1.1 General: VOLUME III, Pavement Design Manual Part 3: Gravel Road Pavement Design Guide

VOLUME III, Pavement Design Manual
Part 3: Gravel Road Pavement Design Guide
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 General
Much of the information presented here is based on the "Pavement and

Materials Design Manual" prepared by the United Republic of Tanzania Ministry
of Works 1999, and on relevant ERA (Ethiopian Roads Authority) and TRL
publications. Available information has been modified to provide a simple
procedure to design gravel wearing courses.
Gravel road pavements are generally utilized for roads where design traffic flow
Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT) is less than 300 at the time of construction.
This guide for design of gravel road sets out the standards for pavement design,
and specifies the materials which may be used for gravel roads.
Gravel pavements are designed to a minimum thickness required to avoid

excessive strain at the subgrade level. This in turn ensures that the subgrade is
not subject to significant deformations. At the same time, the gravel materials
themselves should not deteriorate to such an extent as to affect the riding quality
and functionality of the pavement. These goals must be achieved throughout a
specific design period. Deteriorations which affect the riding quality of a gravel
road include rutting, potholes, corrugations, and other such distresses.
Gravel wearing courses must also be designed for an additional thickness to

compensate for gravel loss under traffic during the period between regravelling
operations. Such thicknesses are dependent on the subgrade strength class and
the traffic class.
1.2 Design Principles
1.2.1 Steps to be considered in the Design Process
1. Traffic (Baseline flow and forecast)

2. Material and geotechnical information (Field survey and material
properties)
3. Subgrade (Classification, foundation for expansive soils and material
strength)
4. Thickness design (Gravel wearing course thickness)
5. Materials design
1.2.2 All-weather Access
An essential consideration in the design of gravel roads is to ensure all-

weather access. This requirement places particular emphasis on the
need for sufficient bearing capacity of the pavement structure and
provision of drainage and sufficient earthworks in flood or problem soil
areas (e.g. black cotton).
1.2.3 Surface Performance
The performance of the gravel surface mainly depends on material

quality, the location of the road, and the volume of traffic using the road.
Gravel roads passing through populated areas in particular require
materials that do not generate excessive dust in dry weather. Steep
gradients place particular demands on gravel wearing course materials,
which must not become slippery in wet weather or erode easily.
1.1
Ministry of Works, Housing and Communications
Consideration should therefore be given to the type of gravel wearing

course material to be used in particular locations such as towns or steep
sections. Gravel loss rates of about 25-30mm thickness a year per 100
vehicles per day is expected, depending on rainfall and materials
properties (particularly plasticity).
Performance characteristics that will assist in identifying suitable

material are shown in Figure 6-1.
1.2.4 Maintenance
The material requirements for the gravel wearing course include

provision of a gravel surface that is effectively maintainable. Adherence
to the limits on oversize particles in the material is of particular
importance in this regard and will normally necessitate the use of
crushing or screening equipment during material production activities.
1.3 The Elements of a Gravel Road
The elements of a gravel road pavement are illustrated in Figure 1-1, where the
simpler form of a pavement provided by the wearing course of a gravel road is
shown.
1.2
The mechanisms of deterioration of gravel roads differ from those of flexible

pavement. While the functions of the wearing course still include the protection of
the subgrade, and the wearing course needs to be designed for that aspect, the
potential defects of a gravel road require other considerations in the design.
Typical defects which may affect gravel roads are dustiness, potholes, stoniness,
corrugations, ruts, cracks, ravelling (formation of loose material), erosion,
slipperiness, impassibility and loss of wearing course material. Many of these
have a direct effect on the road roughness and safety.
A major problem of unpaved roads built on steep alignments is the efficient

removal of surface water to the side drains. As the gradients increase, the
problem becomes more acute irrespective of any increase in the crossfall of the
road. The problem of gulley erosion along the center of unpaved roads will be
exacerbated as vertical gradients increase above the value of the crossfall.
A frequent problem on both paved and unpaved roads is the deformation of the
shoulder, which often precipitates the structural failure of the pavement. In many
cases, this is the result of vehicles, particularly heavy lories, standing off the road
due to breakdown or overnight stop and sometimes as a result of passing
vehicles straying off the edge of the road. It can also occur as a result of water
leaving the road surface, but staying on the shoulder because of insufficient
crossfall.
Since corrugations are one of the most disturbing defects of gravel roads (and
one which still causes much debate), an illustration of the likely mechanism of
their formation is worthwhile, and is given in Figure 1-2. In illustration a),
localized areas of the gravel wearing course have slightly lesser cohesion than
adjacent areas, and a result is that the wheel displaces this material towards the
back, at the same time compressing the remaining material at the contact point.
Continuing actions as in a) result eventually in the wheel loosing contact with the
road, as in b). When the wheel regains road contact, as in c), the result is a
magnification of the effects as in a).
1.3
Figure 1-2: The Forced Oscillation Theory for the Formation of Corrugation
A number of the typical defects can be mitigated by an adequate selection of the

