Breccia Poster Vancouver

EconomicGeology
Vol. 80, 1985, pp. 1467-1514
Ore-RelatedBrecciasin VolcanoplutonicArcs
RICHARD H. SILLITOE
8 WestHill Park,HighgateVillage, LondonN6 6ND, England
Abstract
Anoverview
ofbreccias
related
toa v•rietyofbasemetal,precious
metal,andlithophile
elementdepositsin volcanoplutonic
arcspermitsdefinitionof six possiblemechanisms
for
subsurface brecciation.
1. Releaseofmagmatic-hydrothermal fluidsfromhigh-level hydrousmagma chambers during

secondboilingandsubsequent decompression generates a spectrumof brecciatypesin which
fragments maysuffercollapseand/orascent.Singleor multipleintrusion-related brecciapipes
andpre- andintermineral breccias
in porphyrycopperdeposits providewidespread examples.
2. Magmaticheatingand expansionof meteoricpore fluidsmaylead to brecciation,com-
monlyof late or postmineral ageandincludingpebbledikes,in porphyry-typeandrelated
deposits.Magmaticheatingof rockssaturated withseawater maycausesubmarine hydrothermal
eruptionslatein the emplacement histories of Kuroko-typemassive sulfidedeposits;manyof
the resultantbrecciasunderwentlimited sedimentarytransport.Overpressuring of heated
fluidsbeneathsemipermeable, partlyself-sealedcaprocksmayleadto brecciation andsubaerial
hydrothermal eruptionsin shallowepithermalpreciousmetalsettings; magmaticheatingor
tectonicdisturbancemayhavetriggeredbrecciation.
3. Interactionof coolgroundwaterswithsubsurface magmacangeneratephreatomagmatic
explosions. Postmineralphreatomagmatic diatremesassociated with porphyrysystemsand
premineraldiatremeswith epithermalprecious(4- base)metal depositswere generatedin
thismanner;theseattainedthe palcosurface to producepyroclastic basesurgeandfall deposits
that accumulatedastuff ringsaroundmaarcraters.
4. Magmatic-hydrothermal brecciationmayleadto disruptionof rocksthroughto the pa-
lcosurface,decompression, andfragmentation anderuptionof the top part of an underlying
magmachamber.Pre- andpostmineralmagmaticdiatremesof thissortare inferredto accom-
panya few porphyry-typeandotherbaseandpreciousmetalsystems; they were manifested
at the palcosurface by accumulationsof pyroclasticfall andflow deposits.
5. Brecciasmayresultfrommechanical disruptionof wallrocksduringsubsurface movement
of magma.Any intrusion-related depositmayincludesuchintrusionbreccias.
6. Tectonicbrecciasresultingfrom fault displacement may accompanyany type of ore
deposit.
A continuumexistsbetweenmanyof thesebrecciatypesandit isdifficultto identifyunique
criteria for their unambiguous
distinction.
Introduction beenappreciated.Eventoday,largematrix-richbod-
ies of breccia are often confused with volcanosedi-
BRECCIAS with an enormousvarietyof characteristics
are common,perhapsubiquitous,accompaniments to mentary formations andelongatematrix-poor breccias
a wide spectrumof hydrothermalore deposits.They are incorrectlyassigned a tectonic origin.Worse still,
havefascinated andperplexedminersandgeologists ore-relatedbrecciasnotuncommonly passunnoticed.
for at least 200 years. Ore-related brecciaswere Ore-relatedbrecciaswerelastreviewedby Bryner
identifiedcorrectlyduringthe late 19thcentury(e.g., (1961). Mayo (1976) presentedanhistoricaloverview
in Cornwall,England;Hunt, 1887, p. 421-422), and of subsurface brecciasof igneousaffiliation,but only
in 1896, Emmonsprovidedan explicitdescriptionof a fewofhisexamples areassociated withoredeposits.
the Bassickand Bull-Domingobrecciapipesin Col- This paper beginswith a brief discussion of classifi-
orado. The common occurrence of breccias as hosts cationproblemsandproceeds to a descriptionof the
of, hydrothermalore depositswas characteristics,
for, or associates alterationand mineralizationfeatures,
generallyappreciatedby the early 20th century, as and possibleoriginsof six categoriesof ore-related
evidencedby perceptivereviewsof their character- breccias. The treatment is based on the writer's field
isticsandproposals for their originby Locke(1926), studiescombinedwith a perusalof the voluminous
Walker (1928), andEmroohs(1938). Notwithstanding literature on ore-related breccias.
their early recognition,however, it has only been Attention is restrictedto volcanoplutonicarcsbe-
during the last decadeor so that someof the more causethey containa greater numberand variety of
subtlevarietiesand expressions of brecciationhave ore-relatedbrecciasthan any other metallogenicset-
0361-0128/85/439/1467-4852.50 1467
1468 RICHARD H. SILLITOE
ting and have provided most of the examplesde- the case of ore-related breccias, however, it has
