial society. This is a
society based on information, services and high technology, rather than on raw materials and
manufacturing. The highly industrialized which have now passed to the post-industrial level
include the USA, Canada, Japan, and Western Europe.
2.2. The Concept of Culture

33
 2.2.1. Definition
Before going any further, it may be important to note that common people often misuse the
concept of culture. Some misconceptions about the to term culture include:

1. Many people in the western world use the term culture in the sense that some people are more
"cultured" than others. This basically emanates
from the idea associated with the root word of the term culture, “kulture” in German, which
refers to “civilization". Thus, when one is said to be “cultured”, he or she is said to be civilized.
For sociologists and anthropologists, "culture includes much more than refinement, taste,
sophistication, education and appreciation of the fine arts. Not only college graduates but also all
people are ‘cultured’” Kottak (2002: 272).

2.A second commonly used misconception is that which equates “culture" with things which are
colorful, customs, cloths, foods, dancing, music, etc. As Kottak (op. cit p.525) argues, “… many
[people] have come to think of culture in terms of colorful customs, music, dancing and
adornments clothing, jewelry and hairstyles…. Taken to an extreme, such images portray culture
as recreational and ultimately unserious rather than something that ordinary people live everyday
of their lives not just when they have festivals” (Ibid. P. 525).

The concept of culture is one of the most widely used notions in sociology. It refers to the whole
ways of life of the members of a society. It includes what they dress, their marriage customs and
family life, art, and patterns of work, religious ceremonies, leisure pursuits, and so forth. It also
includes the material goods they produce: bows and arrows, plows, factories and machines,
computers, books, buildings, airplanes, etc (Calhoun, et al, 1994; Hensiln and Nelson, 1995).

The concept of culture has been defined by hundreds of times by sociologists and
anthropologists, emphasizing different dimensions. However, most often scholars have focused
on eh symbolic dimension of culture; that culture is essentially symbolic (see below).

2.2.2. Basic Characteristics of Culture

34
1.Culture is organic and supra-organic: It is organic when we consider the fact that there is no
culture without human society. It is supra organic, because it is far beyond any individual
lifetime. Individuals come and go, but culture remains and persists Calhoun (op cit).

2.Culture is overt and covert: It is generally divided into material and non-material cultures.
Material culture consists of any tangible human made objects such as tools, automobiles,
buildings, etc.

Non-material culture consists of any non-physicalaspects like language, belief, ideas, knowledge,
attitude, values, etc.

3.Culture is explicit and implicit: It is explicit when we consider those actions which can be
explained and described easily by those who perform them. It is implicit when we consider those
things we do, but are unable to explain them, yet we believe them to be so.

4.Culture is ideal and manifest (actual): Ideal culture involves the way people ought to behave or
what they ought to do. Manifest culture involves what people actually do.

5.Culture is stable and yet changing: Culture is stable when we consider what people hold valuable
and are handing over to the next generation in order to maintain their norms and values.
However, when culture comes into contact with other cultures, it can change. However, culture
changes not only because of direct or indirect contact between cultures, butalso through
innovation and adaptation to new circumstances.

6.Culture is shared and learned: Culture is the public property of a social group of people (shared).
Individuals get cultural knowledge of the group through socialization. However, we should note
that all things shared among people might not be cultural, as there are many biological attributes
which people share among themselves (Kottak, 2002).

7.Culture is symbolic: It is based on the purposeful creation and usage of symbols; it is exclusive to
humans. Symbolic thought is unique and crucial to humans and to culture. Symbolic thought is

35
 the human ability to give a thing or event an arbitrary meaning and grasp and appreciate that
meaning Symbols are the central components of culture.

Symbols refer to anything to which people attach meaning and which they use to communicate with
others. More specifically, symbols are words, objects, gestures, sounds or images that
representsomething else rather than themselves. Symbolic thought is unique and crucial to
humans and to culture. It is the human ability to give a thing or event an arbitrary meaning and
grasp and appreciate that meaning.

There is no obvious natural or necessary connection between a symbol and what it symbolizes
(Henslin and Nelson, 1995; Macionis, 1997).

Culture thus works in the symbolic domain emphasizing meaning, rather than the
technical/practical rational side of human behavior. All actions have symbolic content as well as
being action in and of themselves. Things, actions, behaviors, etc, always stand for something
else than merely, the thing itself

Box 2.1. Basic features of culture

•Culture is organic and supraorganic

•Culture is implicit and explicit

•Culture is stable and changing

•Culture is overt and covert

•Culture is learned and shared

•Culture is symbolic

•Culture is ideal and manifest

2.2.3.Elements of Culture

36
Culture includes within itself elements that make up the essence of a society or a social group.
The major ones include: Symbols, values, norms, and language (See Henslin and Nelson, 1995;
Calhoun et al. 1994).