materials for gravel wearing courses, which should satisfy the following
requirements that are often somewhat conflicting:
(a) They should have sufficient cohesion to prevent ravelling and corrugating
(especially in dry conditions)
(b) The amount of fines (particularly plastic fines) should be limited to avoid a
slippery surface under wet conditions
These aspects are dealt with in the Specifications and are naturally influenced by
the availability of materials. In design, the thickness requirements for the gravel
wearing course will essentially derive from the combined need to protect the
subgrade and to periodically replace the lost materials.
1.4
2. TRAFFIC
The deterioration of paved roads caused by traffic results from both the magnitude of
the individual wheel loads and the number of times these loads are applied. It is
necessary to consider not only the total number of vehicles that will use the road but
also the wheel loads (or, for convenience, the axle loads) of these vehicles.
Equivalency factors are used to convert traffic volumes into cumulative standard axle
loads.
The mechanism of deterioration of gravel roads differs from that of paved roads and is
directly related to the number of vehicles using the road rather than the number of
equivalent standard axles. The traffic volume is therefore used in the design of unpaved
roads, as opposed to the paved roads which require the conversion of traffic volumes
into the appropriate cumulative number of equivalent standard axles.
2.1 Design Period
Determining an appropriate design period is the first step towards pavement

design. Many factors may influence this decision, including budget constraints.
However, the designer should follow certain guidelines in choosing an
appropriate design period, taking into account the conditions governing the
project. Some of the points to consider include:
 Functional importance of the road

 Traffic volume
 Location and terrain of the project
 Financial constraints
 Difficulty in forecasting traffic
Problems in traffic forecasting may also influence the design. When accurate
traffic estimates cannot be made, it may be advisable to reduce the design
period to avoid costly over design.
2.2 Traffic Volumes
2.2.1 Vehicle Classification
Vehicle classification is an essential aspect of traffic volume evaluation

(as well as evaluation of equivalent axle loads). The types of vehicles
are usually defined according to the following breakdown: cars; pick-ups
and 4-wheel drive vehicles such as Land Rovers and Land Cruisers;
small buses; medium and large size buses; small trucks; medium trucks;
heavy trucks; and trucks and trailers. This breakdown can be further
simplified, for reporting purposes, and expressed in five classes of
vehicles (with vehicle codes 1 to 5) listed in Table 2-1.
2.1
Table 2-1: Vehicle Classification
Vehicle
Type of Vehicle Description
Code
1 Small car Passenger cars, minibuses (up to 24-passenger seats), taxis,
pick-ups, and Land Cruisers, Land Rovers, etc.
Medium and large size buses above 24 passenger seats

2 Bus
Small and medium sized trucks including tankers up to 7 tons

3 Medium Truck
load
4 Heavy Truck
Trucks above 7 tons load
5 Articulated Truck
Trucks with trailer or semi-trailer and Tanker Trailers
It is most often in terms of volumes (e.g. AADT) in each of these 5

classes that the traffic data will initially be available to the designer.
Small cars do not contribute significantly to the structural damage of
roads.
2.2.2 Initial Traffic Volumes
The estimate of the initial traffic volume should be the (Annual) Average
Daily Traffic (AADT) currently using the route (or, more specifically, the
AADT expected to use the route during the first year the road is placed
in service), classified into the five classes of vehicles described above.
Adjustments will usually be required between the AADT based on the
latest traffic counts and the AADT during the first year of service. These
adjustments can be made using the growth factors discussed further
below.
The AADT is defined as the total annual traffic summed for both
directions and divided by 365. It is usually obtained by recording actual
traffic volumes over a shorter period from which the AADT is then
estimated.
Traffic counts carried out over a short period as a basis for estimating
the AADT can produce estimates which are subject to large errors
because traffic volumes can have large daily, weekly, monthly and
seasonal variations. In order to reduce error, it is recommended that
traffic counts to establish AADT at a specific site conform to the following
practice:
i. The counts are for seven consecutive days.

