®

Astronomical
Telescope
User Guide

WARNING!!
Never point the telescope directly at or near the Sun at any time.
Observing the Sun, even for a fraction of a second, will result in
instant and ir reversible eye damage. Please ensure minors ar e
supervised by an adult conversant with this real danger when
using telescopes or binoculars.

OPTICAL VISION LIMITED

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Types of Telescope...
f all the many and varied telescopes < The refractor:
O available for use by amateur
astronomers and nature watchers, all
can be categorised into three types: the
This is the type of
instrument that the lay-
man thinks of when
refractor, the reflector & the catadioptric. conjuring up a mental
Each have their relative strengths and weak- picture of a telescope.
nesses, but they all have a common function:
to gather and focus light from distant objects
At the end of the tube
to produce a bright image that may be magni-
fied. In this respect it is the aperture (i.e. the furthest away from the
diameter of the main mirror or lens) of the observer there is an
telescope that performs a critical function. objective lens (or rather
With larger apertures, more light is gathered two glass elements
so fainter objects may be perceived and the sandwiched together
resolving power (i.e. the ability to see fine for reasons to be ex-
detail) is increased. plained in a moment)
that gathers light from
When comparing telescopes of similar type the object under scrutiny,
but of differing apertures, an instrument that to form an image at the
has a main lens or mirror twice the size of other end which is
another gathers four times as much light, not viewed by means of an
twice. We are comparing the collecting areas eyepiece.
of the larger and smaller telescopes, which is
proportional to the squares of the apertures.
The objective lens can-
So, for example, a 120mm telescope gathers
2.25 times (225%) as much light as an instru- not be made of a single
ment of 80mm aperture (120/80 = 1.5, 1.5 piece of glass since
squared = 2.25). such an element is
incapable of bringing
When it comes to seeing fine detail in an light of differing wave-
image, we are simply comparing apertures: lengths to a common
a 120mm telescope will enable you to focus, introducing a
perceive lunar craters, for example, half the prismatic effect that
size of those visible in a 60mm instrument. causes bright objects
No amount of magnification applied to the to be surrounded by
smaller telescope will show you that which false rainbow colours.
will be visible in the larger instrument, though
both images may appear equally sharp. The This undesirable quality
larger telescope merely forms its images out of refractors is virtually
of smaller 'dots'. eliminated by making
the objective out of two
However, the resolving power (as it is cor-
rectly termed) of even the smallest telescope glass elements with
is awesome: a 60mm telescope is capable of optical characteristics
resolving detail as small as a £1 coin at a dis- that effectively 'cancel
tance of 2.35 km - nearly 1.5 miles! out' the false colour.

2
Consequently, an objective lens is a piece of
optical equipment that is difficult to manufac-
ture and explains why refractors are the most
expensive form of telescope, aperture for
aperture. However, a refractor can deliver
exquisite images that are very well corrected
and extremly high in contrast, suitable for
observing fine lunar and planetary detail, or
for separating difficult double stars.
Refractors are well suit-
ed for people on the
move since it is
extremely difficult for
the optical components
to come out of align- ^ The catadioptric:
ment. Also, the lenses The goal of the telescope designer is to pro-
will not need to be duce an optical system that delivers an image
recoated in a lifetime's as free from any aberrations (defects) as
use and maintenance is possible in a package that is compact and
minimal. manageable. This has led to designs incorpo-
rating both reflecting and refracting elements
< The reflector: This to produce an instrument that combines the
is the cheapest form of best attributes of both systems.
telescope, aperture for
aperture, that money Thus, we now see many commercial tele-
can buy. In the form scopes similar to the Maksutov-Cassegrain
most encountered, the system illustrated above that packs a long
Newtonian (after Isaac focal length into a physically short tube, while
Newton's design in preserving the high-contrast imagery associ-
1668) uses a concave ated with refractors of the same aperture.
mirror at the base of the
tube to gather Catadioptric variations of the Newtonian tele-
and focus the scope are currently very much in vogue,
light from the offering compact tube assemblies with conve-
object under nient viewing positions. Since these systems
scrutiny. The often have optical windows sealing the end of
light is i nte rc e p t e d the tube (which would otherwise be open in a
before coming to a conventional Newtonian), the internal optical
focus near the mouth of components are far better protected from the
the tube by a small, flat elements and dust.
mirror inclined at 45° to
the optical axis which Remember that no particular design of tele-
relays the image out of scope is intrinsically better than another
a hole in the side of the tube to a waiting – each is well suited to a wide variety of
eyepiece that magnifies the image in the nor- observational subjects. The important consid-
mal fashion. Since the light is not refracted in eration is that the optics should be accurately
any way, and a mirror reflects light of all manufactured and be precisely collimated
colours equally, there is no false colour from (aligned).
a reflecting telescope.