Symbols
Symbols are the central components of culture. Symbols refer to anything to which people attach
meaning and which they use to communicate with others. More specifically, symbols are words,
objects, gestures, sounds or images that represent something else ratherthan themselves.
Symbolic thought is unique and crucial to humans and to culture. It is the human ability to give a
thing or event an arbitrary meaning and grasp and appreciate that meaning. There is no obvious
natural or necessary connection between a symbol and what it symbolizes.

Language
Language, specifically defined as a system of verbal and in many cases written symbols with
rules about how those symbols can be strung together to convey more complex meanings, is the
distinctive capacity and possession of humans; it is a key element of culture. Culture
encompasses language, and through language, culture is communicated and transmitted. Without
language it would be impossible to develop, elaborate and transmit culture to the future
generation.

Values
Values are essential elements of non-material culture. They may be defined as general, abstract
guidelines for our lives, decisions, goals, choices, and actions. They are shared ideas of a groups
or a society as to what isright or wrong, correct or incorrect, desirable or undesirable, acceptable
or unacceptable, ethical or unethical, etc., regarding something. They are general road maps for
our lives. Values are shared and are learned in group. They can be positive or negative. For
example, honesty, truth – telling, respect for others, hospitality, helping those in need, etc are
positive values. Examples of negative values include theft, indecency, disrespect, dishonesty,
falsehood, frugality, etc. The Hippocratic Oath in medical profession dictates that practitioners

37
should among other things, keep the secrets of patients, provide them whatever help they can, do
no harm to patients willingly, etc. This is an example of positive value.

Values are dynamic, meaning they change over time. They are also static, meaning they tend to
persist without any significant modification.

Values are also diversified, meaning they vary from place to place and culture to culture. Some
values are universal because there is bio- psychological unity among people everywhere and all
times. In other words, they emanate from the basic similarity of mankind’s origins, nature
anddesires. For example, dislike for killing people, concepts and practices of disease
management, cleanliness, personal hygiene, cosmetics, incest taboo, etc.

Norms
Norms are also essential elements of culture. They are implicit principles for social life,
relationship and interaction. Norms are detailed and specific rules for specific situations. They
tell us how to do something, what to do, what not to do, when to do it, why to do it, etc. Norms
are derived from values. That means, for every specific norm, there is a general value that
determines its content.

Individuals may not act according to the defined values and norms of the group. Therefore,
violation of values and norms and deviating from the standard values and norms are often
common. Social norms may be divided into two. These are mores and folkways

Mores: Are important and stronger social norms for existence, safety, well-being and continuity
of the society or the group or society. Violation of, anddeviation from these kinds of norms, may
result in serious reactions form the groups. The strongest norms are regarded as the
formal laws of a society or a group. Formal laws are written and codified social norms. The other
kinds of mores are called conventions. Conventions are established rules governing behavior;
they are generally accepted ideals by the society. Conventions may also be regarded as written
and signed agreements between nations to govern the behaviors of individuals, groups and
nations.

38
Folkways: Are the ways of life developed by a group of people. They are detailed and minor
instructions, traditions or rules for day-to-day life that help us function effectively and smoothly
as members of a group. Here, violating such kinds of norms may not result in a serious
punishment unlike violating mores.

They are less morally binding. In other words, folkways are appropriate ways of behaving and
doing things. Examples may include table etiquette, dressing rules, walking, talking, etc.

Conformity to folkways usually occurs automatically without any national analysis and is based
upon custom passed from generation to generation. They are not enforced by law, but by
informal social control. They are not held to be important or obligatory as mores, or moral
standards, and their violation is not as such severely sanctioned. Although folkways are less
binding, people have to behave according to accepted standards. Some exceptional behaviors are
regarded eccentric behaviors.Folkways are distinguished from laws and mores in that they are
designed, maintained and enforced by public sentiment, or custom, whereas laws are
institutionalized, designed, maintained and enforced by the political authority of the society.
Folkways in turn may be divided into two sub types: fashion and custom.

Fashion: Is a form of behavior, type of folkways that is socially approved at a given time but
subject to periodic change. Adherents combine both deviation and conformity to norm of a
certain group.

Custom: Is a folkway or form of social behavior that, having persisted a long period of time, has
become traditional and well established in a society and has received some degree of formal
recognition. Custom is a pattern of action shared by most or all members of a society. Habit is a
personality trait, where as the custom is a group trait. Fashion and customs can be differentiated
in that while custom changes at slower rate, fashion changes at a faster rate.