scribed in the literature. Discussion is focused on provedimpossible to infer the processreliablyfrom
brecciasthat were generatedin subsurfaceenviron- observedgeometric,lithologic,and texturalcharac-
mentsby hypogeneprocesses in associationwith eco- teristics.Existingclassificationschemes,suchasthose
nomicallysignificantbasemetal,preciousmetal,and by WrightandBowes(1963), Kents(1964), andBry-
lithophileelementdeposits.Subaerialvolcanicbrec- ner( 1968),areinadequate because of the subjectivity
cias are not dealt with, except for those that accu- of manyof the descriptiveparametersemployed,as
mulatedin closeproximityto theirsubsurface feeders. well asbecauseof the lackof supportfor manyof the
Although this paper is restricted to ore-related resultinggeneticassumptions.
breccias,it shouldbe emphasizedthat numerousex- In thispaper, ore-relatedbrecciasare discussed in
amplesof apparentlysimilarbrecciasdevoidof even the contextof a broadgeneticframework,whichtakes
subeconomic amounts of mineralization are known into accountthe overlapnow widely recognizedbe-
from arc terranesin manypartsof the world (e.g., tween intrusive, volcanic, and hydrothermalpro-
Gates, 1959; Morris and Kopf, 1967; Busselland cesses.With the exceptionof tectonicbreccias,the
McCourt, 1977). primary division is based on the inferred role of
Classification
magmaand/or aqueousfluidsin brecciaformation,
andfurther subdivision is on the basisof ore deposit
A comprehensivegenetic classification of ore-re- type. The resultingscheme,which dictatesthe or-
lated brecciasremainselusive.The proliferationof ganizationof this paper, is summarizedin Table 1.
genetictermsusedto describebrecciastendsto ob- Assignment of a brecciato the appropriatecategory
scurerather than illuminatethe subject:intrusion, doesnotrely solelyonbrecciacharacteristics but also
intrusive, explosion,eruption, collapse,phreatic, takescognizanceof the overallenvironmentof brec-
phreatomagmatic,hydrothermal, fiuidization, gas ciation,in particularthe relationshipto, and condi-
fluxion,steamblast, hydraulicfracture (hydrofrac), tionsof, accompanying ore deposition.The recogni-
andtuffisiticarejust someof the qualiftersused,com- tionof modernanalogs for severaltypesof ore-related
monlylooselyor evenerroneously,in the literature. brecciasalsoprovesuseful.
The difficultquestionof originhasbeenfurthercom- Magmatic-hydrothermal brecciasare productsof
pounded by attemptsto explain the formation of the releaseof hydrothermalfluidsfrommagmacham-
brecciasin generalby a singlemechanism. In common bers,irrespectiveof the originalsourceof the fluids
with Bryner (1961) and Richard (1969), the writer concerned(magmatic,meteoric, connate, or ocean
prefersthe notionof multipleoriginsfor ore-related waters).Hydromagmatic(includinghydrovolcanic)
brecciasandisin sympathywithJoralemon(1952, p. breccias,asdefinedby Macdonald(1972) and Sher-
256) when he stated: "It is inconceivablethat all idan and Wohletz (1981), are generatedby the in-
brecciachimneyswere formedby the sameprocess," teractionof magmaand an externalsourceof water,
and "Nature evidentlylovesa breccia,and if no vi- suchas groundor surface(ocean,lake) waters.The
olent phenomenonis available,the brecciais formed hydromagmatic categoryis subdividedinto phreato-
just the same"! magmaticbreccias,where both water andmagmadi-
In principle,ore-relatedbrecciasare amenableto rectlycontributedto formationof the observedprod-
classification onthe basisof either geneticor descrip- ucts,and phreaticbreccias,in which only magmatic
tive criteria,in the samewayasRecentvolcanicrocks heat had accessto the external water source.Mag-
(e.g., Wright et al., 1980). Ideally, the descriptive matic (includingvolcanic)brecciasresultfrom frag-
criteriawouldbe diagnosticof a breccia'sgenesis.In mentationand eruption of magmafrom subsurface
TABLE1. Subdivision
of Ore-RelatedBrecciasEmployedin thisPaper
Magmatic-hydrothermal
breccias Pipes related to intrusions
Porphyry-typedeposits
Hydromagmatic Phreatic breccias Epithermalprecious(4-base)metal deposits
(hydrovolcanic) Porphyry-typeandother intrusion-relateddeposits
breccias Kuroko-typemassivesulfidedeposits
Phreatomagmaticbreccias Porphyry-typeand epithermalprecious(4-base)metal deposits
Magmatic(volcanic)breccias Porphyry-typeandotherbaseandpreciousmetaldeposits
Intrusion breccias Any intrusion-relateddeposits
Tectonic breccias Any type of ore deposit
ORE-RELATED BRECCIAS IN VOLCANOPLUTONIC ARCS 1469
chambers.The remaining categoriesof subsurface to 200 or more (Table2). Pipes(alsotermedchimneys

