BMS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & MGMT.

Yelahanka, Bangalore-64

Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering

VI SEMESTER

10EEL68 –CONTROL SYSTEM LAB

LABORATORY MANUAL

NAME OF THE STUDENT :

BRANCH :

UNIVERSITY SEAT NO. :

SEMESTER & SECTION :

BATCH :
DEPT. OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGG. BMSIT

Vision of the Department

To emerge as one of the finest Electrical & Electronics Engineering Departments

facilitating the development of competent professionals, contributing to the
betterment of society.

Mission of the Department

Create a motivating environment for learning Electrical Sciences through teaching,

research, effective use of state of the art facilities and outreach activities.

Program Educational Objectives

Graduates of the program will,

Have successful professional careers in Electrical Sciences, and IT enabled areas

PEO1
and be able to pursue higher education.
Demonstrate ability to work in multidisciplinary teams and engage in lifelong
PEO2
learning.
PEO3 Exhibit concern for environment and sustainable development.

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Program Outcomes:

After the successful completion of the course, the graduate will be able to

1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering problems.

2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics,
natural sciences, and engineering sciences.

3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and

design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.

4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and research

methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of the
information to provide valid conclusions.

5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern
engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering activities
with an understanding of the limitations.

6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess
societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to the
professional engineering practice.

7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering

solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for
sustainable development.

8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and
norms of the engineering practice.

9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader
in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.

10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the

engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write
effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive
clear instructions.

11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and
leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.

12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage in
independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.

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COURSE OUTCOMES:

After the successful completion of the course, the student will be able to
1. Execute time response analysis of a second order control system using MATLAB
2. Analyze and interpret stability of the system through Root Locus, Bode plot and Nyquist plot.
3. Design Lag, Lead, Lead-Lag compensators and verify experimental results using MATLAB.
4. Analyze toque- speed characteristics of DC and AC servomotors.
5. Analyze the effect of P, PI, PD and PID controllers on a control system.

CO – PO Mapping:

PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12
CO1 3 3 1 2 3 2 1
CO2 3 3 1 2 3 2 1
CO3 3 3 3 2 3 2 1
CO4 3 3 2 2 1
CO5 3 3 3 2 3 2 1

3- Strongly Related 2- Moderately Related 1-Weakly Related

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SYLLABUS
Subject Code: 10EEL68 IA Marks: 25
No. of Practical Hrs/ Week: 03 Exam Hours: 03
Total No. of Practical Hrs: 42 Exam Marks: 50

1. Using MATLAB/SCILAB
a) Simulation of a typical second order system and determination of step response and evaluation of
time domain specifications
b) Evaluation of the effect of additional poles and zeroes on time response of second order system
c) Evaluation of effect of pole location on stability
d) Effect of loop gain of a negative feedback system on stability

2. (a) To design a passive RC lead compensating network for the given specifications, viz., the
maximum phase lead and the frequency at which it occurs and to obtain its frequency response.
(b) To determine experimentally the transfer function of the lead compensating network.

3. (a) To design RC lag compensating network for the given specifications., viz., the maximum
phase lag and the frequency at which it occurs, and to obtain its frequency response.
(b) To determine experimentally the transfer function of the lag compensating network.

4. Experiment to draw the frequency response characteristic of a given lag- lead compensating
network.

5. To study the effect of P, PI, PD and PID controller on step response of a feedback control system
(Using control engineering trainer/process control simulator).Verify the same by simulation.

6. a) Experiment to draw the speed – torque characteristic of a two - phase A.C. servomotor.
b) Experiment to draw speed torque characteristic of a D.C. servomotor.

7. To determine experimentally the frequency response of a second -order system and evaluation of
frequency domain specifications.

8. Using MATLAB/SCILAB
a) Simulate a D. C. position control system and obtain its step response
b) To verify the effect of the input wave form, loop gain system type on steady state errors.
c) To perform a trade-off study for lead compensation
d) To design a PI controller and study its effect on steady state error

9. Using MATLAB/SCILAB
a) To examine the relationships between open-loop frequency response and stability , open loop
frequency and closed loop transient response
b) To study the effect of addition closed loop poles and zeroes on closed loop transient response

10. Using MATLAB/SCILAB

a) Effect of open loop and zeroes on root locus contour
b) To estimate effect of open loop gain on the transient response of closed loop system by using
Root locus
c) Comparative study of Bode, Nyquist and Root locus with respect to Stability.

11. Experiment to draw to syncro pair characteristics.

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DO’S AND DON’TS IN THE LABORATORY

DO’S:

1. All students must wear uniform compulsory.

2. Must follow the schedule time, late comers will not be permitted.
3. Personal belongings should be placed in the specified place
4. Silence & tidiness should be maintained in the Lab.
5. Cycle of experiments should be followed.
6. Students are expected to come prepared for experiments &VIVA.
7. Handle all the equipments with care & strictly follow the instructions.
8. Check the circuit connections properly & get it checked, verified by staff in-charge before
switch it ON.
9. Equipments should be switched OFF and chairs should be placed back in position before
leaving the lab.
10. Separate Lab observation book should be maintained. Details regarding observation &
relevant information about the experiments should be maintained.
11. Get the observation book signed from the staff-in-charge before leaving the lab.
12. Switch OFF & remove all connections, return instruments before leaving the lab.
13. Practical records should be submitted regularly with complete information (circuit diagram,
theory… etc).

DON’TS:

1. Don’t come late to the lab.

2. Don’t enter into the lab with golden rings, bracelets and bangles.
3. Don’t make or remove the connections with power ON.
4. Don’t switch ON the supply without verifying by the staff member.
5. Don’t switch OFF the machine with load.
6. Don’t leave the Lab without the permission of the staff in-charge.

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CONTENTS

EXPT. PAGE
NAME OF THE EXPERIMENT
NO. NO.
Simulation of a typical second order system and determination of step response
1. 8
and evaluation of time-domain specifications.
(i) To design a passive RC lead compensating network for the given
specifications, viz, the maximum phase lag and the frequency at which it occurs,
2. and to obtain its frequency response. 11
(ii) To design experimentally the transfer function of the lead compensating
network.
(i) To design a passive RC lag compensating network for the given
specifications, viz, the maximum phase lag and the frequency at which it occurs,
3. and to obtain its frequency response. 14
(ii) To design experimentally the transfer function of the lag compensating
network.
Experiment to draw the frequency response of a given lead-lag compensating
4. 17
network.
To study the effect of P, PI, PD and PID controller on the step response of a
5. feedback control system using control engineering trainer. Verify the same using 19
simulation.
a) Experiment to draw the speed- torque characteristics of a 2 phase AC servo
6. motor. 22
b) Experiment to draw the speed- torque characteristics of a DC servo motor.
To determine frequency response of a second order system and evaluation of
7. 27
frequency domain specifications.
Simulate a DC position control system using MATLAB and obtain its step
8. 29
response.
Obtain the phase margin and gain margin for a given transfer function by
9. 32
drawing bode plots and verify the same using MATLAB.
a) To draw the Root loci for a given transfer function and verification of
10. breakaway point and imaginary axis crossover point using MATLAB. 34
b) To draw the Nyquist plot for a given transfer function using MATLAB.
11. To draw and study synchro-pair characteristics. 37

Add on Experiment1: Digital Simulation of Linear Systems 42

Appendix – A: Control System Fundamentals 46

Appendix – B: MATLAB Basics 49

Appendix – C: Transfer Function conversion 54

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Experiment No: 01
TIME RESPONSE OF SECOND ORDER SYSTEM

Aim: To obtain time response of a second order system in case of under damped, over damped and
critically damped systems.