Figure Box 2.2. Elements of culture

•Values

39
•Norms

•Symbols

•Language

•Folkways

•Mores

•Customs

•Fashion

•Laws

2.2.4.Culture Variability and Explanations

Cultural variability refers to the diversity of cultures across societies and places. As there are
different societies, there are different cultures. The diversity of human culture is remarkable.
Values and norms of behavior vary widely from culture to culture often contrasting in radical
ways (Broom and Sleznki, 1973). For example, Jews do not eat pork, while Hindus eat pork but
avoid beef.

Cultural diversity or variability can be both between societies and within societies. If wetake the
two societies, Ethiopia and India, there are great, sharp cultural diversities between the two
societies. On the other hand, within both societies, there is remarkable cultural variability.
Cultural variability between societies may result in divergent health and disease conditions. For
example, variations in nutritional habits are closely linked to the types of diseases. The
prevalence of tapeworm among raw-meat eating people may be a case in point.

We use the concept of subculture to denote the variability of culture within a certain society.
Sub culture is a distinctive culture that is shared by a group within a society (Stockard, 1997).

40
 We call it sub culture, because groups (with their sub cultures) exist within and as a smaller part
of the main, dominant culture. Examples of subculture could be the distinctive culture of
university students, street children and prostitutes in Addis Ababa, the culture of medical
professionals, etc.

Why cultures vary from society to society? Sociologists, anthropologists, cultural geographers
and other social scientists have studied the causes for cultural variationsamong (between)
societies. Various arguments have been provided the variation, including geographical factors,
racial determination, demographic factors, span of interest and mere historic chances. Those who
argued for racial determination believe that cultural variation is genetically determined.
Geographic factors include: climate, altitude, and so forth. Included in demographic factors are
changes in population structure, population increase, etc., whereas by span of interest is meant
cultures vary as people's interest in life also varies. Cultural variation is due to mere historical
chances; a particular group of people may develop a culture as it is exposed to certain historical
circumstances and opportunities.

However, no one explanation is sufficient by itself; anthropologists now reject particular

deterministic explanation such as those based on race; rather cultural variations are accounted for
by more holistic explanations.

2.2.5.Ethnocentrism, Cultural Relativism and Culture Shock

Ethnocentrism
We often tend to judge other cultures by comparison with our own. It is not logically possible
and proper to underestimate or overestimate or judge other cultures on the basis of one's cultural
standard. Ethnocentrism, in general, is an attitude of taking one's own culture and ways of life as
the best and the center of all and on the other hand, regarding other ethnic groups and cultures as
inferior, bad, full of errors, etc. It is the tendency to apply one's own cultural values in judging
the behavior and beliefs of people raised in other cultures. It is a cultural universal. People
everywhere think that familiar explanations, opinion, and customs as true, right, proper and

41
 moral. They regard different behavior as strange or savage (Macionis, 1997; Hensllin and
Nelson, 1995).

Cultural Relativism

Every society has its own culture, which is more or less unique. Every culture contains its own
unique pattern of behavior which may seem alien to people from other cultural backgrounds. We
cannot understand thepractices and beliefs separately from the wider culture of which they are
part. A culture has to be studied in terms of its own meanings and values.

Cultural relativism describes a situation where there is an attitude of respect for cultural
differences rather than condemning other people's culture as uncivilized or backward (Stockard,
1997).

Respect for cultural differences involves:

•Appreciating cultural diversity;

•Accepting and respecting other cultures;

•Trying to understand every culture and its elements in terms of its own context and logic;
•Accepting that each body of custom has inherent dignity and meaning as the way of life of one
group which has worked out to its environment, to the biological needs of its members, and to
the group relationships;
•Knowing that a person's own culture is only one among many; and
•Recognizing that what is immoral, ethical, acceptable, etc, in one culture may not be so in another
culture.

Cultural relativism may be regarded as the opposite of ethnocentrism. However, there is some
problem with the argument that behavior in a particular culture should not be judged by the
standards of another. This is because in its extremeness, it argues that there is no superior,
international or universal morality.

42
 To sum up the issues of ethnocentrism and cultural relativism, the concepts involve difficult
choices, dilemmas and contradictions regarding cultural exchanges and relationships between
and within societies. The dilemmas and contradictions become clear when we see that the
traditional anthropological position maintains that every cultural beliefs and practice, including
for example the ones which are termed as “harmful traditional practices” in Ethiopia, are part and
parcel of the general cultural system of a society and therefore they should not be judged and
undermined by any outsider. On the other hand, the dilemma is taken to the extreme cultural
relativism appears to entail a fallacy, in that it implies that there are no universal cultural or
moral standard by which actionsand beliefs have to be judged. Yet still, even cultural
anthropologists accept the idea that there are some cultural standards which are universally found
everywhere, expressed for example in the world’s major religions.

In any case there may be no ready made solutions to this dilemma; however, what we can at
present maintain is that cultural diversity has to be respected and yet international standards of
justice and human rights have to be taken into account.