ii. The counts on some of the days are for a full 24 hours, with
preferably at least one 24-hour count on a weekday and one during
a weekend. On the other days 16-hour counts should be sufficient.
These should be extrapolated to 24-hour values in the same
2.2
proportion as the 16-hour/24-hour split on those days when full 24-

hour counts have been undertaken.
iii. Counts are avoided at times when travel activity is abnormal for
short periods due to the payment of wages and salaries, public
holidays, etc. If abnormal traffic flows persist for extended periods,
for example during harvest times, additional counts need to be
made to ensure this traffic is properly included.
iv. If possible, the seven-day counts should be repeated several times
throughout the year.
2.2.3 Determination of Cumulative Traffic Volumes
In order to determine the cumulative number of vehicles during the first

year the road is placed in service, the following procedure should be
followed:
1. Determine the initial traffic volume (AADT 0) using the results of the
traffic survey and any other recent traffic count information that is
available.
2. Estimate the annual growth rate “i” expressed as a decimal fraction,
and the anticipated number of years “x” between the traffic survey
and the opening of the road.
3. Determine AADT1 the traffic volume in both directions on the year of
the road opening by:
AADT1 = AADT0 (1+i)x
2.3
3. SUBGRADE
3.1 General
The type of subgrade soil is largely determined by the location of the road.
However, where the soils within the possible corridor for the road vary
significantly in strength from place to place, it is clearly desirable to locate the
pavement on the stronger soils if this does not conflict with other constraints.
The strength of the road subgrade is commonly assessed in terms of the

California Bearing Ratio (CBR) and this is dependent on the type of soil, its
density, and its moisture content. Direct assessment of the likely strength or CBR
of the subgrade soil under the completed road pavement is often difficult to
make. Its value, however, can be inferred from an estimate of the density and
equilibrium (or ultimate) moisture content of the subgrade together with
knowledge of the relationship between strength, density and moisture content for
the soil in question. This relationship must be determined in the laboratory. The
density of the subgrade soil can be controlled within limits by compaction at a
suitable moisture content at the time of construction. The moisture content of the
subgrade soil is governed by the local climate and the depth of the water table
below the road surface.
3.2 Subgrade Strength
To determine the subgrade strength to use for the design of the road pavement, it
is necessary to ascertain the density-moisture content-strength relationship(s)
specific to the subgrade soil(s) encountered along the road under study. It is also
necessary to select the density, which will be representative of the subgrade
once compacted.
Estimating the subgrade moisture content that will ultimately govern the design,
i.e. the moisture content following the construction, is also required. It is
recommended to determine the moisture content as a first step in the process, as
this could influence the subsequent ones. The optimum moisture content can be
taken as the moisture condition for design purposes.
After estimating the subgrade moisture content for design, it is then necessary to
determine a representative density at which a design CBR value will be selected.
To specify densities during construction, it is recommended that the top 25 cm of

all subgrades should be compacted to a relative density of at least 93% of the
maximum dry density achieved according to BS 1377: Part 4: 1990 (BS Heavy)
or AASHTO T 180. With modern compaction equipment, a relative density of
95% of the density obtained in the heavier compaction test should be achieved
without difficulty, but tighter control of the moisture content will be necessary.
As a result, it is generally appropriate to base the determination of the design

CBR on a density of 95% of the maximum dry density achieved according to BS
1377: Part 4: 1990 (BS Heavy) or AASHTO T 180.
3.1
3.2 Determination of Design Subgrade Strength
3.3.1 Homogenous Sections
Identification of sections deemed to have homogenous subgrade

conditions is carried out by desk studies of appropriate documents such
as geological maps, followed by site reconnaissance that includes
excavation of inspection pits and initial indicator testing for confirmation
of the site observations. Due regard for localized areas that require
individual treatment is an essential part of the site reconnaissance.
Demarcation of homogenous sections shall be reviewed and changed
as required when the CBR test results of the centerline soil survey are
available.
It is thus recommended, as a first step, to conduct compaction tests and

to measure the CBR on samples molded at 100% MDD and OMC, to
guide in the selection of homogeneous sections of a road project.
Following this selection, each typical soil is subjected to a more detailed
testing involving three levels of compaction. The design CBR is then
obtained by interpolation.
Each CBR value is determined by laboratory measurement carried out

for a minimum of three density values to give a CBR - Density
relationship for the material. The CBR value is determined at the normal
field density specified for the respective operation (i.e. a minimum in-situ
density of 95% of the maximum dry density determined in accordance
with the requirements of AASHTO T 180). This method enables an
estimate to be made of the subgrade CBR at different densities and
allows the effects of different levels of compaction control on the
structural design to be evaluated.
The design subgrade strength together with the traffic are then used to
determine the pavement layer thicknesses.
3.3.2 Statistical Analysis
The flow chart in Figure 3-1 shows the procedure to determine CBR design.
The CBRdesign for cuttings is the lowest CBR value encountered for the
homogenous section.
The CBRdesign for sections that do not require special assessment or are
not within cuttings are determined by the 90%-ile value of the CBR test
results. The 90%-ile value for a section of this type is the CBR value
which 10% of the test results fall below. The following example shows
how this is calculated.
1. CBR values are plotted in ascending order (number of tests on the