Theory:
The time response of control system consists of two parts. Transient response and steady state
response. C (t) = Ctr(t) + Css(t). Most of the control systems use time as its independent variable.
Analysis of response means to see the variation of output with respect to time. The output of the
system takes some finite time to reach to its final value. Every system has a tendency to oppose the
oscillatory behavior of the system which is called damping. The damping is measured by a factor
called damping ratio of the system. If the damping is very high then there will not be any
oscillations in the output. The output is purely exponential. Such system is called an over damped
system.
If the damping is less compared to over damped case then the system is called a critically damped
system. If the damping is very less then the system is called under damped system. With no
damping system is undamped.

1<<∞ --- Over damped system.

=1 --- Critically damped system.
0<<1 --- Under damped system.
=0 --- Undamped system.

Time domain specifications: Delay time Td = (1 + 0.7)/ wn

Rise Time Tr =(Π – θ)/ wd
Peak overshoot time = Tp = Π/ wd
% Mp = exp( - Π/sqrt(1-2))
Settling Time Ts = 4/wn (2% tolerance)

Apparatus Required: PC loaded with MATLAB

Procedure:

Open the MATLAB command window.

1) Click on file-new-M file to open the MATLAB editor window.
2) In the given MATLAB editor window enter the program to obtain the step response.

% step response of a second order system

n = input(‘enter the natural frequency’);
 = input(‘enter damping ratio’);
num = [n*n];
den = [1 2**n n*n];
sys = tf (num, den)

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step(sys);

3) Save the file in work directory.

4) Run the program and enter the respective value for natural frequency, damping ratio and
time
5) The graphs displayed are according to the above values

6) The values of wd, td, theta, tr, ts, Mp can be obtained by

a) Right click on the figure window and select grid to get grids on the curve.
b) Right click on the figure window and select characteristics and enable peak
response, settling time & rise settling
c) Repeat the steps 5,6,7 for different values of .

Graph:

Tabular Columns :

Time Domain Specifications From MATLAB By Calculation

Rise Time
Peak Time
Settling Time
Max. Overshoot

1b) Evaluation of the effect of additional poles and zeros on time response of second order
system.

MATLAB program to evaluate the effect of additional poles and zeros on time response of second
order system. This program uses the command zpk.
For the second order system the poles are -10+30i and -10-30i

The program given below gives the time response of 2nd order system

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Z=[];
P=[-10+30i -10-30i];
K=1000;
sys=zpk(z,p,k)
t=[0:0.001:1];
step(sys,t);
grid

For the second order system, if we add a pole it changes to third order.

To study the effect of additional poles,

Location of poles Effect on time response
-1
-10
-100

To study the effect of additional zeros,

Location of zeros Effect on time response
-1
-10
-100

1c) Effect of loop gain of a negative feedback system on stability

The following program is used to study the effect of loop gain of a negative feedback system on
stability. The value of gain k is varied and different step responses are obtained.

clc
z=[]
p=[-0.5+i -0.5-i -1];
k1=1;
k2=2;
k3=3;
sys1=zpk(z,p,k1)
sys2=zpk(z,p,k2)
sys3=zpk(z,p,k3)
t=[0:0.01:20];
[y1,t]=step(sys1,t)
[y2,t]=step(sys2,t)
[y3,t]=step(sys3,t)
plot(t,y1,t,y2,t,y3)
legend('k=1', 'k=2', 'k=3')
grid

Result:

Viva questions:

1. What is meant by time response of a system?

2. What do you mean by damping factor?

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Experiment No.2
RC LEAD COMPENSATING NETWORK

Aim: To design a passive RC lead compensating network for the given specifications and to
obtain its frequency response.

Apparatus Required: Resistors, capacitors, wires, multimeter, and phase- frequency meter.

Theory:
If a sinusoidal input is applied to the input of a network and steady state output has a phase lead,
then network is called lead compensator/network. Lead compensator has a zero at s = 1/T and a
pole at s = 1/ αT with zero closer to the origin than pole. This compensator speeds up the transient
response and increases the margin of stability of a system. It also helps to increase the system error
constant through to a limited extent. These compensators are used when fast dynamic response is
required.

Effect of Phase Lead Compensation

1. The velocity constant Kv increases.
2. The slope of the magnitude plot reduces at the gain crossover frequency so that relative
stability improves & error decrease due to error is directly proportional to the slope.
3. Phase margin increases.
4. Response become faster.

Advantages of Phase Lead Compensation

1. Due to the presence of phase lead network the speed of the system increases because it
shifts gain crossover frequency to a higher value.
2. Due to the presence of phase lead compensation maximum overshoot of the system
decreases.

Disadvantages of Phase Lead Compensation

1. Steady state error is not improved.

Circuit Diagram:

Derivation of transfer function:

Write the above circuit in Laplace form.

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Vi(s) = (Z1+Z2)*I(s) (Where I(s) is the current in the circuit and Z1= (R1//C) and Z2 = R2)

Vo(s) = Z2*I(s)

Vo(s)/Vi(s) = Z2 /( Z1+Z2)

After simplification,

GC(S) = (S+ 1/ T )
(S+ 1/ αT ) where T = R1 C and , α = R2 /( R1 + R2)

Design Equations:

Specifications for the design: Фm =…………. at fm = …………...

1. Sin Фm = (1- α)
(1+α) α<1
2. α = R2 /( R1 + R2)
3. ωm = 1 .
T√ α
4. T = R1 C

Procedure:

1. Derive the transfer function for the Lead network given above.
2. For the given specification, ie for given Фm at given Fm , calculations of R1, R2 and C. are done.
3. Connections are made as per the Lead circuit diagram by the selecting the values found in the
above step.
4. Switch ON the mains supply and apply sinusoidal wave by selecting suitable amplitude.
5. The frequency of the signal is varied in steps and at each step note down the corresponding
magnitude of output and phase angle.
6. Draw the frequency response plot and hence find the transfer function & compare it with the
design.

Tabular Column:

Input voltage VS = ……….V(volts)

Frequency output Ø(degree) Gain
(Hz) VO indicated (dB)
(volts)

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Typical Lead Characteristics:

Result:

Viva questions:

1. What is lag compensation? Write the frequency response of it.

2. What is the importance of lag network?

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Experiment No.3
RC LAG COMPENSATING NETWORK

Aim: To design a passive RC lag compensating network for the given specifications and to
obtain its frequency response.

Apparatus Required: Resistors, capacitors, wires, multimeter, and phase- frequency meter.

Theory: If a sinusoidal input is applied to the input of a network and steady state output has a
phase lag, then network is called lag compensator/network. Lag compensator has a pole
at s = 1/ βT and a pole at s = 1/ T with pole closer to the origin than zero. This
compensator improves the steady state behavior of the system while nearly preserving its
transient response. These compensators are used when low steady state error is required.

Effect of Phase Lag Compensation

1. Gain crossover frequency increases.
2. Bandwidth decreases.
3. Phase margin will be increase.
4. Response will be slower before due to decreasing bandwidth, the rise time and the
settling time become larger.

Advantages of Phase Lag Compensation

1. Phase lag network allows low frequencies and high frequencies are attenuated.
2. Due to the presence of phase lag compensation the steady state accuracy increases.

Disadvantages of Phase Lag Compensation

1. Due to the presence of phase lag compensation the speed of the system decreases.

Circuit Diagram:

Derivation of transfer function:

Write the above circuit in Laplace form.

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Vi(s) = (Z1+Z2)*I(s) (where I(s) is the current in the circuit and Z1= R1 and
Z2=(R2+1/CS)

Vo(s) = Z2*I(s)
Vo(s)/Vi(s) = Z2 / ( Z1+Z2)

After simplification,
GC(S) = (S+ 1/ T )
(S+ 1/ βT ) where β = ( R1 + R2) / R2 and T = R2 C

Design Equations:

Specifications for the design: Фm =…………. at fm = …………...