Culture Shock
Culture shock is the psychological and social maladjustment at micro or macro level that is
experienced for the first time when people encounter new cultural elements such as new things,
new ideas, new concepts, seemingly strange beliefs and practices. No person is protected form
culture shock. However, individuals vary in their capacity to adapt and overcome the influence
of culture shock. Highly ethnocentric people are exposed widely to culture shock.
On the other hand, cultural relativists may find it easy to adaptto new situations and overcome
culture shock (Henslin and Nelson, 1995).

2.2.6.Cultural Universals, Alternatives and Specialties

Cultural Universals

Although there are as many different and unique cultures as societies, there are some cultural
practices that are universal. Amid the diversity of human cultural behavior, there are some
common features that are found in virtually all societies. Cultural universalityrefers to those

43
practices, beliefs, values, norms, material objects, etc., which are observed across all societies in
the world, or across different social groups within a society.

For example, every culture has a grammatically complex language. All societies have some
recognized form of family system in which there are values and norms associated with the care
of children. The institution of marriage, religious rituals, and property rights are all cultural
universals. All societies have some form of incest prohibition. Anthropologist have identified
varietyof more cultural universals including the existence of art, dancing, bodily adornments,
games, gift giving, joking and rules of hygiene. Cultural universals condition behavioral
similarity among individuals in a given society or across societies. They do not allow differences
in actions and behaviors, lifestyle, attitude, behaviors, etc (Broom and Selzenki, 1973).
Cultural Alternatives and Specialties
There are many different options for doing the same thing. For example, care for a patient is a
universal aspect of cultures; but the way people care for patients varies. There are many diverse
ways of doing the same thing. This is called cultural alternative. In other words, cultural
alternatives refer to two or more forms of behavior in a particular society which are acceptable in
a given situation. These alternatives represent different reactions to the same situations or
different techniques to achieve the same end. Cultural alternatives are (also) the types of choices
that allow for differences in ideas, customs and lifestyles. Modern industrialized societies offer
far more cultural alternatives than had many societies of the past.

On the other hand, cultural specialties refer to the specific skills, training, knowledge, etc. which
is limited to a group or specific members of society. They are those elements of culture which
are shared by the members of certain social groups but which are not shared by the total
population. Cultural specialties causebehavioral differences among people as opposed to cultural
universals.

2.2.7.The Concepts of Culture Lag and Culture Lead

Culture is dynamic. When culture change occurs, the change is usually not evenly distributed
across material and non-material dimensions of culture. The rate of change is not balanced.

44
 Material culture may change at a faster rate than non- material culture. The growth in science
and technology in western, industrialized societies for example, does not seem to be matched by
the necessary changes and appropriate adjustment of adaptive culture. That is non-
materialculture changes slowly. This condition is termed as culture lag. Associated with the
rapid growth in material culture are usually crisis in the realm of amorality, social and cultural
dilemmas, which in turn result in various social pathologies such as extreme form of
individualism, alienation, the state of normlessness, suicide, etc (Team of Experts, 2000).
On the other hand, in some less developed societies, the change of non-material culture may
outpace the material culture. When this occurs, it is called culture lead. Due to the effect of
globalization and rapid assimilation processes, people in the Third World are accustomed to the
ideology and cultures of the Western World, though their material culture is not changing
keeping pace with non- material culture.

2.2.8. Global Culture and Cultural Imperialism

Before closing this chapter, it may be important to note few things on the issues of cultural
exchange in today’s globalizing world. One of the main aspects of globalization is that a
relatively uniform world culture is taking shape today in the world. The global culture may entail
all speaking the some language, share the same values and norms, and sustain common und of
knowledge as of residents of the same community (Kottak 2002). Global culture may also be
associated with cultural imperialism, the unequal cultural exchange in the global system
whereby western material and non-material cultures have come to occupya dominating and
imposing roles over the indigenous cultures of the Third World peoples.

The global culture is often promoted by:

-The global spread of capitalism

-Consumerism and the consumer culture

-The growth of transnational media, particularly electronic mass media such as BBC, CNN, etc.

45
The transnational media have often promoted the aggressive promotion that its value system is
superior and preferable to those of other non–western cultures

2.3. Chapter Summary

The concepts of society and culture are central to sociology. A society is an autonomous
grouping of people who inhabit a common territory, have a common culture (shared set of
values, beliefs, customs and so forth) and are linked to one another through routinized social
interactions and interdependent statuses and roles. Societies may be conceptualized as having
different levels: at global, continental, regional, nation-state and ethic group levels. Depending
on various criteria, societies may be classified in to various categories, such as First World,
Second World, Third World and Fourth World Societies (based on economic development and
overall socio-economic status); and hunting and gathering, pastoral, agrarian, industrial and post
industrial societies (based on temporal succession and major means of livelihood).The term
"culture" refers to the whole ways of life of the members of a society. It includes what they
dress; their marriage customs and family life; art and patterns of work; religious ceremonies;
leisure pursuits and so forth. Culture has various dimensions such as material and non-
material, implicit and explicit, organic and supra organic, ideal and actual, dynamic and static
and overt and covert. The essential elements of culture include symbols, language, values and
norms. Other important aspects of culture such as culture variability; ethno- centrism, cultural
relativism and culture shock; cultural universals, alternatives and specialties; and culture lag and
lead are discussed.
Review Questions

1.Define the term "society".