breccia--intrusion and tectonic--are only briefly or columns)are generallyroughlycircular to ovoid
consideredfor the sake of completeness.Intrusion in crosssectionandpossess verticaldimensions which
brecciasare a direct productof the passivesubsurface are observedor inferred to be severaltimes greater
movementof magma.Tectonicbrecciasare primarily than their maximum horizontal dimensions. Horizon-
the productsof tectonic processes,in which water tal dimensionsare commonlyin the range of 50 to
may or may not have participated.The widely em- 300 m but are as great as 1,300 X 900 m at Kidston
ployed term hydrothermal breccia describesthe (PlacerExplorationLtd., 1981) or aslittle as 3 m in
productsof magmatic-hydrothermal and hydromag- the Cabeza de Vaca district (Sillitoe and Sawkins,
matic processesand therefore providesa valuable 1971). The full verticalextent of a pipe is nowhere
designationfor many ore-relatedbreccias. observable,althoughminimumverticaldimensions of
An additionalcategory,amagmatic-hydrothermal, 725 to 860 m are known for four districts(Table 2).
maybe introducedto includebrecciasgeneratedby Unlesstilted subsequentto emplacement,pipes are
hydrothermalfluidsof, say,meteoricor cormateor- only uncommonlyinclinedat morethan 15ø from the
igin, uninfiuencedby magmatism.The brecciasrec- vertical.
ognizedfrom MississippiValley-type lead-zincde- Severalexamplesof partly bifid pipes have been
posits,sediment-hostedmassivesulfidelead-zincde- recorded. The San Antonio de La Huerta pipe in
posits, unconformity-typeuranium deposits, and Sonora,Mexico, divides downward into two prongs
sediment-hosted pipesand bodiesare all assignable (R. H. Sillitoe, unpub. rept., 1975), whereas the
to this category. However, since these ore deposit Childs-Aldwinklepipe in the Copper Creek district
typesare generallyabsentfrom arc terranes,amag- (Kuhn,1941), the Ilkwangpipe (Fletcher,1977), and
matic-hydrothermalbrecciasare not consideredfur- the A-Bpipe at Inguar/tn(Sawkins,1979) all bifurcate
ther. upward.
Magmatic-HydrothermalBreccias The contactsbetweenbrecciapipesand their wall
rocks are commonly abrupt, and in many cases,
Pipesrelated to intrusions markedby a zone of closelyspacedvertical fractures
General remarks: This section describesbreccias, (or sheeting)from 1 to 5 m wide (Fig. 1). Fractures
confinedto singleor multiple pipes, that possess a may be mineralizedor lined with fault gouge.Sheet-
closegeneticconnectionwith unalteredand unmin- ing is not presentas a singleuninterruptedannulus
eralized intrusive rocks, either batholiths or stocks. but is made up of severalstraightto gently curved
There seemsto be a gradationfrom districtscharac- bandsof fractures,whichcommonlytend to be more
terized by one or morebrecciapipesassociated with markedlycurvedat oneof their ends.Overlapof these
fresh intrusiverocksto districtsin which the pipes severallengthsof sheetingtendsto give a polygonal
constituteonly parts of larger volumesof pervasive outline to pipes. Alternatively, breccia and unfrac-
alteration-mineralizationof porphyry type (see be- tured wall rocksmay gradeinto eachother over dis-
low). Although most of the brecciassummarizedin tances of several meters.
Table '2are demonstrably not partsof porphyrysys- The upward and downwardterminationsof pipes
tems,and thereforeare not underlainby porphyryare not commonlyobserved.Locally, as in the San
type mineralization,CopperCreek (Grimour,1977) Pedro de Cachiyuyodistrict (Sillitoe and Sawkins,
andKidston(R. H. Sillitoe,unpub.rept., 1980) could 1971), pipesare seento be cappedby dome-shaped
be the high-levelmanifestations of largelyconcealed roofsoverlainby columnsof alteredbut unbrecciated
bodiesof porphyrycopper-molybdenum andClimax- rock,andit seemsunlikelythatmanyof thesebreccia
type porphyry molybdenummineralization,respec- pipes approachedthe palcosurface.Where the bot-
tively. tomsof pipeshavebeen observed,asin the A-B pipe
It is clearfrom Table 2 that there is no agerestric- at Inguar•m(Sawkins,1979) andthe SanAntoniode
tion for mineralizedbrecciapipes.Knownexamples La Huerta pipe (R. H. Sillitoe,unpub.rept., 1975),
range from ArchcanthroughProterozoicand Paleo- they are irregular but grosslyfiat, and breccia ter-
zoic to Meso-Cenozoic. Most of the western American minates abruptly againstless altered intrusive or
brecciapipes are Mesozoicor Cenozoicin age, al- countryrocks.The CopperPrincepipe in the Copper
thoughthe absenceof examplesin Table 2 younger Creek districtis underlainby a mineralizedopenfis-
than Eoceneis noteworthy.This observationis inter- sure (Kuhn, 1941; Joralemon,1952), whereasthe
pretedto reflecteraplacement of the brecciasat hyp- lensoidExtensi6nSanLuis pipe at Inguar•mis tran-
abyssaldepths(1-3.6 kin; SoandShelton,1983) and sitionaldownwardto a shearzone(V. F. J. Escand0n,
the time required for their subsequentunroofing. unpub.talk 1974).
Characteristics: The intrusion-related breccias un- The brecciasare normallycharacterizedby angular
der consideration herearerestrictedto pipesthat may to subroundedfragmentsrangingin size from a few
occurindividuallyor in closelyspacedclustersof up centimeters to severalmetersand,locally,severaltens
TABLE 2. SelectedExamplesof Mineralized
No. of pipes Surface Vertical