"x axis" and the CBR test result values on the "y axis");
2. Calculate d = 0.1 x (n-1), where n = number of tests;
3. d is measured along the "x axis" and the CBR design is determined
from the "y axis".
The CBRdesign is the CBR value of a homogenous section, for which the
subgrade strength is classified into S15, S7 and S3 for the purpose of
pavement design. The procedure to determine CBRdesign is shown in the
flow chart in Figure 3-1.
3.2
Site Compilation Demarcation of Minimum

Reconnaissance of input data homogenous 3 CBR
sections tests per
section
Yes
Design improved CBRdesign: Use lowest CBR Cutting?
subgrade as Classify S3, value
required S7, S15
No
No
Minimum
Special 5 CBR
assessment of the tests per
section section
Yes
Determine 90%-ile at Plot values in
the 0.1 X (n-1) point on ascending order
the curve
Figure 3-1: Flow Chart for Design
The subgrade shall be classified according to its CBR strength as shown

in Table 3.1
Table 3.1 Subgrade strength classes
CBRdesign (%)
Density for
Wet or moderate Dry climatic zones
Subgrad determination
climatic zones (both requirements shall be met)
e Class of CBRdesign (%
4 days soaked value Tested at OMC 4 days soaked
of MDD)
value
S15 Min 15 Min 15 Min 7 95 BS-Heavy
S7 7 – 14 7 – 14 3 – 14 93 BS-Heavy
S3 3-6 3-6 2-6 100 BS-Light
“Soaked” and “OMC” refer to standard 4 days soaking and optimum moisture content
BS-Light compaction effort is used on poor in-situ soils and deep in-situ soils rather than BS-Heavy
due to its better correspondence with the actual effect from compaction equipment under conditions
with poor support for compaction.
3.3
Depending on the CBRdesign of the subgrade, improved subgrade layers

shall be constructed as required, on which the gravel wearing course is
placed. Soils used in improved subgrade layers shall be non-expansive,
non-dispersive and free from any deleterious matter. Laboratory test
results shall meet the requirements in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2 Material requirements for improved subgrade layers
Material Properties G15 (Upper Layer) G7 (Lower Layer)
CBR(%), wet or moderate

Min 15 after 4 days soaking Min 7 after 4 days soaking
climatic zones
CBR(%), dry climatic zones

(both requirements shall be Min 15 at OMC Min 7 at OMC
met)
Min 7 after 4 days soaking Min 3 after 4 days soaking
CBR-swell (%) Max 1.5 Max 2.0
PI (%) Max 25 Max 30
Max particle size, dmax 2/3 of layer thickness 2/3 of layer thickness
Compacted layer thickness

Max 250 Max 250
(mm)
CBR-swell is measured at 100% BS-Heavy compaction effort
3.4
4. DESIGN METHOD
The required gravel thickness shall be determined as follows:
1. Determine the minimum thickness necessary to avoid excessive compressive

strain in the subgrade (D1).
2. Determine the extra thickness needed to compensate for the gravel loss under
traffic during the period between regravelling operations (D 2).
3. Determine the total gravel thickness required by adding the above two thicknesses
(D1+ D2).
4.1 Minimum Thickness Required

It is necessary to limit the compressive strain in the subgrade to prevent
excessive permanent deformation at the surface of the road. Figure 6.2 gives the
minimum gravel thickness required for each traffic category with the required
thickness of improved subgrade materials for upper and lower subgrade layers.
4.2 Gravel Loss