2."In a broader perspective, the people of the planet earth maybe regarded as a society." Explain.

3.Mention the criteria for classifying societies into different categories. Where would you put
Rwanda as a society according to both criteria? Why?

4.Define the term "culture".

5.List and discuss the elements of culture.

46
 6.Discuss the main characteristics of culture.

7.Why do cultures vary between societies?

8.What are subcultures? How are sub-culturescreated? Think of a certain heath service rendering set
up. Mentions some of the examples of sub- cultures in such set up

9.What are cultural universals? Why and how do cultural universals condition behavioral similarities
among persons of a similar society or social group?
10.Why and how does culture shock occur?
CHAPTER THREE

SOCIALIZATION

Learning Objectives

At the end of this chapter, students will be able to:

•Define the term "socialization";

•Appreciate the aims of socialization;

•Describe human biological bases of, and capacity for, socialization;

•Understand the modes of social learning;

•Identify the modes and /or patterns of socialization;

•Describe the major types of socialization; and

•Describe the components and agents of socialization.

3.1.The Concept of Socialization: Definition and Necessity

In any society there are socially recognized ways in which the norms and values of the society
are inculcated in the human infant who comes into this world as a biological organism with
animalistic needs or impulses. Individuals learn group-defined ways of acting and behaving, and
what they socially learn becomes part of their personality.

47
Socialization is a process of making somebody social and fully human. Or more appropriately, it
is a process whereby individual persons learn and are trained in the basic norms, values, beliefs,
skills, attitudes, way of doing and acting as appropriate to a specific social group or society.

It is an on-going, never ending process- from cradle to the grave. That means an individual
person passes thorough various stages of socialization, from birth to death. Thus, we need
socialization as infants,preschool children, schoolboys/girls, adolescents, adults and older
persons.

From the point of view of individual persons, especially a newly born baby, socialization is a
process whereby a biological being or organism is changed into a social being. In terms of the
group, society or any professional organizations, socialization is a process whereby the
organizations', social groups' and society's structure and well-being are kept and sustained. It is
the process whereby the culture, skills, norms, traditions, customs, etc., are transmitted from
generation to generation - or from one society to another.

Socialization may be formal or informal. It becomes formal when it is conducted by formally

organized social groups and institutions, like schools, religious centers, mass media universities,
work places, military training centers, internships, etc. It is informal when it is carried out
through the informal social interactions and relationships at micro-levels, at interpersonal and
small social group levels. The most important socialization for us is that we get through informal
agents like family,parents, neighborhood and peer group influences. It has a very powerful
influence, whether negative or positive, in our lives.

The process of socialization, whether it is formal or informal, is vitally important to both

individuals and society. Without some kind of socialization, society would cease to exist.
Socialization, thus, can be labeled as the way by which culture is transmitted and individuals are
fitted into the society's organized way of life.

48
3.2. The Goals of Socialization

In terms of individual persons, the goal of socialization is to equip him or her with the basic
values, norms, skills, etc, so that they will behave and act properly in the social group to which
they belong. Socialization has also the following specific goals (Broom and Sleznki, 1973):

To inculcate basic disciplines by restraining a child or even an adult from immediate

gratification; a child who is toilet-trained will delayrelieving himself/ herself until the proper
environment is created.
To instill aspirations;

To teach social roles;

To teach skills;

To teach conformity to norms; and

To create acceptable and constructive personal identities.

Despite the inculcation of values and norms is significant in the process of social integration, we
need to also note that social values are not equally absorbed by members of a society or group.
The integrative function of socialization is also not equally beneficial to all people. There is
always the question of whose values have to be inculcated? This question particularly becomes
crucial in an increasingly globalizing society. Hence, the ideological role of socialization with
the issues of differential power, control, domination and conflict become important.

