CHAPTER 2: CONTINUOUS PROBABILITY

DISTRIBUTIONS
Continuous Probability Distribution or Probability Density Functions, f
- The graphic form of the probability distribution for a continuous random variable x is
a smooth curve that might appear as shown in the accompanying figure. This curve, a
function of x, is denoted by the symbol f(x) and is variously called a probability
density function, pdf, or a probability distribution.

f(x)

a Mean x
Median
Mode b

- The areas under a probability distribution correspond to probabilities for x. For

example, the area A beneath the curve between the two points a and b, as shown in
the above diagram, is the probability that x assumes a value between a and b, (a  X
 b). Because there is no area over a point, say x = a, it follows that the probability
associated with a particular value of x is equal to 0; that is, P(X = a) = 0 and hence
P(a< X < b) = P(a  X  b). In other words, the probability is the same regardless
of whether you include the endpoints of the interval. Also, because areas over
intervals represent probabilities, it follows that the total area under a probability
distribution, the probability assigned to all values of x, should equal 1. Note that
probability distributions for continuous random variables possess different shapes
depending on the relative frequency distributions of real data that the probability
distributions are suppose to model.

Properties of the Probability Density Function, pdf

1. Since we cannot have negative probabilities, the graph of f cannot dip below the x-
axis.
 f(x)  0
2. The probability of X taking a value in the interval (a, b) is given by the corresponding
area. Since the area between any curve and the x-axis is given by the integral of that
curve with respect to x, we therefore have:
b
P(a < x < b) =  a
f ( x )dx

probability density
f(x) f(x)

c a b d x

3. The total of a set of relative frequencies is, by definition, equal to 1. The same is true
for probabilities. The total area between the graph of f(x) and the x-axis is therefore
1.

1
 d

c
f ( x ) dx = 1
where the limits of the integral are the end-points of the interval for which f is non-zero
(Refer to the above figure).

Mathematical Expectation/Mean, and Variance

  E(X) =  xf ( x) dx when X is continuous.
- In general, the expected value of a function g(x) of the random variable X is given by

E[g(x)] =   g ( x ) f ( x ) dx if X is continuous.

Variance, Var(X)
 2
    x  
2
f ( x ) dx


= E(X ) – [E(x)]2
2
when X is continuous

where E(X ) =  
2 x 2
f ( x )dx

- The standard deviation of a random variable (either discrete or continuous) is equal to

the square root of the variance, i.e.    2
- Note that Var(X)  0

The Normal Distribution

- The normal random variable has a symmetrical bell-shaped probability distribution.
- Formally, a normal distribution is a unimodal symmetric continuous distribution
having two parameters,  (the mean), and  2 (the variance). Because of the
symmetry, the mean is equal to both the mode and the median. [X ~ N(  ,  2 )].
- The probability that a continuous random variable assumes a value in the interval a to
b is equal to the area under the probability density function between the points a and
b.

The Standard Normal Distribution

- The distribution of a normal random variable with mean zero and variance 1 is called
a standard normal distribution.
Z ~ N(0, 1)
- The standard normal random variable Z is defined by the formula
X 
Z=


where X is a normal random variable with mean  and standard deviation .

e.g.1 P(Z<-1.549)
e.g.2 P(-1.3<Z<2.0)
e.g.3 The random variable Z has a standard normal distribution. Determine the
value of a, where P(Z<a) = 0.9953.

Probabilities for other normal distributions

- Suppose X~N(  ,  2 ). It can be shown that, if we use the transformation:
X 
Z=

then Z~N(0, 1). This is equivalent to the change of location and scale referred to a
standard normal distribution. Thus:
X  x
P(X< x ) = P( < )
 

2
 x
= P( Z < )


e.g.4 If X~N(8, 4), find P(X<10).

e.g.5 The speeds of cars traveling on a highway are normally distributed with a mean of 69
miles per hour and a standard deviation of 3.5 miles per hour (mph). Find the
probability of the cars traveling on this highway will have a speed of
(a) 61 to 66 miles per hour
(b) more than 65 miles per hour
(c) 95% of the cars traveled with a speed of at most x mph on this highway. Find the
value of x.

STA2204.chap2

THE DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION F(z) OF

THE NORMAL DISTRIBUTION N(0, 1)

z 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

3
 ADD
0.0 .5000 .5040 .5080 .5120 .5160 .5199 .5239 .5279 .5319 .5359 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36
0.1 .5398 .5438 .5478 .5517 .5557 .5596 .5636 .5675 .5714 .5753 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36
0.2 .5793 .5832 .5871 .5910 .5948 .5987 .6026 .6064 .6103 .6141 4 8 12 15 19 23 27 31 35
0.3 .6179 .6217 .6255 .6293 .6331 .6368 .6406 .6443 .6480 .6517 4 7 11 15 19 22 26 30 34
0.4 .6554 .6591 .6628 .6664 .6700 .6736 .6772 .6808 .6844 .6879 4 7 11 14 18 22 25 29 32