3
Telescopes & Mounts...
The three legs should be attached to the tripod
head one by one by the three bolts and wing
nuts provided. They should not be overtight-
ened, but just made finger tight. Pay particular
attention to the orientation of each leg prior to
assembly such that the tripod tray bracket is
ALT-AZ facing inward. The tripod may now be placed
on the ground with the legs splayed enough
for the accessory tray to be attached. Adjust
the height of each leg so that the tripod head
is initially kept low for maximum rigidity,
taking note that the thumb screws holding the
legs in place are securely tightened prior to
the next stage.
Next, attach the alt-azimuth/equatorial mount
(depending on your particular model: see the
ALT-AZ ALT-AZ or EQ label with the accompanying
photographs) to the tripod head, followed by
the accessory tray between the tripod legs if
you haven't already done so.
If your telescope mount is fitted with flexible
slow motion controls (e.g. AZ-3, EQ-1, EQ2
and EQ3-2) these may now be attached to the
two small chrome shafts on the mounting via
f all the many and varied telescopes the thumb screws on the ends of the cables,

O available for use by the amateur

astronomers, the mountings that sup-
port them fall into two types - the alt-azimuth
taking care to locate the screw in the
machined 'notch' on each shaft.

and the equatorial. The 'Using your telescope'

section of this booklet that follows will tell you
more about these terms and the actual use of
your instrument, so we will concentrate on
the actual initial assembly and adjustments of
your telescope here.
EQ-5
The initial assembly of your telescope is best
undertaken in daylight with plenty of room to
lay out the components and to familiarise with
the accompanying images to see how the
assembled instrument should look.

4
 screw firmly - the telescope is now balanced
about the polar (right ascension) axis.

(ii) With the counterweight bar horizontal,

ensure that the right ascension clamp is
locked and unlock the declination clamp and
EQ-2 turn the telescope tube so that it is also hori-
zontal. As before, GENTLY release your grip
on the tube and note is there is a tendency for
one end to rise in the air. If so, slowly loosen
the clamps holding the tube and slowly slide
the tube towards the end that rises. Lock the
tube clamp rings once more and see if the
telescope remains horizontal when so posi-
tioned. Repeat this process until the telescope
remains wherever you place it.

The telescope is now balanced about both the

declination and polar (right ascension) axes,
EQ-1 In due course you will add various acces-
sories to the telescope that will slightly alter
the balance position particularly if it is a cam-
era for astrophotography) in which case you
Balancing the Telescope: To eliminate will have to go through processes (i) and (ii)
stresses on the EQ equatorial mounts and to again, but for now you may care to mark the
ensure smooth, judder-free motion of the balance points on the counterweight bar and
telescope the instrument needs to be the telescope tube with small pieces of tape
balanced about both the declination and polar for fast assembly in future.
(right ascension) axis. This is especially im-
portant if you propose to use a motor drive
for astrophotography at a future date.

(i) Locate the right ascension clamp and

loosen it whilst holding the telescope tube.
Turn the telescope about this axis until the AZ-3 EQ3-2
counterweight bar is approximately horizontal.
GENTLY release your grip on the tube and
note if the counterweight has a tendency to
fall or rise: if it RISES, unlock the counter-
weight locking screw and slide it away from
the telescope; if it FALLS , slowly slide the
counterweight towards the telescope side of
the mount. Repeat this process until the
counterweight bar remains in one place with-
out support and clamp the counterweight