3.3.Human Biological Bases of, and Capacity for, Socialization

From among the animal kingdom, humans are the only ones who are capable of socialization
because they are endowed with the necessary biological bases that are lacking in other animals.
The following are the key biological characteristics of human beings on which socialization is
based: Absence of instincts, social contact needs, longer period of childhood dependence,
capacity to learn and language (Broom and Sleznki, 1973; Henslin and Nelson, 1995)

49
Absence of Instincts: The term "instinct" in its current social science usage refers to the
complex behavior patterns for which some animal species as biologically programmed. For
example, nest-building among birds is an indistinct. But humans have no comparable behavior
patterns which are biologically fixed, although they have innumerable built-in physiological
reflexes. Human have biological drives or impulses such as hunger, thirst, sex, etc, rather than
instincts. This absence of instincts makes humans dependent on social direction and
theirbehaviors are amenable to such direction.

Social Contact Needs: Humans need sustained social contacts. Studies conducted on primates
and human infants revealed that lack of body stimulation and contact in infancy appear to inhibit
and prevent the development of higher learning functions. Satisfaction of the social contact and
initiations needs in humans is a strong biological imperative.

Longer Period of Childhood Dependence: A third biological condition that makes extensive
socialization essential for humans is that the human infant need much longer period of physical
dependence and sexual immaturity than other animals. The need to acquire the techniques and
skills of social living further prolongs the dependence. Such longer period of dependence, during
which the child is cared for and controlled by others, results in an intense emotional dependence
that remains throughout life.
Capacity to Learn: A high level of intelligence is an innate human biological potential. Hence,
humans are highly educable; they can learn much more than other animals and can continue to
learn more over a longer period of time.

Language: Man's ability to learn is a function of his capacity for language. Other animals may
have some degree of intelligence but only humans have reasoning capacity because they have
language. Language expresses and arouses emotion; conveys feelings, values and knowledge.
Whether as vehicle for knowledge or for attitude, language is the key factor in the creation of
human society. Symbolic communication, which is possessed only by humans, makes language
possible. Humans innately possess the potential and capacity to create culture and to be guided
by cultural and social norms. At the center of all these is language.

50
Box 3.1. The five human biological bases of socialization

Absence of instinct

Social contact needs

Capacity to learn and teachability

Capacity for language

Longer period of childhood dependence
3.4.Modes of Social Learning
What are the mechanisms by which socialization is accomplished? Fuller answer is not yet found
to this question. Sociologists have, however, identified four modes of social learning. These are:
conditioning, identity taking, modeling-after and problem solving (Ibid.).
Conditioning: This involves learning based on the principle of association. Conditioning refers
to the response pattern which is built into an organism as a result of stimuli in the environment.
There is what is called classical conditioning in which the responseremains constant while the
stimuli vary, as in Pavlovian experiment. In contrast, in operant or instrumental
conditioning, response is controlled. The term "operant" signifies a behavior which is guided by
an anticipated result. Thus, operant conditioning entails the "creation of built-in responses a
result of systematic reinforcement. Conditioning is important in socialization in that through
classical conditioning children learn to respond to various social and man-made stimuli; and
through operant conditioning, they learn to inhibit certain response and adopt others as habitual.

Identity Taking: Studies show that children begin to identify themselves and others by sex and
learn to behave in the normative gendered ways according to the society of which they parts.
This happens by age five. Researchers of socialization believe that sex-typebehavior emerges
through operant conditioning. However, it is not the case that conditioning alone accounts
for sex-differences in behavior, although the individuals take their identity of maleness and
femaleness through approval and disapproval as well as reward and punishment. As their
linguistic and cognitiveskills gradually develop, children begin to learn that they are being called
boys or girls, accept what others label, learn by observation, and report what boys and girls do
and behave accordingly.

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Modeling After: Children learn to model their behavior after someone who is an admired, loved
or feared figure. This is considered as a typical stage in personality formation and in the
development of personal autonomy and social involvement. Through modeling after someone,
our behavior acquires meaning and coherence.

Problem Solving: The above three mechanisms of social learning are ways in which individuals
internalize the values and norms of society. They may be termed as modes of internalization.
However, social learning transcends beyond simply internalizing values and norms. It also
includes learning to involve in cooperative and conflict-ridden activities, to cope with new
situations and to achieve one's goals. Problem solving mode of social learning is essential
particularly in societies where complexity and fluidity dominate the social world. Problem
solving is not to be understood as a kind ofmathematical puzzle solving, but it is one which is
applied to a problematic social situation in which individuals find themselves uncomfortable and
need a context -based response.

While each mode of social learning is important, it is to be noted that each has its own limitation.
No single mode of social learning thus fully accounts for socialization.

3.5. Patterns of Socialization

There are two broadly classified patterns of socialization. These

are: Repressive and participatory socialization. Repressive socialization is oriented towards
gaining obedience, while participatory socialization is oriented towards gaining the participation
of the child. Punishment of wrong behavior and rewarding and reinforcing good behavior are
involved in the two kinds of socialization, respectively. The following is a tabular representation
of the two modes of socialization.