To find maximum lag angle:

1. Sin Фm = (β -1)
(β +1) β>1
2. β = ( R1 + R2) / R2
3. ωm = 1 .
T√ β
4. T = R2 C

Procedure:

1. Derive the transfer function for the Lag network given above.
2. For the given specifications, ie for given Фm at given fm , calculations of R1, R2 and C. are
done.
3. Connections are made as per the Lag circuit diagram by the selecting the values found in the
above step.
4. Switch ON the mains supply and apply sinusoidal wave by selecting suitable amplitude.
5. The frequency of the signal is varied in steps and at each step note down the corresponding
magnitude of output and phase angle.
6. Draw the frequency response plot and hence find the transfer function & compare it with the
design.

Tabular Column:

Input voltage VS = ……… V( volts)

Frequency VO(volts) Ø(degree) Gain(dB)
(Hz) (rms) indicated 20 log(Vo/Vs)

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Typical Lag Characteristics:

Result:

Viva questions:

1. What is the need for compensation?

2. What is meant by compensation?
3. What is lag compensation? Write the frequency response of it.
4. What is the importance of lag network?

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Experiment No.4
LAG -LEAD NETWORKS

Aim: Experiment to draw the frequency response of a given lead-lag compensating network.

Apparatus Required: Resistors – 10k – 2 nos, capacitors – 0.1µF – 2nos, wires, multimeter,
and phase- frequency meter.

Theory: Lag lead compensator is a combination of a lag compensator and lead compensator.
The lag section has one real pole and one real zero with pole to the right of zero. The lead
section also has one real pole and one zero but zero is to the right of the pole. When both steady
state and transient response require improvement, a lag lead compensator is required.

Advantages of Phase Lag-Lead Compensation

1. Due to the presence of phase lag-lead network the speed of the system increases because
it shifts gain crossover frequency to a higher value.
2. Due to the presence of phase lag-lead network accuracy is improved.

Circuit Diagram:

Procedure:

1. Derive the transfer function for the lag lead network given above.
2. Connections are made as per the Lag lead circuit diagram by the selecting the proper values.
3. Switch ON the mains supply and apply sinusoidal wave by selecting suitable amplitude.
4. The frequency of the signal is varied in steps and at each step note down the corresponding
magnitude of output and phase angle.
5. Draw the frequency response plot and hence find the transfer function & compare it with the
design.

Derivation of transfer function:

Write the above circuit in Laplace form.
Vi(s) = (Z1+Z2)*I(s) (Where I(s) is the current in the circuit and Z1= (R1//C1S) and
Z2 = (R2 + 1/C2S)
Vo(s) = Z2*I(s)
Vo(s)/Vi(s) = Z2 /( Z1+Z2)

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After simplification,

GC(S) = (S+ 1/ T1 ) (S+ 1/ T2)

(S+ 1/ β T2 )(S+ β/ T1 )

where T1 = R1C1 , T2 = R2C2 , R1C1+ R2C2 + R1C2 = 1/ β T2 + β/ T1

Tabular Column:

VS =…………. V(volts)

Frequency VO Ø(degree) Gain(dB)

(Hz) (rms) indicated 20 log(Vo/Vs)

Typical Characteristics:

Result:

Viva questions:

1. What is lag lead Compensation? Write the frequency response of it.

2. What is the importance of lag lead network?

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Experiment No.5
STUDY OF P, P-I, P-I-D CONTROLLERS

Aim: To study the effect of P, PI, PD and PID controller on the step response of a
feedback control system.

Theory:
PID controllers are commercially successful and widely used controllers in Industries. For
example, in a typical paper mill there may be about 1500 Controllers and out of these 90% would
be PID controllers. The PID controller consists of proportional controller, integral controller and
derivative controller. Depending upon the application on or more combinations of the controllers
are used.(ex: in a liquid control system where we want zero steady state error, a PI controller can
be used and in a temperature control system where we do not want zero steady state error, a
simple P controller can be used.

The equation of the PID controller in time domain is given by,

m(t) = KPe(t) + Ki/Ti ∫ e(t) dt + KdTd de(t) /dt

where KP is a proportional gain Ti is the integral reset time and Td is the derivative time of the
PID controller, m(t) is the output of the controller and e(t) is the error signal given by e(t) = r(t) –
c(t).

The characteristics of P, I, and D controllers

A proportional controller (Kp) will have the effect of reducing the rise time and will reduce ,but
never eliminate, the steady-state error. An integral control (Ki) will have the effect of eliminating
the steady-state error, but it may make the transient response worse. A derivative control (Kd)
will have the effect of increasing the stability of the system, reducing the overshoot, and
improving the transient response. Effects of each of controllers Kp, Kd, and Ki on a closed-loop
system are summarized in the table shown below.

Parameter Rise time Overshoot Settling time Steady-state error Stability[14]

Decrease Increase Small change Decrease Degrade
Decrease Increase Increase Eliminate Degrade
Minor change Decrease Decrease No effect Improve if small

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PROPORTIONAL (P) CONTROLLER:

R(s)
Kp Plant and C(s)
controller
+ -

PI CONTROLLER:
Kp

R(s) +
Ki/s Plant and C(s)
controller
+ - +

From the block diagram

C(s)/R(s)=(s+Ki) ωn2/s3 + 2ξ ωns2+ ωn2s+Ki ωn2
The characteristic equation is third order, so system also becomes third order reducing SS error to
zero
PD CONTROLLER:

R(s) +
Kp Plant and C(s)
controller
+ - +

sKd

From the block diagram

C(s)/R(s) = ωn2 (1+sTd)/S2 + (2ξ ωn+ ωn2Td)S+ ωn2

Comparing with S2 + 2ξ ωnS+ ωn2, damping ratio increases reducing the peak overshoot in the
response

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PID CONTROLLER

Kp

R(s) +
Ki/s Plant and C(s)
controller
+ - + +

sKd

In PID controller, the error signal is given by

Ea(s)= Kp E(s)+ sTd E(s) + Ki/s E(s)

Procedure:
1. The connections are made as in the diagrams.
2. DC supply from the kit is given.
3. The values of kp, Kd, Ki are adjusted and the waveforms are observed on the CRO.

Result:

Viva questions:

1. What is P-I control?

2. What is P-D control?
3. What is P-I-D control?
4. Why differential control is not used alone?
5. What is the problem with proportional control?

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Experiment No.6 (a)

AC SERVO MOTOR

Aim: To obtain torque speed characteristics of AC servo motor.

Theory:
An AC servomotor is basically a two phase induction motor except for certain special design
features. The motor of the servo motor is built with high resistance so that its X/R ratio is small and
the toque speed characteristics is linear. For low resistance, the characteristics is nonlinear. Such a
characteristics is unacceptable in control systems. The motor construction is usually squirrel cage or
drag cup type. The diameter of rotor is kept small in order to reduce inertia to obtain good
accelerating characteristics. In servo applications the voltage applied to the two stator windings are
seldom balanced. One of the phases known as the reference phase is excited by constant voltage
and the other phase is known as the control phase is excited by a voltage of variable magnitude
from a servo amplifier and polarity with respect to the voltage supplied to the reference
winding. For low power applications AC servo motors are preferred because they are light
weight, rugged construction.

Apparatus Required: AC servo motor speed torque unit, multimeter.

Circuit Diagram:

AC servomotor specifications:

Reference winding voltage: 230v AC

Control winding voltage: 230v AC
Rated power = 50 watts
Moment of Inertia ( J) = 0.7gm/cm2
Friction co efficient B = 0.021
Speed: 2000rpm

Procedure:

1. Connections are made as per circuit diagram.

2. The load switch is in OFF position, so that DC machine is not connected to auxiliary power
supply (12V). AC servomotor switch is in OFF position.
3. Ensure speed control and load control pot is in minimum position.
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4. Switch ON the mains and also AC servomotor. The AC servomotor starts rotating and speed
will be indicated by meter in front panel.
5. The reference winding voltage can be measured.
6. Now switch ON the load control switch and start loading the servomotor.
7. Note down corresponding values of Ia & Ep (& speed).
8. Now new control winding voltage is set by varying position of speed control switch. Again the
machine is loaded & Ia,Ep are noted down.
9. Speed –Torque characteristics are plotted.