5
Attaching the finderscope: (iv) Turn the focuser knobs back or forth until
the image becomes crisp and sharp. Do not
An essential prerequisite for the easy location
be concerned that the image appears upside
of objects on both land and in the sky is the
down (reflecting telescope) or reversed in a
correct location and alignment of the finder-
left to right plane (refractor with zenith prism)
scope that attaches to the tube of the tele-
- this is perfectly natural for an astronomical
scope. It is, in fact, a smaller version of the
telescope since there is no 'up' or 'down' in
main telescope that is designed to have a low
the sky and you will soon get used to it. With
magnification and a wide field of view so that
the image correctly focused you may wish to
the desired target may be easily located. The
use the slow motion controls to perfect the
eyepiece of the finder scope is equipped with
alignment on the distant target.
cross-hairs much like a gun sight marking the
centre of the field of view. (v) Now we can proceed to the Finder. You
will note that the image it offers is upside
Aligning the finderscope: down for the same reasons as that of the
(i) Setup the telescope on its mount outdoors main telescope. Depending on the design of
in the day time and ensure that it is balanced the telescope that you possess, the Finder will
as previously described. You may wish to be attached to the main telescope by a brack-
extend the tripod legs and securely lock them et that will have either three or six radially
again once you have the telescope at a com- spaced adjusting screws: if yours is of the latter
fortable working height. Enlisting the help of type, adjust the front three screws to permit
a friend will aid this process. Select the lowest the tube of the Finder to be held centrally in
magnification eyepiece in the set (this is the the bracket. Once this has been achieved,
one with the largest number engraved on the check that the target is still central to the field
cap: usually 20mm or 25mm) and place it in of view of the main telescope then slowly
the focuser drawtube as previously described. adjust the rear three screws of the finder
bracket until the same object is positioned in
(ii) Select a distant prominent object such as
the centre of the cross-wires in the finder's
the tip of an electricity pylon or the tip of a
eyepiece. Again it may help to have a friend to
church spire, though any distant, well-defined
object will do: the further away the better. In help you with this procedure. Once achieved,
the case of an equatorial mount loosen the ensure that the lock nuts of the Finder adjust-
declination and right ascension clamps, or the ing screws are secure. Now you can loosen
altitude and azimuth locks on the alt-az the locks on the polar (/azimuth) and declina-
mount. Sight along the tube and position it tion (/altitude) axes and practice locating
such that the telescope is pointing towards objects during the day.
the distant landmark.
Telescope basics:
(iii) This first attempt will call for a little trial Calculating the telescope's magnification
and error since the telescope will not be cor-
rectly focused, so as soon as one sees some- The magnifying power of any given telescope
thing blurred through the eyepiece lock the and eyepiece is given by a simple formula that
declination/right ascension clamps (equatorial requires a knowledge of the instrument's
mount )or the altitude and azimuth clamps focal length and that of the eyepiece. As we
(Alt-az mount). Use the slow motion controls have seen, the focal length of an eyepiece is
as necessary to centre the object in the field usually engraved on its cap: 10mm or 25mm,
of view. for example.
6
The focal length of the telescope is usually example would enable us to display the whole
given on a label near the eyepiece focuser and of the Moon's disc within the eyepiece's field
is the distance from the main lens or mirror of view.
to the point at which it forms an image of a
distant object. The magnification of any given How many eyepieces should you have? Three
is ideal - one low, one medium and one high
telescope/eyepiece combination is given thus:
magnification - though two will suffice at a
Magnification = focal length of telescope pinch. A low magnification of 30-50x is
focal length of eyepiece advisable for observing star clusters, galaxies
and nebulae since they are often spread over
For example, a telescope with a focal length of a wide area of sky. Medium magnifications of
1000mm used in conjunction with a 7.5mm 80-100x are convenient for studying the
eyepiece would yield a magnification of 133x craters and valleys of the Moon's surface,
(1000÷7.5 and rounded to the nearest whole seeing the rings of Saturn or Jupiter and its
number), whereas the same instrument used four principal moons. Higher powers of 150-
with a 20mm eyepiece would deliver 50x. It 200x will permit you to scrutinise mountain
follows that the larger the focal length of the peaks and fine lunar detail, the surface features
eyepiece, the lower the magnification it will of Mars or to separate close double stars.
deliver with any given telescope.
You can buy other eyepieces to increase the
Why do we need to use eyepieces of differing versatility of your telescope, or you may care
magnification? Apart from making the image to purchase something known as a Barlow
of the subject larger or smaller, magnification lens that is inserted into the focusing tube
has a bearing on the area of sky (termed the before the eyepiece which doubles the magni-
field of view) that is visible: Higher magnifica- fication - a good way of getting double the
tions have smaller fields of view, which can performance out of each eyepiece!
make finding objects that much more difficult
(especially if your Finder is not correctly As you get more proficient at observing you
aligned) - another reason for spending some will come to appreciate that merely adding
time in daylight perfecting the process as out- more magnification is useless unless the
atmospheric conditions are steady enough to
lined above.
permit their use. On many nights the air may
The field of view in degrees may also be appear steady to the naked eye, but in the
obtained by another simple formula which is telescope the image of a bright planet such as
valid for most types of eyepieces commonly Jupiter or Saturn will appear to shimmer, or
found in amateur hands, thus: the edge of the Moon may appear to ripple;
these are the nights of so-called 'poor seeing'.
Field of view (degrees) = 42
magnification Even on a night of steady air a good general
rule to employ is that you will be approaching
Again, for example, a telescope with a focal the practical limits of your instrument on
length of 1000mm using a 15mm eyepiece most nights when the magnification exceeds
will deliver a magnification of 67x which, twice the aperture of your telescope in
using the formula above, will give a field of millimetres: this means that the maximum
view of 0.63 degrees.To give you some idea working power of an 80mm aperture instru-
of scale, the Full Moon is almost exactly 0.5 ment will be in the region of 160x, or 300x for
degrees in diameter, so our telescope/eyepiece a 150mm telescope.

7
Using your telescop e ...
D
epending on the type of telescope there is provision for slow motion controls in
mount that you possess, there are two both altitude and azimuth — this makes for
ways in which you can move the instru- much finer control when tracking celestial
ment in order to locate and track objects in objects at high power.
the sky. I stress ‘track’ here since, unlike
viewing stationary terrestrial objects, the rota- Alt-azimuth conventions: As has been dis-
tion of the Earth on it’s axis once in 24 hours cussed elsewhere, looking up at the night sky
from west to east causes the sky to make one gives the impression that the observer is at
revolution about the celestial poles in the the centre of a vast hemisphere — the so-
same period (incidentally, if you have not yet called ‘Celestial Sphere’. The stars, Moon and
familiarised yourself with the ‘Get to know the planets all appear to lie on the inside surface
sky’ section of this booklet, now might be a of this hemisphere an infinite distance from
good time to familiarise yourself with some of the observer. This is, of course, an illusion
the concepts contained within it). since the Moon and stars are in reality at
greatly differing distances away from us.
The Alt-azimuth mount: this is the the sim- However, the Celestial Sphere concept has its
plest type of telescope mounting to under- advantages in that it makes it easy to define
stand and, in some senses, to use. There are coordinates for objects in the sky and to pre-
variations that I’ll discuss in a moment, but all dict where a given star or planet will be at any
share the common characteristic that there given time.
are two axes about which the telescope can
be moved which are perpendicular to one Looking at Fig. 1 once more, note that the
another (see Fig.1, page 10). The first axis portion of the Celestial Sphere shown in the
permits the telescope tube to be moved from diagram has been divided up by lines and arcs
horizontal to vertical and is known as the ‘alti- in much the same way as the surface of the
tude’ axis. the second allows the instrument Earth has been divided up into latitude and
to be moved in an arc parallel to the horizon longitude. By careful observation you will
through a complete 360° circuit of the com- note that the star Polaris which resides in the
pass; this is the ‘azimuth’ axis. So, a mount- constellation of Ursa Minor (the Little Bear)
ing permitting motion about both such axes is always appears stationary above the northern
called an ‘alt-azimuth’. horizon at an angle very close to that of the
observer’s latitude. This is because Polaris is
In its most basic form (as provided with the very close to the northern celestial pole and
Astrolux, Lunar-Cadet 1, Mercury-607 & all the other stars appear to circle around it in
Mercury-707) there is usually a ‘slow-motion’ a counter-clockwise direction once every 24
control in the form of a threaded rod that is hours. Lying close to due north means that
operated by a thumbwheel permitting precise Polaris will always have an Azimuth bearing
control of the telescope’s tube in altitude. On close to zero, or 0°. For an observer in the
more sophisticated mounts (such as provided British Isles its Altitude bearing will lie
with the Capricorn 70-2 and the Evostar 90-3) between 50˚ and 55°.