According to TRL Laboratory Report 673, an estimate of the annual gravel loss is
given by the following equation:
GL = f T2 / ( T2 + 50) ( 4.2 + 0.092 T + 3.50 R2 + 1.88V)
Where
GL = the annual gravel loss measured in mm
T = the total traffic volume in the first year in both directions, measured in
thousands of vehicles
R = the average annual rainfall measured in m
V = the total (rise + fall) as a percentage of the length of the road
f = 0.94 to 1.29 for lateritic gravels
= 1.1 to 1.51 for quartizitic gravels
= 0.7 to 0.96 for volcanic gravels (weathered lava or tuff)
= 1.5 for coral gravels
= 1.38 for sandstone gravels
The predicted annual loss of gravel is evaluated using the relevant values of
annual traffic, annual rainfall, vertical gradient and gravel constants in the
equation.
The interaction between traffic and rainfall contributes significantly to the loss of
material from a gravel-surfaced road. Erosion is frequently manifested in the form
of longitudinal gullies along the surface of steep roads with gradients higher than
about five percent and this is especially the case in high rainfall areas.
Annual gravel loss on unpaved roads will vary between 10 mm and 30 mm per
100 vehicles per day and will be dependent on climate and road alignment.
4.1
These rates of gravel loss probably only hold for the first phase of the
deterioration cycle lasting possibly for two or three years. They should not be
considered to hold over a long period of time. As the wearing course is reduced
in thickness, other developments such as the formation of ruts will affect the loss
of gravel material. However the rates of loss given above can be used as an aid
to the planning for regravelling in the future.
The total loss of gravel from unpaved roads in developing countries is increasing
annually because of additions to the road network. This problem will become
exacerbated as road networks expand and the sources of good road making
gravel continue to dwindle. Already, haulage distances of up to 80 km for gravel
exist in Africa, and generally haulage distances for material are lengthening in
Africa.
4.3 Total Thickness Required
The wearing course of a new gravel road shall have a thickness D calculated
from:
D = D1 + N. GL
Where D1 is the minimum thickness from Figure 6.2
N is the period between regravelling operations in years
GL is the annual gravel loss
Regravelling operations should be programmed to ensure that the actual gravel

thickness never falls below the minimum thickness D1.
4.4 Crossfall and Drainage

The crossfall of carriageway and shoulders for gravel roads shall be 4 - 6%,
depending on local conditions. This is to ensure that potholes do not develop by
rapidly removing surface water and to ensure that excessive crossfall does not
cause erosion of the surface. Provision of drainage is extremely important for the
performance of gravel roads.
4.2
5. CLIMATIC ZONES
The seasonal rainfall distribution patterns over Uganda and many part of East Africa
within these latitudes can be generalized into the four broad seasons given by East
African Meteorological Department (1963). [Taken from International Journal of
Climatology, Vol. 15, 1161-1177 (1995)]
Season 1, a generally dry period, lasts from December of the preceding year to the
end of February.
Season 2, the main rainy season throughout Uganda and referred to locally as the
‘long rains’ lasts from March to the end of May.
Season 3, which is dry except in parts of northern Uganda, lasts from June to end of
August
Season 4, the second rainy period throughout the country and known locally as the
‘short rains’, lasts from September to the end of November.
For the purpose of gravel wearing course design, Uganda can be considered to have
only one climatic zone (wet zone). All places with mean annual rainfall greater than
500mm are considered to be wet zones and all places with mean annual rainfall less
than 500mm can be considered to be moderate/dry zones.
The mean annual rainfall for Uganda is shown on a map in figure 5.1
UGANDA RAINFALL ZONES

4°N 31° 33°E 35°
SUDAN
1400
E
HIL
RT
BE
1400
AL
1200 800
1000
00
2° 10 1400
1200
0
80
ZAIRE Lake
00 Kyaga
10 400 L. Blean
1
14
00 00
12 1400
00 1400
12
00 1200
14 1200 1
14 400
16 00
00
00 Lake
0° 12 KENYA
George
00
Lake 12 0
0
Edward 10 0
85 00 LAKE
18
VICTORIA 1000 ISOHYTES(m)
0
0
1400
850
120
1 00
0 30 60 90
TANZANYA
TakenFig.
from5.1 Mean Annual
Internatinal JournalRainfall Map
of Climatology,
Taken fromVol.15, 1161-1177(1995)
International Journal of Climatology,
Vol. 15, 1161 – 1177 (1995)
5.1
Figure: 5.2 Map of Uganda Showing Demarcated Rainfall Zones (The rainfall zones
are prepared by the GIS sub unit of the water Resources Management
Department, Entebbe)
5.2
5.3
5.4
6. MATERIAL REQUIREMENTS
6.1 Experience with Local Materials
Knowledge of past performance of locally occurring materials for gravel roads is
essential. Material standards may be altered to take advantage of available
gravel sources provided they have proved to give satisfactory performance under
similar conditions. Materials for gravel wearing course shall comply with the
requirements given in Table 6.1.
Table 6.1 Material Requirements for Gravel Wearing Course
Requirements
Material Properties Climatic Zones
Wet Moderate or Dry
CBR (%) at 95% of MDD (BS Min 25 after 4 days soaked Min 25 at OMC
Heavy Compaction)
% Passing 37.5 mm Min 95
Shrinkage Product, SP
SP = LS X (Percent Pass 0.425 120 - 4001
mm)
Grading Coefficient GC2 16 – 34
Field Dry Density (% of MDD) Min 95
(BS-Heavy Compaction)
1) In built up areas a maximum shrinkage product of 270 is desirable to reduce dust
problems
2) GC = [(% passing 28 mm) – (% passing 0.425 mm)] X (% passing 5 mm)/100
6.2 Marginal Materials