0.5 .6915 .6950 .6985 .7019 .7054 .7088 .7123 .7157 .7190 .7224 3 7 10 14 17 20 24 27 31
0.6 .7257 .7291 .7324 .7357 .7389 .7422 .7454 .7486 .7517 .7549 3 7 10 13 16 19 23 26 29
0.7 .7580 .7611 .7642 .7673 .7704 .7734 .7764 .7794 .7823 .7852 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27
0.8 .7881 .7910 .7939 .7967 .7995 .8023 .8051 .8078 .8106 .8133 3 5 8 11 14 16 19 22 25
0.9 .8159 .8186 .8212 .8238 .8264 .8289 .8315 .8340 .8365 .8389 3 5 8 10 13 15 18 20 23

1.0 .8413 .8438 .8461 .8485 .8508 .8531 .8554 .8577 .8599 .8621 2 5 7 9 12 14 16 19 21
1.1 .8643 .8665 .8686 .8708 .8729 .8749 .8770 .8790 .8810 .8830 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
1.2 .8849 .8869 .8888 .8907 .8925 .8944 .8962 .8980 .8997 .9015 2 4 6 7 9 11 13 15 17
1.3 .9032 .9049 .9066 .9082 .9099 .9115 .9131 .9147 .9162 .9177 2 3 5 6 8 10 11 13 14
1.4 .9192 .9207 .9222 .9236 .9251 .9265 .9279 .9292 .9306 .9319 1 3 4 6 7 8 10 11 13

1.5 .9332 .9345 .9357 .9370 .9382 .9394 .9406 .9418 .9429 .9441 1 2 4 5 6 7 8 10 11
1.6 .9452 .9463 .9474 .9484 .9495 .9505 .9515 .9525 .9535 .9545 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1.7 .9554 .9564 .9573 .9582 .9591 .9599 .9608 .9616 .9625 .9633 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7 8
1.8 .9641 .9649 .9656 .9664 .9671 .9678 .9686 .9693 .9699 .9706 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 6
1.9 .9713 .9719 .9726 .9732 .9738 .9744 .9750 .9756 .9761 .9767 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 5

2.0 .9772 .9778 .9783 .9788 .9793 .9798 .9803 .9808 .9812 .9817 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
2.1 .9821 .9826 .9830 .9834 .9838 .9842 .9846 .9850 .9854 .9857 0 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 4
2.2 .9861 .9864 .9868 .9871 .9875 .9878 .9881 .9884 .9887 .9890 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3
2.3 .9893 .9896 .9898 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
.9901 .99036 .99061 .99086 3 5 8 10 13 15 18 20 23
.99111 .99134 .99158 2 5 7 9 12 14 16 18 21
2.4 .99180 .99202 .99224 .99245 .99266 2 4 6 8 11 13 15 17 19
.99286 .99305 .99324 .99343 .99361 2 4 6 7 9 11 13 15 17

2.5 .99379 .99396 .99413 .99430 .99446 .99461 .99477 .99492 .99506 .99520 2 3 5 6 8 9 11 12 14
2.6 .99534 .99547 .99560 .99573 .99585 .99598 .99609 .99621 .99632 .99643 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 10
2.7 .99653 .99664 .99674 .99683 .99693 .99702 .99711 .99720 .99728 .99736 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
2.8 .99744 .99752 .99760 .99767 .99774 .99781 .99788 .99795 .99801 .99807 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 6
2.9 .99813 .99819 .99825 .99831 .99836 .99841 .99846 .99851 .99856 .99861 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4

3.0 .99865 .99869 .99874 .99878 .99882 .99886 .99889 .99893 .99896 .99900 0 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 4
3.1 .93032 .93065 .93096 3 6 9 13 16 19 22 25 28
.93126 .93155 .93184 .93211 3 6 8 11 14 17 20 22 25
.93238 .93264 .93289 2 5 7 10 12 15 17 20 22
3 3 3 3 3
3.2 .9 313 .9 336 .9 359 .9 381 .9 402 2 4 7 9 11 13 15 18 20
.93423 .93443 .93462 .93481 .93499 2 4 6 8 9 11 13 15 17
3 3 3 3 3
3.3 .9 517 .9 534 .9 550 .9 566 .9 581 2 3 5 6 8 10 11 13 14
.93596 .93610 .93624 .93638 .93651 1 3 4 5 7 8 9 10 12
3 3 3 3
3.4 .9 663 .9 675 .9 687 .9 698 .9 709 .93720 .93730
3
.93740 .93749 .93758 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

3.5 .93767 .93776 .93784 .93792 .93800 .93807 .93815 .93822 .93828 .93835 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7
3
3.6 .9 841 .93847 .93853 .93858 .93864 .93869 .93874 .93879 .93883 .93888 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 5
3
3.7 .9 892 .93896 .9390 .9404 .9408 .9412 .9415 .9418 .9422 .94250
4 4 4 4
3.8 .9 28 .9 31 .9 33 .9 36 .9438 .9441 .9443 .9446 .9448 .94500
3.9 .9452 .9454 .9456 .9458 .9459 .9461 .9463 .9464 .9466 .94670
For negative values of z use F(z) = 1 - F(-z)