8
The further that one moves across the sky stars in their diurnal paths across the sky.The
from Polaris, the apparent motion of the stars so-called declination axis can remain locked
becomes more evident and their Altitudes and once the desired object has been located.
Azimuths will be continually changing. Taking Unlike the Alt-azimuth system, the coordi-
the star labelled ‘AA’ in Fig. 1, at the instant of nates of objects remain (relatively) fixed and a
the observation its Altitude was 60° and its slightly different convention has to be used.
Azimuth bearing was also 60°. It can be seen
that Azimuths are measured in degrees from Equatorial conventions: the coordinate sys-
due north (0°) through east (90°), south tem is based on projections of the Earth’s
(180°), west (270°) and back to north (360˚ gridwork of latitude and longitude projected
or 0°). Altitudes are measured in degrees over onto the Celestial Sphere. Consequently, a
a maximum range of 90 — objects exactly on star such as Polaris that lies very close to the
the horizon are at 0° and those overhead are northern celestial pole would be always over-
at 90° (it is possible to have Altitudes of neg- head for an observer on the North Pole,
ative sign, but this means that the object is whereas a star such as that labelled ‘BA’
below the horizon and therefore invisible). which lies 90° away from Polaris will be over-
head at some point for an observer on the
The continual changing of Altitude and Earth’s equator. This is known as the star’s
Azimuth as a celestial body rises in the east, Declination and varies from +90° near Polaris
traverses the sky and sets to the west makes to -90° at the opposite celestial pole. The
tracking an object at high magnifications quite other coordinate is termed Right Ascension
a challenge, but it is surprising how soon one and is measured in hours from 0 to 24. Thus,
becomes proficient at doing so. However, star BA has a Right Ascension of 2h and a
should the observer wish to attempt any form declination of 0°.
of time exposure with the telescope to photo-
All telescopes in the Helios range designed for
graph a faint galaxy, for example, then a dif-
prolonged and serious use are mounted in the
ferent type of instrument mounting known as
Equatorial fashion, which as has been
an Equatorial is required.
described makes for far more convenient
viewing. Motorised tracking is available for
The Equatorial mount: the equatorial mount
most models which makes for prolonged
consists of two axes that lie perpendicular to
exposures for astrophotography or lengthy
one another (as per the Alt-azimuth system),
observations of the Moon and planets at high
but one is tilted such that it is aligned parallel
magnifications.
to the Earth’s axis, which means for observers
in the northern hemisphere one axis will
always point close to Polaris in the northern
sky — not surprisingly, this is termed the
Polar Axis. As depicted in Fig. 2 on page 11,
the Equatorial is the mounting of choice if any
form of astrophotography is envisaged. It
also makes the process of prolonged tracking
so much easier since the telescope can be
motorised about the Polar Axis such as to
automatically follow the Moon, planets and

9
10
The equatorial mounting...
Setting up and using an
equatorial mount
he Earth's eastward rotation causes must be very accurately aligned on the celestial

T stars to apparently rotate around a point

in the sky which is a projection of the
Earth's axis, called the celestial pole. A star's
pole. The better this is done, the less requirement
there will be for minor adjustments during
observation.
path through the sky from an earthbound
observer's viewpoint is therefore an arc of this
rotation; it rises in the east towards its highest
Polar axis alignment
altitude (on the local meridian - directly south) (approximate setting)
and then sets in the west. It does not travel in Try to carry out polar axis alignment on a level
a line parallel to the horizon. (Except at the surface, where the location of the tripod (or pillar)
north pole, from where the celestial pole is at feet can be permanently recorded to allow the
the zenith!) telescope to be placed in exactly the same
position for subsequent observations. If a
Telescopes are generaly provided with one of
choice of observing location is limited, try to
two basic designs of mountings. The so called
position the telescope for the best view of the
alt-az allows a telescope to move in altitude
southern sky as possible.
(up/down) and azimuth (left/right). This does
not allow easy tracking of a star's curved path Adjust the angle on the latitude scale of the
through the sky since an alt-az has to move in a polar axis, shown in figure 1, until this
series of vertical and horizontal steps, which for equates to your latitude (previously deter-
the purpose of steady observation, are cumber- mined from an OS map).
some.
For the sake of ease and safety, it is recom-
In the Equatorial, the alt-az mounting is in effect mend that the telescope and its counter-
tipped at an angle, provision being made for the weights be removed from the mounting for
azimuth axis to be aligned to the Earth's rotational this exercise.
axis (towards the celestial pole). This allows a tele-
scope to follow a star by simply countering the The polar axis itself should then be aligned
Earth's rotation in one motion, rather than the north-south, with its upper end facing true
combination of two movements which would be north. (Not magnetic north!) An approximate
necessary with an alt-az. A motive force, either heading can be obtained by sighting along the
manual or motorised, applied to what we must polar axis so that it points towards Polaris.
now call the 'polar' axis, is all that is necessary to With such approximate alignment, the tele-
track a star through the sky. scope should be able to track objects with
In order for this action to follow a star without only occasional corrections on the declination
deviation the polar axis of the equatorial mounting axis.