Figure 6-1 illustrates the performance characteristics to be expected of materials
that do not meet the requirements for gravel wearing course. Refinements and
amendments of the standard material specification may be necessary to
overcome problem areas such as towns (dust nuisance) or steep hills
[
(slipperiness).
5000000 Slippery
00
Shrinkage Product, SP
4000000
00 Erodible Good but may be
dusty Ravels
3000000 materials
00
2000000 Good
00
1000000
00 Ravels and corrugates
10 20 30 40
Grading Coefficient, CG
Note: SP = (Linear Shrinkage) x (% passing 0.425 mm)
GC = ((% passing 28 mm) - (% passing 2 mm)x (% passing 5 mm)/100
Figure 6-1. Expected Performance of Gravel Wearing Course Materials
6.1
6.3 Improved Subgrade Layer

In General the use of improved subgrade layers has the following advantages:
 Provision of extra protection under heavy axle loads;

 Protection of underlying earthworks;
 Provides running surface for construction traffic;
 Assists compaction of upper pavement layers;
 Provides homogenous subgrade strength;
 Acts as a drainage filter layer;
 More economical use of available materials.
6.4 Treatment of Expansive Formations

The following treatment operations should be applied on Expansive Formations
for higher class roads of AADTdesign greater than 50 and which are fully
engineered gravel roads:
i) Removal of Expansive Soil
a) Where the finished road level is designed to be less than 2 metres

above ground level, remove the expansive soil to a minimum depth
of 600 mm over the full width of the road, or
b) Where the finished road level is designed to be greater than 2
metres above ground level, remove the expansive soil to a depth
of 600 mm below the ground level under the unsurfaced area of the
road structure, or
c) Where the expansive soil does not exceed 1 meter in depth,
remove it to its full depth.
ii) Stockpile the excavated material on either side of the excavation for
subsequent spreading on the fill slopes so as to produce as flat a slope
as possible.
iii) The excavation formed as directed in paragraph (i) should be backfilled
with a plastic non-expansive soil of CBR value 3 - 4 or better, and
compacted to a density of 95% modified AASHTO.
iv) After the excavated material has been replaced with non-expansive
material in 150mm lifts to 95% modified AASHTO density, bring the road
to finished level in approved materials, with a side slope of 1:2, and
ensure that pavement criteria are complied with; the previously
stockpiled expansive soil excavated as directed under (i) should then be
spread over the slope.
v) Do not construct side drains unless they are absolutely essential to stop
ponding; where side drains are necessary, they should be as shallow as
possible and located as far from the toe of the fill as possible.
vi) Ideally, construction over expansive soil should be done when the in-situ
moisture content is at its highest, i.e. at the end of rainy season.
The following treatment operations may be applied on Expansive Formations for

light traffic class roads of AADTdesign less than 50, i.e. gravel roads which are not
fully engineered:
i) Remove 150mm of expansive topsoil and stockpile conveniently for

subsequent use on shoulder slopes
ii) Shape road bed and compact to 90% modified AASHTO
iii) The excavation formed as directed in paragraph (i) should be backfilled with
a plastic non-expansive soil of CBR value 3 - 4 or better, and compacted to a
density of 95% modified AASHTO in each 150mm layer; the subgrade
material may be plastic but non-expansive.
6.2
6.5 Performance Characteristics of Gravel Wearing Course

The materials for gravel wearing course should satisfy the following requirements
that are often somewhat conflicting:
a) They should have sufficient cohesion to prevent ravelling and corrugating

(especially in dry conditions)
b) The amount of fines (particularly plastic fines) should be limited to avoid a
slippery surface under wet conditions.
Figure 6-1 shows the effect of the Shrinkage Product (SP) and Grading
Coefficient (GC) on the expected performance of gravel wearing course
materials. Excessive oversize material in the gravel wearing course affects the
riding quality in service and makes effective shaping of the surface difficult at the
time of maintenance. For this reason the following two types of gravel wearing
course material are recommended. Type 1 gravel wearing course which is one of
the best material alternatives which shall be used on all roads which have
AADTdesign greater than 50. Type 1 material shall also be used for all routine and
periodic maintenance activities for both major and minor gravel roads. Type 1
gravel wearing course material may be used on new construction of roads having
AADTdesign less than 50. Type 2 gravel weaving course material shall be used for
minor gravel roads which are not fully engineered and which have AADT design less
than 50.
6.6 Gravel Wearing Course Material Specification