Tabular column:

Current(mA) Eb(v) Speed (rpm) Power(watts) Torque(gm-

cm)

Graph:

speed
RPM

Rated voltage

80%voltage
60% voltage

Torque in gm-cm

Calculation:
Power = Eb x Ia Watts
Torque = (Eb x Ia x 60 x 1. 0196 x 105 ) / 2  x N gm-cm

Viva questions:
1. What are the applications of AC servo motor?
2. How is AC servo motor different from normal AC motor?
3. What is the working principle of AC servo motor?

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Experiment No.6 (b)

DC SERVO MOTOR

Aim: To plot Torque -Speed characteristics of a DC servomotor.

Theory :
The mechanism in which the control variable is adjusted by the error served by comparing output
and input is called servomechanism. Any quantity e.g. voltage, speed, temperature, position,
torque be controlled by providing appropriate feedback. The motor which respond to the error
signal abruptly and actuate the load quickly are called servo motors. These are specifically designed
and built primarily for use in feedback control systems as output actuators. The power rating can
vary from a fraction of a watt up to a few hundred watts. They have high speed response which
requires low rotor inertia. These motors are therefore smaller in diameter and longer in length. DC
servo motors are used in high power applications. Some DC motors with relatively small power
rating are used in instruments and computer related instruments. Other applications are CNC
machines, robot systems, radars, machine tools, etc. Most important among the characteristics of
the DC servo motor is the maximum acceleration obtainable. The operation of this motor is same
as normal DC motor.

Apparatus Required: DC servo motor speed torque unit, multimeter.

DC servomotor specifications:

Type : permanent magnet type

Voltage : 24v DC
Torque : 400gm-cm
Speed : 4400 RPM

Procedure:

1. The connections are made as per circuit diagram.

2. All the front panel controls are carefully studied. Adjust zero reading in both the balances.
3. Keep the servomotor switch at off position, spring balances at minimum position.
4. Switch on the mains supply to the unit and both the r.p.m meter and ammeter shows zero
reading.
5. Switch on DC servomotor. The motor starts rotating and the speed is indicated by r.p.m meter.
Now vary the speed potentiometer to maximum position and check the DC voltage and it will
be around 24V.
6. At this voltage note down speed and current.
7. Slowly the motor is loaded by adjusting the wheel and note down current, speed, w1 and w2
spring balance readings for every 25 gms or 50 gms of load. Enter the reading in tabular
column. The motor is loaded upto 200 gms, since the torque is 400 gms and radius of brake
drum is 2 cms.
8. Now release the load and repeat for different percentage of rated voltage.
9. The readings are tabulated and speed Vs torque is plotted.

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Circuit Diagram:

fuse A

tacho
24 v M gen
DC

Moror
shaft

Tabular Column:

At Rated voltage = 24V

W1 W2 Torque
Speed(rpm) W=(W1 - W2) gm
gm gm gm-cm

Calculation:

Torque =W X R gm-cms and R=radius of the shaft, W=W1-W2.

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Graph:

speed
RPM

Rated voltage 24V

60%voltage

40% voltage

Torque in gm-cm

Result:

Viva questions:

1. What is meant by servomechanism?

2. How servomotor is different from ordinary DC motor?
3. What is meant by speed control?
4. What are the applications of DC Servo motor?

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Experiment No.7
FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF A SECOND ORDER SYSTEM

Aim: To determine frequency response of a second order system and evaluation of

Frequency domain specifications.

Theory:
The frequency response of a system or a component is normally performed by keeping the
amplitude A fixed and determining B and Φ for a suitable range of frequencies where steady state
output may be represented as c(t) = B sin(wt + Φ) The ease and Accuracy of measurements are
some of the advantages of the frequency response method. Without the knowledge of transfer
function, the frequency response of stable open loop system can be obtained experimentally
or the systems with very large time constants, the frequency response test is cumbersome to
perform. We can use the data obtained from measurements on the physical system without deriving
its mathematical model. Nyquist, bode, Nichols etc are some of the frequency response methods.
For difficult cases, such as conditionally stable systems, Nyquist Plot is probably the only method
to analyse stability.

Apparatus Required: Second order system study unit. Function generator, wires
multimeter, CRO

Circuit Diagram:

0.2 H 10 K pot

Sine
wave Vo
0.32
micro F

Procedure:

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. A sinusoidal signal with amplitude of 1V is applied to the circuit.
3. The frequency is varied in steps and at each step frequency, phase angle, output is noted down.
4. A frequency response characteristic is plotted.
5. From the graph note down M R, ωR , ωC .

Frequency domain specifications:

ωr = ωn √ (1- 2ζ 2 )
M R = 1/2ζ √ (1- ζ 2 )
ώd = ωn √ (1- ζ 2 )

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Graph:

Result:

Viva questions:

1. State the advantages and limitations of frequency domain approach.

2. Define bandwidth.

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Experiment No.8
DC POSITION CONTROL

Aim: To simulate a DC position control system and hence to find the step response using
MATLAB.

Theory:
DC position control system which we study here is used control the position of shaft, by use of
potentiometer error detector. The error is to be amplified by the amplifier and must be given to the
armature controlled motor whose shaft position will get controlled as per the control signal. The
motor shaft is coupled to the load through gearing arrangement with ratio N1/N2. Position control
systems have innumerable applications namely machine tool position Control, constant tension
control of sheet rolls in paper mills, control of sheet metal thickness in hot rolling mills, radar
tracking system, missile guidance systems, inertial guidance, In armature controlled DC servomotor
the excitation of the field winding is kept constant and torque is varied by varying the applied
voltage connected to the armature. Here the servo system is used to position the load shaft in which
the driving motor is geared to the load to be varied.

Apparatus required: PC loaded with MATLAB

Formation of mathematical model:

Kp = gain of the potentiometer of error detector.

Ka = gain of the amplifier.
Kb = back emf constant.
Kt = torque constant.
J = equivalent moment of inertia of motor and load referred to motor.
B = equivalent viscous friction of motor and load referred to motor

For potentiometer error detector

E(s) = Kp[R(s) – C(s)]

For amplifier,
Ea(s) = Ka E(s)

For armature controlled DC motor,

if = constant as flux Ф is constant.

T = Kt ia.
eb α ө (angular displacement of the DC motor shaft)
eb = Kb dө/dt

For the armature circuit,

eb = eb +La dia/dt + ia Ra

Taking Laplace transforms,

Eb(s) = Kbsө(s)
Ea(s) = Eb(s) +Ia(s) [ Ra+sLa]
T = kt Ia(s)

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Now, torque is utilized to drive load = shaft of motor.
T = kt Ia(s) = J d2θ/dt2 + f dθ/dt

After simplification,
θ(s)/ Ea(s) = Kt
s[Js+f][Ra+sLa]+KtKbs

Circuit Diagram:

Block Diagram:

Procedure:

1. Develop the complete block diagram of the given schematic diagram of position control
servomechanism using simulink.
2. Kp is the variable and set it to some suitable value to simulate over, under damped conditions
of the system.
3. From the response curve obtained determine the time domain specifications.

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Typical example:
kP = (24/pi), kA = 10, kT = 6*10-5 Nm/amps, J = 5. 4*10-5 kg-m2, B=4*10-4 Nm rad/sec
Ra=0.1 ohms, La= 0.001 H.