11
 North Celestial Pole west on the polar axis only as shown in figure 2a)
(near Polaris)
Declination
so that the star is impelled to move from one
Circle side of the eyepiece field to the other. It will
help if you arrange this line of motion to
bisect the eyepiece field (as in figure 2b ).
Polar axis

This procedure can be made easier if a reticle

Right Latitude
Ascension is placed at the eyepiece focus and aligned to
Circle indicate this motion, rather than having to
Movement remember it in the mind's eye.
for altitude
adjustment
The reticle can be a rolled piece of cardboard,
Figure 1 Movement for joined by sticky tape, of such a diameter that
east-west adjustment it snugly fits into the inner barrel of the eye-
piece. A hair or thread is fastened across one
Polar axis alignment end of this cardboard tube, approximately
(precise setting) bisecting it (figure 3a ). A cross hair reticle
may already be supplied with your instrument
The following process will allow tracking (figure 3b ).
without the need for occasional corrections,
and is essential if photography using a
motorised drive is envisioned. If the approx-
imate alignment described above has been
carried out correctly, only very minor adjust- hair or thread
ments in azimuth (north-south line) and polar
axis elevation are now required. These need
to be carried out via observation of a star
through the telescope.
Figure 3

Polar axis elevation

(altitude) alignment Holding the eyepiece up to the light, it should
be possible to insert the reticle until the fila-
Choose a bright star in the east and locate in ment comes into focus. (Note. The insertion
the eyepiece field. Establish the current axial of a reticle is only possible with certain
motion of the telescope by gently moving the eyepiece designs.) The filament, or one of the
telescope tube back and forth, (rotating east- cross hairs, can then be aligned (by turning the
eyepiece) to establish the direction of axial
movement as required (as in figure 4).

a stars motion b
Polar axis

Rotation for reticle

east-west line
axial motion (aligned to
Figure 2 Figure 4 axial motion)

12
Once this line of axial movement has been Having aligned the telescope mount with the
established, set the star at the edge of the Earth's polar axis it now becomes possible to
field and allow it to drift across via its own use the sky's co-ordinate system to find objects
motion. If the star drifts upwards from this not visible to the eye or finder scope.
line (figure 5a ), then the north end of the
polar axis needs to be raised. If the star drifts The setting circles
below this line (figure 5b ), the north end of The sky is plotted in a similar way to the
the polar axis needs to be lowered. Earth's longitude and latitude system, except
This altitude adjustment is shown in figure 1a . that the celestial equivalents are called Right
Ascension (R.A.) and Declination respectively.
Polar axis (azimuth) alignment
Right Ascension is divided into 24 'hours',
Now observe a star in the south and repeat each subdivided into minutes and seconds.
the preceding observation exercise. This Declination is measured in degrees, com-
time, an upward drift (figure 5a ) indicates mencing with +90° at the north celestial pole
that the north end of the polar axis should be (towards which the telescope's polar axis
shifted west; if the star drops (figure 5b ), the points, for northern observers) decreasing to
shift should be east. This azimuth adjustment 0° at the celestial equator.
is shown in figure 1b .
It may be necessary to alternate a few times Below the celestial equator, declinations are
between these two alignment exercises. Once designated as minus, rising from 0° to -90° at
these adjustments have been completed suc- the south celestial pole.
cessfully, a star allowed to drift across the field
should run parallel to the line established by Calibrating the declination circle.
manual axial movement, to point c in figure 5. In order to use the equatorial mount's
(As shown with the reticles in figure 4.) d e clination scale effectively, the declination
It cannot be emphasised enough that the circle needs to be fixed so that pointer indi-
additional adjustments made should be slight cates +90° when the telescope is aimed at
and as the correct alignment is approached the celestial pole.
the tell tale deviations will become harder to
detect. Use the telescope at its highest power to
observe a star whose declination is known.
(All good star atlases should have this
information available. In lieu of such a
source, a list of bright stars easily found in
a a star map appears in the appendix.)

c Keeping the star in the centre of the eyepiece

axial motion line
field, loosen the locking mechanism of the
declination circle. Turn the declination circle
until the star's correct declination is indexed
b
by the pointer and lock the circle. There
should be no need to repeat this exercise - so
long as polar axis alignment is maintained.
Figure 5
13
Using the setting circles
(The following applies to telescopes using a Figure 6
single index on the R.A. circle)
The easiest way to use setting circles is to off-
set from a known position. Set the telescope
on an object whose position is known (i.e. a
bright star in a recognisable constellation -
such as listed in the appendix). Unclamp and
turn the R.A. circle so that the its pointer
indexes the observed object's positional hour
and minute. E.g. In figure 6 , the R.A. circle
has been set to indicate that the initial object
has a listed position of 5 hours 40 minutes.
Figure 7
(The declination circle should read the
object's declination correctly if the polar axis
alignment has been maintained.) It is now
only necessary to move the telescope in both
axes until the R.A. and Declination pointers
index the new object's position.
E.g. In figure 7 , the telescope has been
moved to a new object having an R.A. of 7
hours 30 minutes. If the 'target' is not visible,
delicate 'sweeping' with a low power eyepiece
should bring it into view.