Selected material shall consist of hard durable angular particles of fragments of
stone or gravel. The material shall be free from vegetable matter and lumps or
balls of clay.
Type 1
The grading of the gravel after placing and compaction shall be a smooth curve
within and approximately parallel to the envelopes detailed in Table 6-2.
The material shall have a percentage of wear of not more than 50 at 500
revolutions, as determined by AASHTO T96.
The material shall be compacted to a minimum in-situ density of 95% of the

maximum dry density determined in accordance with the requirements of
AASHTO T 180.
The plasticity index should be not greater than 15 and not less than 8 for wet
climatic zones and should be not greater than 20 and not less than 10 for dry
climatic zones.
The linear Shrinkage should be in a range of 3-10%.
Note that the above gradation and plasticity requirements are only to be used
with angular particles and that crushing and screening are likely to be required in
many instances for this purpose.
6.3
Type 2
This material gradation allows for larger size material and corresponds to the
gradation of a base course material. The use of this gradation of materials is
subject to the local experience and shall be used with PIs in a range of 10-20.
Table 6-2
Percent(%) by mass of total
Test Sieve aggregate passing test sieve
Size(mm)
Type 1 Type 2
- 100
50
100 80-100
37.5
- -
28
80 - 100 60-80
20
- -
14
55 - 100 45-65
10
5 40 - 60 30-50
2.36 30 - 50 20-40
- -
2
- -
1
0.425 15 - 30 10-25
0.075 5 - 15 5-15
6.7 Major Gravel Roads (AADTdesign = 50 to 300)
Major gravel roads are roads which are fully engineered and which have a
design AADT greater than 50 and less than 300. It is recommended to use a
gravel wearing course material of grading Type 1 in the new construction of
roads having an AADT greater than 50 and for all routine and periodic
maintenance activities. Type 2 material may be used in the new construction of
roads having an AADT less than 50. Pavement and improved subgrade for major
gravel roads shall be constructed in accordance with Figure 6-2.
6.8 Minor Gravel Roads (AADTdesign < 50)
Minor gravel roads are roads which are not fully engineered and which have a
design AADT (AADTdesign) less than 50. They are normally community roads,
which are constructed by labor-based methods. Usually these roads are
unsurfaced (earth roads). However, for subgrade CBR values less than 5% and
longitudinal gradients of greater than 6%, a gravel wearing course is
recommended. Materials for gravel wearing course shall comply with the
6.4
requirements for Type 2 material for new construction and Type 1 for
maintenance activities. Pavement and improved subgrade for minor gravel roads
shall be constructed in accordance with Figure 6-2.
The CBR requirements may be reduced to 20% if other suitable material is not
locally available and the LA abrasion value may be increased to 55%.
AADT1design
<50 50 - 100 100 - 300

S15 150mm 150mm 150mm
GW GW GW
S7
150mm 150mm GW 150mm GW
GW 100mm G15 150mm G15
S3 Dry/Moderate Wet Zones Dry/Moderate Wet Zones Dry/Moderate Wet Zones
Zones Zones mm Zones mm
mm GW mm GW
mm mm 150 150
150
GW 150
GW
G15 G15
150 GW 200 200
150 GW 150
G15 150
G15
300
G7 200 G7 300 G7
150 G7 150 G7 150 G7
Figure 6-2: Pavement and Improved Subgrade for Gravel Roads for ADDTs < 300
1) Maximum 50% heavy vehicles is assumed. Heavy vehicles are those having an
un-laden weight of more than 3 tonnes, or buses with a seating capacity of 40 or
more.
6.5
7. REFERENCES
1. ETHIOPIAN ROADS AUTHORITY (2000). Pavement Design Manual, Volume 1, Flexible
Pavements and Gravel Roads.
2. TRANSPORT RESEARCH LABORATORY (1993). Laboratory Report 673.
3. THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA MINISTRY OF WORKS (1999). Pavement and

Materials Design Manual.
4. TRANSPORT AND ROAD RESEARCH LABORATORY (1984). TRRL Laboratory Report