Result:

Viva questions:

1. What do you mean by DC position control?

2. What are the applications of DC servo mechanism

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Experiment No.9
BODE PLOT
AIM: Obtain the phase margin and gain margin for a given transfer function by drawing bode
plots and verify the same using MATLAB.

Theory:
One of the most useful representation of transfer function is a logarithmic plot which consists of
two graphs, one giving the logarithm of [G (jw)] and the other phase angle of G(jw) both plotted
against frequency in logarithmic scale. These plots are called bode plots. The main advantage of
using bode diagram is that the multiplication of magnitudes can be converted into addition. Bode
plots are a good alterative to the Nyquist plots.

Frequency response specifications:

1. Gain cross over frequency wgc = It is the frequency at which magnitude of G (jw) H (jw) is unity
ie 1.
2. Phase cross over frequency wpc = It is the frequency at which phase angle of G(jw) H(jw) is -
180o
3. Gain margin G.M = It is defined as the margin in gain allowable by which gain can be
increased till system reaches on the verge of instability. Mathematically it is defined as the
reciprocal of the magnitude of the G(jw) H(jw) measured at phase cross over frequency.
4. Phase margin P.M = Amount of additional phase lag which can be introduced in the system till
system reaches on the verge of instability. Mathematically it can be defined as
P.M = 180o + ∟G(jw)H(jw) at w=wgc

Procedure:
1) Open the MATLAB command window.
2) Click on file/new/M file to open the MATLAB editor window. In MATLAB editor window
enter the program
3) Save the program as .M file.
4) Execute the program by selecting run.
5) Note down the gain crossover, Phase crossover frequencies, gain margin and phase margin from
the plot.
6) Also copy the plot.

Typical Problem

Transfer fuction : 36 / (s3+6s2+11s+6) .

num = [36];
den = [1 6 11 6];
sys = tf (num , den)
bode (sys)
margin(sys)

Examlples

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Find gain Margin and Phase Margin:

a) TF = 0.5 .
S(S+1)(S+0. 5)
b) TF = 10 .
(S+2)(S+3)(S+4)

Result:

Viva questions:

1. write MATLAB program to find the value of k for a given phase margin
2. write MATLAB program to find the value of k for a given gain margin

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Experiment No.10 (a)

ROOT LOCUS DIAGRAM

a)AIM: To obtain Root locus of a given T. F. and hence finding breakaway point,
intersection point on imaginary axis and to draw the Nyquist plot for the given transfer function
using MATLAB.

Theory:
Root locus technique is used to find the roots of the characteristics equation. This technique
provides a graphical method of plotting the locus of the roots in the s plane as a given parameter
usually gain is varied over the complete range of values. This method brings in to focus the
complete dynamic response of the system. By using root locus method the designer can predict the
effects location of closed loop poles by varying the gain value or adding open loop poles and/or
open loop zeroes. The closed loop poles are the roots of the characteristic equation.

Various terms related to root locus technique that we will use frequently in this article.

1. Characteristic Equation Related to Root Locus Technique : 1 + G(s)H(s) = 0 is known as

characteristic equation. Now on differentiating the characteristic equation and on equating
dk/ds equals to zero, we can get break away points.
2. Break away Points: Suppose two root loci which start from pole and moves in opposite
direction collide with each other such that after collision they start moving in different
directions in the symmetrical way. Or the break away points at which multiple roots of the
characteristic equation 1 + G(s)H(s)= 0 occur. The value of K is maximum at the points where
the branches of root loci break away. Break away points may be real, imaginary or complex.
3. Break in Point: Condition of break in to be there on the plot is written below : Root locus must
be present between two adjacent zeros on the real axis.
4. Centre of Gravity: It is also known centroid and is defined as the point on the plot from where
all the asymptotes start. Mathematically, it is calculated by the difference of summation of
poles and zeros in the transfer function when divided by the difference of total number of poles
and total number of zeros. Centre of gravity is always real & it is denoted by σA. Where N is
number of poles & M is number of zeros.

5. Asymptotes of Root Loci: Asymptote originates from the centre of gravity or centroid and goes
to infinity at definite some angle. Asymptotes provide direction to the root locus when they
depart break away points.
6. Angle of Asymptotes: Asymptotes makes some angle
with the real axis and this angle can be calculated from
the given formula, Where p = 0, 1, 2 ....... (N-M-1)
7. Angle of Arrival or Departure: We calculate angle of departure when there exists complex
poles in the system. Angle of departure can be calculated as 180-{(sum of angles to a complex
pole from the other poles)-(sum of angle to a complex pole from the zeros)}.
8. Intersection of Root Locus with the Imaginary Axis : In order to find out the point of
intersection root locus with imaginary axis, we have to use Routh Hurwitz criterion. First, we
find the auxiliary equation then the corresponding value of K will give the value of the point of
intersection.
9. Symmetry of Root Locus: Root locus is symmetric about the x axis or the real axis.
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Program Procedure:

1) Open the MATLAB command window.

2) Click on file/new/M file to open the MATLAB editor window. In MATLAB editor window
enter the program
3) Save the program as .M file.
4) Execute the program by selecting run.
5) copy the plot obtained, note down the breaking point, intersection point.

Program for root locus:

Given ; G(s)H(s) = 10/S4 + 8S3 + 36 S2 + 80 S

Program:
p = [ 0 0 0 0 10 ];
q = [ 1 8 36 80 0 ];
sys = tf(p,q)
Zpk(sys)
rlocus(sys)

Output in the command window:

Transfer function:
36
----------------------
s^3 + 6 s^2 + 11 s + 6

Result:

Viva questions:

1. What is the significance of root locus method?

2. What are the rules of construction of root locus?
3. What are the disadvantages of Root Locus Method?
4. What are the advantages of root-locus method?
5. What is meant by Asymptotes and when it comes into picture in root-locus method?
6. What is meant by angle of arrival and angle of departure?
7. What you mean by breakaway and break-in points?
8. When do you expect a breaking point in a root-locus?
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Experiment No.10 (b)

NYQUIST PLOT

Program for Nyquist plot:

Given the T.F=60/(s+1)(s+2)(s+5)

Programme:
P=[60]
Q=[1 8 17 10]

Sys=tf(P,Q)
Nyquist(sys)

Result:

Examples
Draw the Nyquist plot for following T.F
1) T.F=1/s(1+2s)(1+s)
2) T.F=(1+4s)/s2(1+s)(1+2s)

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Experiment No.11

CHARACTERSTICS OF SYNCHROS

A. STUDY OF SYNCHRO TRANSMITTER

AIM: To study about synchro transmitter and also about the transformation of angular position of
its rotor into unique set of stator voltages.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl. NAME OF THE APPARATUS TYPE QUANTITY

No.
1. Synchro transmitter- receiver pair kit 1
2 Connecting wires Patch cords As required

Theory:
The term synchro is a generic name for a family of inductive devices which works on the principle
of a rotating transformer (Induction motor). Basically they are electro mechanical devices or
electromagnetic transducer which produces an output voltage depending upon angular position of
the rotor. A Synchro system is formed by interconnection of the devices called the synchro
transmitter and the synchro control transformer. They are also called as synchro pair. The synchro
pair measures and compares two angular displacements and its output voltage is approximately
linear with angular difference of the axis of both the shafts. They can be used in the following two
ways.

i. To control the angular position of load from a remote place / long distance.

ii. For automatic correction of changes due to disturbance in the angular position of the load.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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PRECAUTIONS:
1. Keep the angular positions of rotors of transmitter and receiver at zero position before starting
the experiment.
2. Handle the angle pointers for both the rotors in a gentle manner.
3. Do not attempt to pull out the angle pointers.
4. Do not short rotor or stator terminals.