Appendix
Most good star atlases will list the R.A. and Dec. co-ordinates of the principle stars and interesting objects
within each constellation. Below is a list of easily found stars, at least one of which should be visible at
any one time for use as starting points.

Constellation Star Right Ascension Declination

Spring
Bootes Arcturus (α Boötis) 14h 13.4m +19˚ 27'
Virgo Spica (α Virginis) 13h 22.6m - 10˚ 54'
Leo Regulus (α Leonis) 10h 05.7m +12˚ 13'
Summer
Aquila Altair (α Aquilae) 19h 48.3m +8˚ 44'
Cygnus Deneb (α Cygni) 20h 39.7m +45˚ 06'
Lyra Vega (α Lyrae) 18h 35.2m +38˚ 44'
Autumn
Perseus Algenib (α Persei) 3h 20.7m +49˚ 41'
Cassiopea Schedir (α Cassiopeiae) 0h 37.7m +56˚ 16'
Pegasus Markab (α Pegasi) 23h 02.3m +14˚ 56'
Winter
Canis Major Sirius (α Canis Majoris) 6h 42.9m -16˚ 39'
Orion Betelguese (α Orionis) 5h 52.5m +7˚ 24'
Auriga Capella (α Aurigae) 5h 13.0m +45˚ 57'
Taurus Aldebaren (α Tauri) 4h 33.0m +16˚ 25'

14
Tips on observing with your
telescope...
ith the telescope assembled, balanced object in the field of view will begin to slowly

W and polar-aligned as described previously,

you are ready to begin observations.
Decide on an easy to find object such as the
move across the eyepiece field. This motion is
caused by the rotation of the Earth on its axis,
although the planets and stars are for practical
Moon, if visible, or a bright star to become purposes fixed in their positions in the sky. The
accustomed to the functions and operations of platform on which the telescope is sitting (the
the telescope. For the best results during observa- Earth) rotates once every 24 hours under these
tions, follow the suggestions given as follows:- objects. To keep astronomical objects in the field
of view of the polar aligned telescope, simply
● To centre an object in the main telescope, turn the R.A. slow motion control. These objects
loosen the telescope's R.A. and DEC locks. will appear to move through the field more rapidly at
The telescope can now turn freely on its axes. higher powers.
Use the aligned viewfinder's crosshairs and Note: The Declination slow motion control is
re-tighten the R.A. and DEC. locks. only used for centring purposes, not for
tracking.
● If you have purchased an assortment of
eyepieces, always start an observation with a ● Avoid touching the eyepiece while looking
low power eyepiece (e.g. a 20mm or 25mm
through the telescope. Vibrations resulting
eyepiece). Get the object well centered in the field
from such contact will cause the image to
of view and sharply focused. Then try the next
move.
step up in magnification. If the image starts to
become fuzzy as you increase magnification, then
● You should allow a few minutes for your
back down to a lower power as the atmospheric
steadiness is not sufficient to support high powers eyes to become dark adapted before attempting
at the time you are observing. Keep in mind that a any serious astronomical observations. Use a
bright, clearly resolved but smaller image will red filtered flashlight to protect your night
show far more detail than a dimmer, poorly vision when reading star maps or inspecting
resolved larger image. Eyepieces of 20mm and the components of the telescope.
25mm focal length provide a wide field of view,
ideal for general astronomical observing of star ● Avoid setting up the telescope inside a
fields, clusters of stars, nebulae and galaxies. They room and observing through an open window
are probably the best eyepieces to use in the initial (or worse still, a closed window). Images viewed
finding and centring of any object. in such a manner may appeared blurred or dis-
torted due to a temperature difference between
● Once centered, the object can be focused the inside and the outside air.
by turning one of the knobs of the focusing
mechanism. You will notice that the astronomical