52
3.6. Major Types of Socialization
There are different types of socialization; the major ones
include: primary or childhood socialization, secondary or adulthood socialization, de-
socialization and re- socialization. Other minor types of socialization
include: anticipatory socialization and reverse socialization (Calhoun et al, 1994; Henslin and
Nelson, 1995; Soroka, 1996; Macionis, 1997)

3.6.1. Primary or Childhood Socialization

This is also called basic or early socialization. The terms "primary", "basic" or "early" all signify
the overriding importance of the childhood period for socialization. Much of the
personality make-up of individuals is forged at this period in life. Socialization at this stage of
life is a landmark; without it, we would cease to become social beings. The human infant who is
a biological being or organism is changed into a social being mainly at this early stage. Hence,
children should be appropriately socialized from birth up to particularly five years of age,
because this period is basic and crucial one. A child who does not get appropriate socialization at
this stage will most likely be deficient in his/her social, moral, intellectual and personality
development. Some grew up developing anti-social attitudes, aspirations and practices.
3.6.2. Secondary or Adult Socialization

While socialization is an overbidding issue for children and adolescents, it is a never-

ending process that continues through out life. Secondary or adult socialization is necessitated
when individual take up new roles, reorienting themselves according to their changes social
statuses and roles, as in starting marital life. The socialization process at this stage may
sometimes be intense. For example, fresh college graduates entering the world of work to start
their first jobs, there are quite many new roles to be mastered. Intense adult socialization may
also occur among immigrants.
When they go to other countries, they may need to learn the language, values, norms, and a host
of other custom and folkways, coupled with experiencing economic hardships may prove to be
truly stressful and most challenging. Although it may be fairly stated that childhood socialization
experiences what kind of people we become, the challenges of socialization thus continues in

53
late adolescent and adult stages. This happens to be so particularly in the context of fast changing
world in complex societies.

3.6.3. Re-socialization and De-socialization

In the lives of individuals, as they pass through different stages and life experiences, there is the
need for re- socialization and de-socialization.
Re-socialization means the adoption by adults of radically different norms and lifeways that are
more or less completely dissimilar to the previous norms and values. Re- socialization signifies
the rapid and more basic changes in the adult life. The change may demand abandonment of one
lifeway with a new one, which is completely different from, and also incompatible with, the
former. This quite so often happens as adult life in modern society’s demands sharp transitions
and changes.

De-socialization typically precedes re-socialization. De- socialization refers to stripping

individuals of their former life styles, beliefs, values and attitudes so that they may take up other
partially or totally new life styles, attitudes and values. The individuals have to abandon their
former values and take up new ones in order to become part of the new social group.

De-socialization and re-socialization often take place in what is called total institutions, which
are an all- encompassing and often isolated from the community. They demand a thorough de-
socialization of the new entrants before they assume full-fledged membership. Total institutions
include: mental hospitals, prisons, religious denominations and some other political groups, and
military units. In each case, persons joining the new setting have first to be de socialized,before
they are re- socialized.

Re-socialization may also mean socializing individuals again into their former values and norms,
after they rejoin their former ways of life, spending a relatively longer period of time in total
institutions. This is because they might have forgotten most of the basic values and skills of the
former group or society. This kind of re- socialization may also be regarded as reintegration,
helping the ex-community members renew their memories of their former lifeways, skills,
knowledge, etc.

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3.6.4. Anticipatory Socialization
Anticipatory socialization refers to the process of adjustment and adaptation in which individuals
try to learn and internalize the roles, values, attitudes and skills of a social status or occupation
for which they are likely recruits in the future. They do this in anticipating the actual
forthcoming socialization. It involves a kind of rehearsal and preparations in advance to have a
feel of what the new role would look like. However, anticipatory socialization may not be
adequate when the nature and scope of life transition is complex. It may be difficult to fully
anticipate what will happen.
3.6.5. Reverse Socialization
Reverse socialization refers to the process of socialization whereby the dominant socializing
persons, such as parents, happen to be in need of being socialized themselves by those whom
they socialize, such as children. This idea seems to be associated with the fact that socialization
is a two-wayprocess. It involves the influences and pressures from thesocializes that directly or
indirectly induce change the attitudes and behaviors of the socializers themselves. In reverse
socialization, children, for example, may happen to socialize their parents in some roles, skills,
and attitudes which the latter lack.

Box 3.2. Major types of socialization

Primary or childhood socialization o Secondary or adult socialization

Re-socialization
De-socialization

Anticipatory socialization

Reverse socialization

3.7.Agents and Components of Socialization

Agents of socialization are the different groups of people and institutional arrangements which
are responsible for training new members of society. Some of them could be formal, while others
are informal. They help individual members get into the overall activities of their society.