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the mains supply to the synchro Transmitter- receiver system with the help of the
given mains cord.
2. Connect 110V AC supply to the rotor terminals (R1 and R2) of the transmitter only and
switch on the mains supply.
3. Now at zero angular position of rotor of transmitter, note down the voltage between stator
winding terminals i.e., VS1S2, VS2S3 and VS3S1 with the help of given patch cords and
tabulate them.
4. Vary the angular positions of rotor of the transmitter in steps by 30 and note down the
corresponding voltages between stator winding terminals in a tabular column.
5. The zero position of rotor and stator coincide with voltage VS1S2 equal to zero. Do not disturb
this condition.
6. Switch off the mains supply of the kit after bringing back the rotor at zero.
7. Plot a graph between angular positions of rotor of transmitter and stator voltages for all three
phases.

TABULAR COLUMN:

Sl. No. Rotor position RMS voltages between stator terminals

in degrees VS1S2 VS2S3 VS3S1
1 0
2 30
3 60
4 90
5 120
6 150
7 180
8 210
9 240
10 270
11 300
12 330
13 360

GRAPH: - Plot a graph of angular position VS voltage for all the three phases.

RESULT: -The synchro Transmitter was studied and waveform of stator winding voltages was
plotted on graph .

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B. STUDY OF SYNCHRO TRANSMITTER-RECEIVER PAIR

AIM: To study about synchro transmitter – receiver pair.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Sl. NAME OF THE APPARATUS TYPE QUANTITY
No.
1. Synchro transmitter- receiver pair kit 1
2 Connecting wires Patch cords As required

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Keep the angular positions of rotors of transmitter and receiver at zero position before starting
the experiment.
2. Handle the angle pointers for both the rotors in a gentle manner.
3. Do not attempt to pull out the angle pointers.
4. Do not short rotor or stator terminals.

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PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the mains supply to the synchro Transmitter- receiver system with the help of the
given mains cord.
2. Connect the stator terminals of transmitter S1, S2, and S3 with stator terminals of receiver S1,
S2, and S3 with the help of patch cords respectively.
3. Connect 110V AC supply to the rotor terminals (R1 and R2) of both transmitter and receiver,
and then switch on the mains supply.
4. Now at zero angular position of rotor of transmitter, note down that of receiver and tabulate
them.
5. Vary the angular positions of rotor of the transmitter in steps by 30 and note down the
corresponding angular positions of rotor of synchro receiver.
6. It is observed that whenever the rotor of the synchro transmitter is rotated, the rotor of the
synchro receiver follows it both directions of rotations and its positions are linear with the
initial error.
7. Switch off the mains supply of the kit after bringing back the rotor of the transmitter at zero.
8. Plot a graph between angular positions of rotor of transmitter and angular positions of rotor of
receiver.

TABULAR COLUMN:

Sl. No. Angular positions of Angular positions of

transmitter receiver
1 0
2 30
3 60
4 90
5 120
6 150
7 180
8 210
9 240
10 270
11 300
12 330
13 360

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MODEL GRAPH:

Angular
positions
of receiver
in degrees

Angular positions of transmitter in degrees

RESULT:
Thus the characteristics of synchro transmitter receiver pair were studied.

Viva questions:

1. What is meant by synchro-transmitter receiver pair?

2. Give the application of synchro-transmitter receiver pair?

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Add on Experiment 1:

DIGITAL SIMULATION OF LINEAR SYSTEMS

AIM: To digitally simulate the time response characteristics of Linear SISO systems using state
variable formulation.

APPARATU REQUIRED:A PC with MATLAB package.

THEORY:
State Variable approach is a more general mathematical representation of a system, which, along
with the output, yields information about the state of the system variables at some predetermined
points along the flow of signals. It is a direct time-domain approach, which provides a basis for
modern control theory and system optimization. SISO (single input single output) linear systems
can be easily defined with transfer function analysis. The transfer function approach can be linked
easily with the state variable approach.

The state model of a linear-time invariant system is given by the following equations:
Ẋ (t) = A X(t) + B U(t) State equation
Y(t) = C X(t) + D U(t) Output equation
Where A = n x n system matrix,
B = n x m input matrix,
C= p x n output matrix and
D = p x m transmission matrix,

PROGRAMME:
OPEN LOOP RESPONSE (FIRST ORDER SYSTEM)
T.F=4/(s+2)
Response of system to Step and Impulse input
n=[4]; n=[4];
d=[1 2]; d=[1 2];
sys=tf(n,d); sys=tf(n,d);
step(sys) impulse(sys)

SIMULINK
Step Input Open Loop –I Order

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Impulse Input Open Loop –I Order

Close Loop Response

n=[4];
d=[1 2];
sys=tf(n,d);
sys=feedback(sys,1,-1)
step(sys)
impulse(sys)

SIMULINK
Step Input Close Loop –I Order

Impulse Input Close Loop –I Order

SECOND ORDER SYSTEM

TF= 4/s2+6s+16
Open Loop Response
n=[4];
d=[1 6 16];
sys=tf(n,d);
step(sys)
impulse(sys)

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SIMULINK

Step Input Open Loop –II Order

Impulse Input Open Loop –II Order

Close Loop Response

n=[4];
d=[1 6 16];
sys=tf(n,d);
sys=feedback(sys,1,-1)
step(sys)
impulse(sys)

SIMULINK
Step Input Close Loop –I Order

Impulse Input Close Loop –II Order

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STATE SPACE EQUATION

A=[-6 -16; 1 0];
B=[1; 0];
C=[ 0 4];
D=[0];
Sys=ss(A,B,C,D);
step(sys)
impulse(sys)

RESULT:

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APPENDIX-A

CONTROL SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS

Definition: Control system is an interconnection of components forming system configurations

which will provide a desired system response as time progresses. The steering of an automobile is a
familiar example. The driver observes the position of the car relative to the desired location and
makes corrections by turning the steering wheel. The car responds by changing direction and the
driver attempts to decrease the error between the desired and Actual course of travel. In this case,
the controlled output is the automobile’s direction of travel, and the control system includes the
driver, the automobile, and the road surface. The control engineer attempts to design a steering
control mechanism which will provide a desired response for the automobile’s direction control.
Different steering designs and automobile designs result in rapid responses, as in the case of sports
cars, or relatively slow and comfortable responses, as in the case of large autos with power steering.

Open loop control: The basis for analysis of a control system is the foundation provided by linear
system theory, which assumes a cause-effect relationship for the components of a system. A
component or process to be controlled can be represented by a block. Each block possesses an input
(cause) and output (effect). The input-output relation represents the cause-and-effect relationship of
the process, which in turn represents a processing of the input signal to provide an output signal
variable, often with power amplification. An open-loop control system utilizes a controller or
control Actuator in order to obtain the desired response

Open-loop control system.

Closed loop control: In contrast to an open-loop control system, a closed-loop control system
utilizes an additional measure of the Actual output in order to compare the Actual output with the
desired output response. A standard definition of a feedback control system is a control system
which tends to maintain a prescribed relationship of one system variable to another by comparing
functions of these variables and using the difference as a means of control. In the case of the driver
steering an automobile, the driver uses his or her sight to visually measure and compare the Actual
location of the car with the desired location. The driver then serves as the controller, turning the
steering wheel. The process represents the dynamics of the steering mechanism and the automobile
response.

Closed-loop control system.

A feedback control system often uses a function of a prescribed relationship between the output and
reference input to control the process. Often, the difference between the output of the process under
control and the reference input is amplified and used to control the process so that the difference is

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continually reduced. The feedback concept has been the foundation for control system analysis and
design.

Applications for feedback systems

Familiar control systems have the basic closed-loop configuration.

1. A refrigerator has a temperature setting for desired temperature,

2. A thermostat to measure the Actual temperature and the error, and a compressor motor for

3. Other examples in the home are the oven, furnace, and water heater.

4. In industry, there are controls for speed, process temperature and pressure, position,
thickness, composition, and quality, among many others.