1111.
7.1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEFINITIONS.....................................................................................................i
abbreviations.................................................................................................III
1 INTRODUCTION....................................................................................1.1
1.1 General............................................................................................................. 1.1
1.2 Design Principles............................................................................................. 1.1
1.2.1 Steps to be considered in the Design Process.....................................1.1
1.2.2 All-weather Access...............................................................................1.1
1.2.3 Surface Performance............................................................................1.1
1.2.4 Maintenance......................................................................................... 1.2
1.3 The Elements of a Gravel Road......................................................................1.2
2 TRAFFIC................................................................................................2.1
2.1 Design Period................................................................................................... 2.1
2.2 Traffic Volumes................................................................................................ 2.1
2.2.1 Vehicle Classification............................................................................2.1
2.2.2 Initial Traffic Volumes............................................................................2.2
2.2.3 Determination of Cumulative Traffic Volumes.......................................2.3
3 SUBGRADE...........................................................................................3.1
3.1 General............................................................................................................. 3.1
3.2 Subgrade Strength........................................................................................... 3.1
3.2 Determination of Design Subgrade Strength................................................3.2
3.3.1 Homogenous Sections.........................................................................3.2
3.3.2 Statistical Analysis................................................................................3.2
4 DESIGN METHOD.................................................................................4.1
4.1 Minimum Thickness Required........................................................................4.1
4.2 Gravel Loss...................................................................................................... 4.1
4.3 Total Thickness Required...............................................................................4.2
4.4 Crossfall and Drainage....................................................................................4.2
5 CLIMATIC ZONES.................................................................................5.1
6 MATERIAL REQUIREMENTS...............................................................6.1
6.1 Experience with Local Materials.....................................................................6.1
6.2 Marginal Materials............................................................................................ 6.1

6.3 Improved Subgrade Layer...............................................................................6.2
6.4 Treatment of Expansive Formations..............................................................6.2
6.5 Performance Characteristics of Gravel Wearing Course.............................6.3
6.6 Gravel Wearing Course Material Specification..............................................6.3
6.7 Major Gravel Roads (AADTdesign = 50 to 300).............................................6.4
6.8 Minor Gravel Roads (AADTdesign < 50)........................................................6.4
7 REFERENCES.......................................................................................7.1
APPENDICES
Appendix A: Example of Gravel Road Pavement Design

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A
EXAMPLE OF GRAVEL ROAD

PAVEMENT DESIGN

1.1 General: VOLUME III, Pavement Design Manual Part 3: Gravel Road Pavement Design Guide

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What are the main steps in the gravel road pavement design process?

What are the main steps in the gravel road pavement design process?

What factors affect the performance of a gravel road surface?

What factors affect the performance of a gravel road surface?

VOLUME III, Pavement Design Manual

Part 3: Gravel Road Pavement Design Guide

Much of the information presented here is based on the "Pavement and

Gravel pavements are designed to a minimum thickness required to avoid

Gravel wearing courses must also be designed for an additional thickness to

1.2 Design Principles

1.2.1 Steps to be considered in the Design Process

1. Traffic (Baseline flow and forecast)

1.2.2 All-weather Access

An essential consideration in the design of gravel roads is to ensure all-

The performance of the gravel surface mainly depends on material

Consideration should therefore be given to the type of gravel wearing

Performance characteristics that will assist in identifying suitable

The material requirements for the gravel wearing course include

1.3 The Elements of a Gravel Road

The mechanisms of deterioration of gravel roads differ from those of flexible

A major problem of unpaved roads built on steep alignments is the efficient

A number of the typical defects can be mitigated by an adequate selection of the

2.1 Design Period

Determining an appropriate design period is the first step towards pavement

 Functional importance of the road

2.2 Traffic Volumes

2.2.1 Vehicle Classification

Vehicle classification is an essential aspect of traffic volume evaluation

Table 2-1: Vehicle Classification

Medium and large size buses above 24 passenger seats

Small and medium sized trucks including tankers up to 7 tons

It is most often in terms of volumes (e.g. AADT) in each of these 5

2.2.2 Initial Traffic Volumes

i. The counts are for seven consecutive days.

proportion as the 16-hour/24-hour split on those days when full 24-

2.2.3 Determination of Cumulative Traffic Volumes

In order to determine the cumulative number of vehicles during the first

AADT1 = AADT0 (1+i)x

The strength of the road subgrade is commonly assessed in terms of the

3.2 Subgrade Strength

To specify densities during construction, it is recommended that the top 25 cm of

As a result, it is generally appropriate to base the determination of the design

3.2 Determination of Design Subgrade Strength

3.3.1 Homogenous Sections

Identification of sections deemed to have homogenous subgrade

It is thus recommended, as a first step, to conduct compaction tests and

Each CBR value is determined by laboratory measurement carried out

3.3.2 Statistical Analysis

1. CBR values are plotted in ascending order (number of tests on the

Site Compilation Demarcation of Minimum

Figure 3-1: Flow Chart for Design

The subgrade shall be classified according to its CBR strength as shown

Table 3.1 Subgrade strength classes

Depending on the CBRdesign of the subgrade, improved subgrade layers

Table 3.2 Material requirements for improved subgrade layers

Material Properties G15 (Upper Layer) G7 (Lower Layer)

CBR(%), wet or moderate

CBR(%), dry climatic zones