15
Get to know the sky...
ince the dawn of mankind there have since many are confusingly covered with

S been independent thinkers who have

sought to understand the nature of the
Universe and our relationship to it. It is per-
lines, labels which frequently fail to give any
indication as to how large a constellation (or
star group) will appear to the naked eye.
haps the city or suburban observer who feels
the call of the cosmos most intensely when he Joining the dots... : If you were good at see-
or she experiences the majesty of the night ing the pictures in those dotty puzzles that we
sky from a truly rural location for the very first used to draw around as a child, then you will
time. Assuming that you have been overawed have a distinct advantage when it comes to
by a similar experience, how do you go about recognising and remembering constellation
becoming an astronomer? Perhaps the first patterns! It is as well to note that the constel-
step should be a trip to your local library to lation outlines are entirely arbitrary – the
find out where and when your local astro- familiar figures of Hercules, Leo and Orion are
nomical society meets. There are over a hun- but three of the eighty-eight groups known to
dred such groups in the United Kingdom astronomers that are largely the result of the
alone, so there is bound to be a town near you classicists' fertile imaginations. Note, too,
that has one. that the stars of any given constellation are
not necessarily associated with one another:
Getting started: When we leave the cosy con- they are in reality at greatly differing distances
fines of the living room and enter the realm of from us.
the night we lose many of our everyday
frames of reference when we look up at the Finding that first constellation: A casual look
broad expanse of the sky. Familiar visual at the moonless night sky, particularly from a
clues to judge size and distance are useless
rural location, will reveal so many thousands
against the starry background where every-
of stars that the absolute beginner will feel
thing is so exceedingly remote as to be an
utterly lost and bewildered. However, the way
infinite distance away. In fact, it is convenient
to imagine the stars as being fixed upon the to start is to locate a particularly prominent
inside surface of a vast hemisphere, or dome, star pattern and use it as a starting point. For
of infinite radius centred on your location - the winter observer there is no better celestial
this concept is known as the celestial sphere, marker than the constellation of Orion, which
and it must be said that from a pitch-black straddles the celestial equator and is therefore
location the heavens do, indeed, appear to be visible from anywhere on the surface of the
an enormous dome above our heads and rest- Earth.
ing on the horizon.
Over the years astronomers have convenient- Getting a sense of scale: Using a star chart
ly divided up the celestial sphere into grids from a monthly magazine that depicts the sky
much like that of the lines of latitude and lon- to the east in December you will get an
gitude that crisscross a terrestrial globe, such impression of how large Orion appears in
that all objects in the sky can be given a pre- relation to the other constellations that border
cise coordinate for later reference. When you it, but just how big will it seem to the unaided
become more proficient in your observing eye? To get a sense of scale it is very conve-
you will refer to detailed "road maps" of the nient to use the outstretched hand at arms
stars that will use these very coordinate sys- length as a convenient guide. You will discov-
tems, but for now you need not worry about er that the distance from the tip of your little
them. Star charts are of little use to the novice finger to that of your thumb will be just sufficient
16
to cover the seven principal stars that delin- A further hand span to the upper left brings
eate the figure of Orion. you to the celestial twins of Gemini, Castor
and Pollux.
If we wish to be a little bolder we can relate
the span of our outstretched hand to actual Another very familiar pattern visible through-
angular measure. It so happens that the span out the year is the constellation of Ursa Major,
of our hand corresponds to just over 20 or the Great Bear. Also known as the 'Plough'
degrees (the symbol for degree is°), while the or the 'Big Dipper', the seven stars that com-
length of our thumb is about 7°. This latter prise this easily identified pattern lie low to
figure conveniently matches the field of view the northern horizon in winter months. Like
of a low power pair of binoculars of the 7x50 Orion, the main part of this constellation sub-
or 8x30 variety (incidentally, all binoculars are tends about the width of an outstretched hand
labelled XX x YY, where XX is the magnifica- at arms length. In this fashion you can use the
prominent seasonal star groups as a kind of
tion and YY is the diameter of the from lenses
framework, then you can fill in the fainter con-
in millimetres). stellations as your knowledge grows – and
rest assured it will.
The length of a thumb at arms length – 7°–
it's not a great deal, is it? If you have a pair of
Broadening your horizons: Assuming that
binoculars then perhaps now you can appre-
ciate just how small an area of sky is revealed you feel confident in identifying the stars visible
to you at any one time, and why it can be a in any particular season, preferably with the
problem finding objects. Contrast this with help of members of your local astronomical
the field of view of a typical astronomical tele- society and the star charts of a magazine,
scope which is in the region of half a degree, then you may have already been introduced to
or the apparent width of the Full Moon. It may the pleasures of binocular or telescopic
surprise many of you to discover that the astronomy. Having 'served your apprentiship',
angular size of the Moon is so small (it can be so to speak, you will be in a better position to
covered by the equivalent of your little finger appreciate the true potential of any given optical
nail at arms length) – the proverbial man in instrument. As was mentioned earlier, the art
the street would probably say that the Moon of observing is a skill to be acquired with con-
is as big as tennis ball or a small plate. If you stant practice, and in some individuals this
don't believe me, try it! faculty has been developed to an extraordi-
nary degree such that they can perceive a
Back to the constellations and naked eye
celestial interloper such as a nova or comet at
viewing. Once we are confident that we have
a glance.
located, say, Orion (hint: the three so-called
'belt stars' at the centre of the pattern are the Streetlights and light pollution: If you are
real giveaway), then we can use the figure as fortunate to live in a rural area that is not
a stepping stone to the adjacent constella- plagued by streetlighting, then your view of
tions. For example, just over a handspan the heavens will not be impaired. However, for
above the belt of Orion brings you to the the observer living in city or suburban areas
prominent orange star Aldebaran (pronounced the subtle phenomena of the skies are largely
'Al-deh-bah-ran', which means "follower" in lost – this is why the clear, dark skies of coun-
Arabic) in the constellation of Taurus, the Bull. try areas are such a revelation to many town
With Orion's belt low to the south-east, we dwellers: there is so much to see when the
can move one and a half hand spans to the left veil of light pollution has been lifted! So how
parallel to the horizon to encounter the bright can we alleviate the problem? Other than lob-
star Procyon (pronounced 'Pro-sigh-on') in bying your Local Authority or private compa-
the constellation of Canis Minor, the Lesser Dog. nies responsible, it is possible to invest in