5. Feedback control concepts have also been applied to mass transportation, electric power
systems, automatic warehousing and inventory control, automatic control of agricultural systems,
biomedical experimentation and biological control systems, and social, economic, and political
systems.

Advantages of feedback control

The addition of feedback to a control system results in several important advantages. A process,
whatever its nature, is subject to a changing environment, aging, ignorance of the exact values of
the process parameters, and other natural factors which affect a control process. In the open-loop
system, all these errors and changes result in a changing and inaccurate output. However, a closed-
loop system senses the change in the output due to the process changes and attempts to correct the
output. The sensitivity of a control system to parameter variations is of prime importance. A
primary advantage of a closed-loop feedback control system is its ability to reduce the system's
sensitivity.

One of the most important characteristics of control systems is their transient response which often
must be adjusted until it is satisfactory. If an open-loop control system does not provide a
satisfactory response, then the process must be replaced or modified. By contrast, a closed-loop

system can often be adjusted to yield the desired response by adjusting the feedback loop
parameters.

A second important effect of feedback in a control system is the control and partial elimination of
the effect of disturbance signals. Many control systems are subject to extraneous disturbance
signals which cause the system to provide an inaccurate output. Feedback systems have the
beneficial aspect that the effect of distortion noise and unwanted disturbances can be effectively
reduced.

Costs of feedback control

While the addition of feedback to a control system results in the advantages outlined above, it is
natural that these advantages have an attendant cost. The cost of feedback is first manifested in the
increased number of components and the complexity of the system. The second cost of feedback is
the loss of gain. Usually, there is open-loop gain to spare, and one is more than willing to trade it
for increased control of the system response. Finally, a cost of feedback is the introduction of the
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possibility of instability. While the open-loop system is stable, the closed-loop system may not be
always stable.

Stability of closed-loop systems

The transient response of a feedback control system is of primary interest and must be investigated.
A very important characteristic of the transient performance of a system is the stability of the
system. A stable system is defined as a system with a bounded system response. That is, if the
system is subjected to a bounded input or disturbance and the response is bounded in magnitude,
the system is said to be stable.

The concept of stability can be illustrated by considering a right circular cone placed on a plane
horizontal surface. If the cone is resting on its base and is tipped slightly, it returns to its original
equilibrium position. This position and response is said to be stable. If the cone rests on its side and
is displaced slightly, it rolls with no tendency to leave the position on its side. This position is
designated as neutral stability. On the other hand, if the cone is placed on its tip and released, it falls
onto its side. This position is said to be unstable.

Design

A feedback control system that provides an optimum performance without any necessary
adjustments is rare indeed. Usually one finds it necessary to compromise among the many
conflicting and demanding specifications and to adjust the system parameters to provide a suitable
and acceptable performance when it is not possible to obtain all the desired optimum specifications.

It is often possible to adjust the system parameters in order to provide the desired system response.
However, it is often not possible to simply adjust a system parameter and thus obtain the desired
performance. Rather, the scheme or plan of the system must be reexamined, and a new design or
plan must be obtained which results in a suitable system. Thus, the design of a control system is
concerned with the arrangement, or the plan, of the system structure and the selection of suitable
components and parameters. For example, if one desires a set of performance measures to be less
than some specified values, one often encounters a conflicting set of requirements. If these two
performance requirements cannot be relaxed, the system must be altered in some way. The
alteration or adjustment of a control system, in order to make up for deficiencies and inadequacies
and provide a suitable performance, is called compensation.

Compensating Networks:

Control systems are designed to perform specific tasks. The requirements imposed on the control
system are usually the performance specifications. The specifications may be given in terms of
transient response or steady state requirements. Setting the gain is the first step in adjusting the
system for satisfactory operation. In many practical cases, however the adjustment of the gain alone
may not provide sufficient alteration of the system behavior to meet the given specifications.
Increasing the gain value will improve the steady state behavior but will result in poor stability. It is
then necessary to redesign the system. Such a redesign or addition of a suitable device is called
compensation.

A device inserted in to the system for the purpose of satisfying the specifications of the system is
called compensator. Commonly used compensators are lead, lag, lead-lag and PID compensators.
The compensators used may be and electrical, mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic etc. Usually
electric network serves compensators for many control systems.

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APPENDIX-B

MATLAB BASICS

MATLAB, which stands for MATrix LABoratory, is a state-of-the-art mathematical software

package, which is used extensively in both academia and industry. It is an interactive program for
numerical computation and data visualization, which along with its programming capabilities
provides a very useful tool for almost all areas of science and engineering. Unlike other
mathematical packages, such as MAPLE or MATHEMATICA, MATLAB cannot perform
symbolic manipulations without the use of additional Toolboxes. It remains however, one of the
leading software packages for numerical computation.

As you might guess from its name, MATLAB deals mainly with matrices. A scalar is a 1-by-1
matrix and a row vector of length say 5, is a 1-by-5 matrix. One of the many advantages of
MATLAB is the natural notation used. It looks a lot like the notation that you encounter in a linear
algebra. This makes the use of the program especially easy and it is what makes MATLAB a
natural choice for numerical computations. The purpose of this experiment is to familiarize
MATLAB, by introducing the basic features and commands of the program.

MATLAB is case-sensitive, which means that a + B is not the same as a + b.

The MATLAB prompt (») in command window is where the commands are entered.
Matrices :
row matrix: Elements in a row are separated either by using white spaces or commas
eg: a=[1 2 4 5]
column matrix: Elements which differ by a column are seperated by enter or semicolumn
eg: b=[1; 2; 3]

Looking into matrix:

a(row,column) allows to look the particular element in the matrix “a”

Vectors:
d= [0:7]
”d” is a vector or row matrix with first element as 0 and last element as 7 and increment is by
default 1. The default increment can be changed (to 0.1) by using increment field in between as
e= [0:0.1:7].
d(1:2) allows to look into vector with increment 1
e(1:2:4) look with increment

Operators:
1. + addition
2. - subtraction
3. * multiplication
4. ^ power
5. ' transpose
6. \ left division
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7. / right division
Remember that the multiplication, power and division operators can be used in conjunction with a
period to specify an element-wise operation.

Typical commands:
1. whos
2. who
3. clear
4. quit
5. save filename – filename.mat
6. load filename - retrive
7. dairy filename - b4 and after ascii text file
8. help

Built in Functions:
1. Scalar Functions:
Certain MATLAB functions are essentially used on scalars, but operate element-wise when applied
to a matrix (or vector). They are summarized below.
1. sin - trigonometric sine
2. cos - trigonometric cosine
3. tan - trigonometric tangent
4. asin - trigonometric inverse sine (arcsine)
5. acos - trigonometric inverse cosine (arccosine)
6. atan - trigonometric inverse tangent (arctangent)
7. exp - exponential
8. log - natural logarithm
9. abs - absolute value
10. sqrt - square root
11. rem - remainder
12. round - round towards nearest integer
13. floor - round towards negative infinity
14. ceil - round towards positive infinity
2. Vector Functions:
Other MATLAB functions operate essentially on vectors returning a scalar value. Some of these
functions are given below.
1. max largest component : get the row in which the maximum element lies
2. min smallest component
3. length length of a vector
4. sort sort in ascending order
5. sum sum of elements
6. prod product of elements
7. median median value
8. mean mean value std standard deviation
3. Matrix Functions:

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Much of MATLAB‟ s power comes from its matrix functions. These can be further separated into
two sub-categories.
The first one consists of convenient matrix building functions, some of which are given below.
1. eye - identity matrix
2. zeros - matrix of zeros
3. ones - matrix of ones
4. diag - extract diagonal of a matrix or create diagonal matrices
5. triu - upper triangular part of a matrix
6. tril - lower triangular part of a matrix
7. rand - randomly generated matrix
eg: diag([0.9092;0.5163;0.2661])
ans =
0.9092 0 0
0 0.5163 0
0 0 0.2661
commands in the second sub-category of matrix functions are
1. size size of a matrix
2. det determinant of a square matrix
3. inv inverse of a matrix
4. rank rank of a matrix
5. rref reduced row echelon form
6. eig eigenvalues and eigenvectors
7. poly characteristic polynomial
8. norm norm of matrix (1-norm, 2-norm, ∞ -norm)
9. cond condition number in the 2-norm
10. lu LU factorization
11. qr QR factorization
12. chol Cholesky decomposition
13. svd singular value decomposition

Operations on matrices:
1. Transpose (single quote „)
a= [ 1 2 3 ];
b=a‟ ;
2. extraction of submatrices
a=[1,2;3,4;5,6];
b=a(1:2,2:1;1:1;2:2);
c=a(:,2) ; second column of matrix “a” is sub- matrix “c”
d=a(1,:) ; first row of matrix “a” is sub-matrix “d”
3. Determinant and Inverse of a matrix
eg: A = [9,7,0;0,8,6;7,1,-6];
size(A), det(A), inv(A)
We can check our result by verifying that AA–1 = I and A–1A = I .
A*inv(A), inv(A)*A
The eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A (i.e. the numbers λ and vectors x that satisfy

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Ax = λx ) can be obtained through the eig command.
eig(A)
produces a column vector with the eigenvalues
[X,D]=eig(A)
produces a diagonal matrix D with the eigen values on the main diagonal, and a full matrix X
whose columns are the corresponding eigenvectors.

PLOTTING COMMANDS:

If x and y are two vectors of the same length then plot(x,y) plots x versus y.
For example, to obtain the graph of y = cos(x) from – ∧ to ∧ , we can first define the vector x

with components equally spaced numbers between – ∧ and ∧ , with increment, say 0.01.
» x=-pi:0.01:pi;
We placed a semicolon at the end of the input line to avoid seeing the (long) output.
Note that the smallest the increment, the “smoother” the curve will be.
Next, we define the vector y
» y=cos(x);
(using a semicolon again) and we ask for the plot
» plot(x,y)
It is good practice to label the axis on a graph and if applicable indicate what each axis represents.
This can be done with the xlabel and ylabel commands.
» xlabel('x')
» ylabel('y=cos(x)')
Inside parentheses, and enclosed within single quotes, we type the text that we wish to be displayed
along the x and y axis, respectively. We could even put a title on top using
» title('Graph of cosine from -pi to pi')
Various line types, plot symbols and colors can be used. If these are not specified (as in the case
above) MATLAB will assign (and cycle through) the default ones as given in the table below.
y yellow . point
m magenta o circle
c cyan x x-mark
r red + plus
g green - solid
b blue * star
w white : dotted
k black -. dashdot
-- dashed
So, to obtain the same graph but in green, we type
» plot(x,y,’g’)
where the third argument indicating the color, appears within single quotes. We could get a dashed
line instead of a solid one by typing
» plot(x,y,’--’)
or even a combination of line type and color, say a blue dotted line by typing
» plot(x,y,’b:’)
Multiple curves can appear on the same graph. If for example we define another vector
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» z = sin(x);
we can get both graphs on the same axis, distinguished by their line type, using
» plot(x,y,'r--',x,z,'b:')
When multiple curves appear on the same axis, it is a good idea to create a legend to label and
distinguish them. The command legend does exactly this.
» legend('cos(x)','sin(x)')
The text that appears within single quotes as input to this command, represents the legend labels.
We must be consistent with the ordering of the two curves, so since in the plot command we
asked for cosine to be plotted before sine, we must do the same here.

At any point during a MATLAB session, you can obtain a hard copy of the current plot by either
issuing the command print at the MATLAB prompt, or by using the command menus on the
plot window. In addition, MATLAB plots can by copied and pasted (as pictures) in your favorite
word processor (such as Microsoft Word). This can be achieved using the Edit menu on the figure
window. Another nice feature that can be used in conjunction with plot is the command grid,
which places grid lines to the current axis
(just like you have on graphing paper). Type help grid for more information. Other commands
for data visualization that exist in MATLAB include subplot create an array of (tiled) plots in
the same window loglog plot using log-log scales semilogx plot using log scale on the x-axis
semilogy plot using log scale on the y-axis.

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APPENDIX-C

TRANSFER FUNCTION CONVERSION

A transfer function is also known as the network function is a mathematical representation, in terms
of spatial or temporal frequency, of the relation between the input and output of a (linear time
invariant) system. The transfer function is the ratio of the output Laplace Transform to the input
Laplace Transform assuming zero initial conditions. Many important characteristics of dynamic or
control systems can be determined from the transfer function.

The transfer function is commonly used in the analysis of single-input single-output electronic
system, for instance. It is mainly used in signal processing, communication theory, and control
theory. The term is often used exclusively to refer to linear time-invariant systems (LTI). In its
simplest form for continuous time input signal x(t) and output y(t), the transfer function is the linear
mapping of the Laplace transform of the input, X(s), to the output Y(s).

Zeros are the value(s) for z where the numerator of the transfer function equals zero. The complex
frequencies that make the overall gain of the filter transfer function zero. Poles are the value(s) for z
where the denominator of the transfer function equals zero. The complex frequencies that make the
overall gain of the filter transfer function infinite.

The general procedure to find the transfer function of a linear differential equation from input to
output is to take the Laplace Transforms of both sides assuming zero conditions, and to solve for
the ratio of the output Laplace over the input Laplace.

TRANSFER FUNCTION FROM ZEROS AND POLES

MATLAB PROGRAM:
z=input(‘enter zeroes’)
p=input(‘enter poles’)
k=input(‘enter gain’)
[num,den]=zp2tf(z,p,k)
tf(num,den)

EXAMPLE:
Given poles are -3.2+j7.8,-3.2-j7.8,-4.1+j5.9,-4.1-j5.9,-8 and the zeroes are -0.8+j0.43,-0.8-
j0.43,-0.6 with a gain of 0.5

ZEROS AND POLES FROM TRANSFER FUNCTION

MATLAB PROGRAM:
num = input(‘enter the numerator of the transfer function’)
den = input(‘enter the denominator of the transfer function’)
[z,p,k] = tf2zp(num,den)

EXAMPLE:
Obtain the poles and zeros of the transfer function given below:
C(S)/R(S)= (S2+4S+3)/(S3+3S2+7S+5)

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TRANSFER FUNCTION FROM STATE MODEL

The transfer function is defined as the ratio of Laplace transform of output to
Laplace transform of input. The transfer function of a given state model is given by:

T.F= C[SI-A]-1B

A state space representation is a mathematical model of a physical system as a set of input, output
and state variables related by first-order differential equations. The state space representation (also
known as the "time-domain approach") provides a convenient and
compact way to model and analyze systems with multiple inputs and outputs.
Unlike the frequency domain approach, the use of the state space representation is not limited to
systems with linear components and zero initial conditions. "State space" refers to the space whose
axes are the state variables. The state of the system can be represented as a vector within that space.
The input state equation is given by,
Ẋ=AX+BU
Y=CX+DU
The output equation is written as,

MATLAB PROGRAM:
A =input(‘enter the matrix A’)
B= input(‘enter the matrix B’)
C = input(‘enter the matrix C’)
D= input(‘enter the matrix D’)
Sys =ss2tf(A,B,C,D)

EXAMPLE:
Obtain the transfer function from the State Model given below:
A = [0 1; -25 -4]
B = [1 1; 0 1]
C = [1 1; 1 1]
D = [0 0; 0 0]

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