55
There are three components to socialization process. There is the socializee who could be either a
newborn child, a recruit to the army or the police force or a freshman in a college or an intern in
medical service. Then again there are the socializers who may be parents, peer groups,
community members, teachers or church members. Both the socializee and the socializer interact
with one another not in a vacuum but in a social environment which plays an important role in
the socialization process. These different socializing environments are called socialization
settings. The most socializing agencies are the family, peer relationships, schools, neighborhoods
(the community), the mass media, etc.

The institution of family is generally regarded as the most important agent of socialization. In the
process of socialization, the most important contacts are between a child and his/her parents and
siblings. The contacts could also be between the child and surrogate parents when actual parents
are not available. Besides the child's parents, there are other agents of socialization (in modern
societies) such as day-care-centers,nurseriesand kindergarten, as well as primary and secondary
schools and universities. It seems that these various agents of socialization have partially taken
over the function of the parents, particularly in modern societies,

where women are increasingly leaving their traditional home-based responsibilities by engaging
in employment outside home. The school represents a formal and conscious effort by a society to
socialize its young.

Other than parents and schools, peer groups play very significant roles in the socialization
process. Sometimes, the influence of the peer group, be it negative or positive, can be as
powerful as that of parents. The peer group may transmit prevailing societal values or develop
new and distinct cultures of its own with peculiar values.

The mass media such as television, radio, movies, videos, tapes, books, magazines and
newspapers are also important agents of socialization. The most crucial effect on children comes
from television, as studies show. The effects are both negative and positive. Negative impact
seem to be greater that parents and other concerned bodies worry about the way televisionis

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socializing children. For example, studies show that watching violence on television can
encourage aggressive behavior in children

3.8.Multiple and Contradictory Influences of Socialization

So far, the picture of socialization presented may seem to be biased towards the structural
functionalist view of society and socialization. Hence, it would be useful to add few ideas that
may help balance the picture. In a critical conceptualization of socialization, the contradictory
and ambiguous sources and influences of socialization need to be highlighted.

If we take a good example interesting for health science students, it would be important in this
regard. A case in point could be alcohol and tobacco consumption. Evidences show that the
consumption of tobacco and alcohol is rapidly increasing in the Third world. There are
underlying and contradictory processes of socialization behind this phenomenon. The conflicting
influences arise when on the one hand, families, schools, andmedical institutions warn
youngsters not to consume these products; and on the other hand, the global companies
producing these products are powerfully waging the war of getting the products to the youth,
through the lure of television advertisement.

This example shows us that often conflicting, competing messages pass from the various sources
of socialization. The various agents of socialization are also not accorded balanced share of
power, control and domination.

3.9. Chapter Summary

Socialization is a life long, never ending process whereby individuals are trained and fitted into
the normal functioning of their societies and groups. Onlyhuman beings are biologically capable
for socialization. Thus, biological bases that make socialization in humans possible include:
absence of instincts, social contact needs, capacity to learn, prolonged childhood dependence and
language. Researchers of socialization have identified the mechanisms by which socialization
takes place; these are called modes of social learning. They include: classical and operant
conditioning; identity taking; modeling-after and problem solving. The patterns of socialization

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 vary from society to society; there are two broad patterns of socialization; these are: repressive
socialization which focuses on punishment and reward mechanism, emphasizing obedience of
children; and participatory socialization, which focuses on participating children, by
stressing child-centered socialization.
The goals of socialization include: inculcating basic disciplines, instilling aspirations as well as
disciplines, providing individuals with identities, teaching social roles and their supporting
attitudes, and teaching skills. The major types of socialization are: primary, childhood
socialization; secondary, adult socialization; de-socialization and re-socialization. Other minor
types include: anticipatory socialization and reverse socialization.
Socialization can be carried out at informal and formal levels; of these, informal socialization
through the agency of parents, siblings, peer groups and interpersonal relationships plays a very
powerful role in shaping our attitudes, goals, lifestyles, knowledge and overall personality
development. Other formal agents of socialization also play very important roles; these are:
schools at different levels and mass media, of which television stands out the most powerful
agent of socialization relating to children, often with negative effects.

Review Questions
1.Define the term "socialization".
2.Why are humans biologically capable of socialization?
3.Mention and discuss the goals of socialization.
4.Discuss the mechanism by which social learning in humans takes place.
5.Compare and contrast the two modes of socialization.
6.Mention and discuss the major and minor types of socialization.
7.“A greater proportion of an individual’s personality is a reflection of the type of socialization
process he or she has gone through during primary socialization.” Explain.
8.“Without socialization a person is a mere biological being.” Discuss.
9.Identify the aspects of your personality which you regard as the results of parent socialization, peer
influxes and the mass media,
10.Discuss the negative and positive effects of television as agent of socialization in your life.
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