17
special filters that can almost magically (or 'B' setting) setting, a standard 50mm lens,
remove the orange cast to the sky created by a fast colour (or B/W, it's up to you) film, tri-
sodium streetlights revealing a dark, star- pod and cable release.
studded sky beyond. These filters are not
cheap – you can spend £100 quite easily for The film you will need can be print or trans-
two for a pair of binoculars – but to the tele- parency (slide), but you need to buy one with
scope user they are almost mandatory for any a speed of about ISO 400 (ASA). With a
serious work concerned with hunting for 50mm lens set to its widest aperture of f/1.4
galaxies and faint nebulae. or f/2 and focused at infinity we can capture
stars fainter than those we can see with the
For the lunar and planetary observer, howev- naked eye over an area of sky that encom-
er, it is a very different story. The Moon is passes two spans of the outstretched hand at
never impaired by the streetlight's glow arms length, or about 40 degrees.
(though the delicacy of earthshine on a very
young crescent moon to the west shortly after Since the camera is more sensitive than the
sunset may be lost) and the bright planets eye to faint light, we have to very careful to set
such as Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn may our camera and tripod well away from any
all be comfortably observed even from the direct street or security lighting - standing in
heart of a city. One word of warning, though – the shade of a fence or wall will usually do the
if you have to set your telescope up on tarmac trick. It is also a good idea to tell members or
or concrete, especially after a warm day, the your household that you are going out to do
ground can reradiate absorbed heat after dark some astrophotography, so that the bathroom
that causes a shimmering effect in the tele- light does not come on unexpectedly, flooding
scope, rather like looking through running your back garden with light and ruining your
water. carefully obtained exposure!

This rippling effect is caused by air currents One accessory that you will find immensely
circulating in and around the telescope that useful is a small flashlight fitted with a dim
distorts the image. Always position a tele- red bulb or a red filter over the lamp. The pre-
scope outside for half an hour or so (security cious dark adaption that you gain through
willing, of course) prior to commencing being in pitch blackness for a period of 15
observing so that optics and conditions can minutes or more is less affected by red light
settle down such that you will get the best than any other, so it is excellent for making
views. Once you have a powerful telescope notes or ensuring that you camera has been
you will notice that the air is very unsettled correctly set without ruining your night
on some nights, even after standing the tele- vision.
scope out for its cooling-off period. The fault
then lies in the upper atmosphere and you will
have to leave detailed planetary viewing to Taking the exposures: With your subject suit-
another night! ably framed within the viewfinder (all but the
brighter stars will be difficult to see with the
Photography: Sooner of later you will feel the screen of some SLR cameras) make sure that
desire to capture some of the beauty of the the lens of the camera is wide open, the dis-
night sky on film to show to friends and rela- tance scale set to infinity and the cable release
tives. You may be surprised to learn that an is firmly screwed in. With the palm of your
expensive camera and sophisticated drive hand held covering the lens (but NOT touch-
system to follow the stars in the diurnal ing the camera), open the shutter with the
courses is not necessary in order to get very cable release and lock it. Now briskly move
attractive pictures of the constellations: all your hand to one side to start the exposure
that you need is a 35mm camera with a manual without jogging the camera - this technique is

18
a simple way to avoid camera shake which make sure that the technician knows that your
ruins many a time exposure. subject matter is astronomical since it is very
frustrating to return to pick up your hard-
So how long should you leave the lens uncov- earned snaps only to be told that the roll was
ered? Under dark skies with ISO 400 film and unexposed - they're just not used to seeing
a 50mm f/2.8 lens you can expose for up to tiny white dots! Just tell them to print all
about 20 seconds before the motion of the frames regardless. If you can intersperse the
stars becomes evident as small trails on the pictures with everyday terrestrial scenes then
film. However, if the sky is exceptionally dark so much the better, since this makes it easier
and the camera is pointed toward the north, for them to note the edge of a frame - nothing
especially in the vicinity of the Pole Star, is more infuriating than an otherwise perfect
Polaris, then you may take exposures up to night sky scene negative that has been care-
two minutes or more since the diurnal motion lessly cut in half.
of the stars are much less pronounced there.
To finish the exposure, place your palm in With practice you will be able to photograph
front of the lens (again without jogging the scenes of great beauty, especially if you have
camera) and unlock the cable release. used colour film to capture the myriad
colours of the stars. You may notice, too, that
If you are feeling artistic then it always pays to you have photographed things that you didn't
have some foreground subject to 'frame' the notice at the time, like the streak of a meteor
stars. A gnarled old Oak tree devoid of leaves as it burned up in our atmosphere in a flash
with its 'fingers' stretching to the sky would of incandescence or the longer trail of an
make a good silhouette for an atmospheric artificial satellite as passed through the
picture! A word about processing: with the camera's field of view. Rarer sights such as
advent of the high street 1 hour processing moonbows and aurorae may also be captured
booth you can get very quick results with by the attentive astrophotographer armed
print films that use the C41 process. But do with no more than their tripod mounted camera.

CLEANING
As with any quality optical instrument, lens or mirror surfaces should be
cleaned as infrequently as possible. Front surface aluminised mirrors, in
particular, should only be cleaned when absolutely necessary. In all cases avoid
touching any mirror surface. A little dust on the surface of a mirror or lens
causes negligible loss of performance and should not be considered reason
to clean the surface. When lens or mirror cleaning does become necessary,
use a soft camel-hair brush or compressed air to gently remove the dust.
If a telescope's dust cover is replaced after each observing session, cleaning
of the optics will seldom be required.

19
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