(total/ dimensions dimension Fragment
Locality Host rocks Age (m.y.) mineralized) (m) (m) form Rock flour
Tribag, On- Granite, maficvol- 1,055 4/3 up to 700 X 300 >860 Angular Absent(except
tario, Canada canics,felsite East breccia)
Chadbourne, Andesitic + rhyo- Archean 1/1 300 x 120 >750 Angular Absent
Ontario, Can- litic volcanics
ada
Golden Sun- Calcareous sedi- Early Ter- 1/1 200 x 200 , >550 Angular to sub- Absent
light, Mon- ments,latite por- tiary rounded
tana phyry
Victoria, Limestone, sand- 135(?) >4/1 >200 x 75 >800 Angular,locally Presentin
Nevada stone rounded parts
Copper Creek, Granodiorite,an- 68 >200/8 up to 180 >270 Angularto Absent

Arizona desitic volcanics rounded
Ortiz, New Quartzite, pyroclas- Oligocene 3/1 970 X up to 600 >150 Angularto Locallypres-
Mexico tics rounded ent
Los Pilares, Latitic q- andesitic -55(?) 1/1 600 X 300 >725 Angular Absent
Sonora, volcanics
Mexico
Washington Andesitic,latitic 45.7 • 13/2 up to 100 >400 Angularor Presentin

dist., Sonora, q- trachytic rounded somepipes
Mexico volcanics
La Colorada, Trachytic q- rhyoli- 53.6 t 9/6 up to 100 X 40 >300 (600 Mainly Abundant
Zacatecas, tic pyroclastics inferred) rounded
Mexico
Inguarfm,Mi- Granite,granodio- 35.6 • 10/3 up to 600 X 300 225 Angular to 10 to >50%

choac•tn, rite, granodiorite rounded
Mexico porphyry
Tu'rmalina, Granodiorite Tertiary 1/1 150 X 150 >600 Angularto sub- Absent
Peru rounded
San Pedro de Granodiorite Paleocene 24/10 up to 250 X 130 216 Angularto sub- Absent
Cachiyuyo, rounded
Chile
Cabeza de Granodiorite, an- 62 >100/5 up to 70 > 100 Angularto Absent

Vaca, Chile desitic volcanics locally
rounded
El Bolsico, Quartz diorite, Paleocene 4/1 180 x 95 >170 Angularto Abundant

Chile quartz diorite rounded
porphyry
San Francisco Sandstone,shale, Late Carbon- 3/1 70 x 15-30 >35 Angular Absent
de Los Andes, siltstone iferous-
Argentina Early
Permian
ORE-RELATED
BRECCIAS
IN VOLCANOPLUTONIC
ARCS 1471
BrecciaPipesRelated to Intrusive Rocks
Hydro-
thermal Ore reserve
alteration Principal hypogene and/ormined

(t = tour- metallicminerals Principalgangue Structural Related (M = million, t
maline) (in order of abundance) minerals control intrusive rock = metric tons) Reœerence
Sericitic, Pyrite, chalcopyrite, Quartz,calcite, Faults,joints, Felsite stock(?) i Mr, 1.6% Cu; Armbrust (1969),
chloritic, pyrrhotite,magnetite, ankerite,lau- contacts 40 Mt, 0.2% Blecha(1974),
argillic molybdenite montite Cu (Breton Norman and
pipe) Sawkins(1985)
Sericite-cal- Pyrite Quartz, albite, Fault related Syenite(?) 1.8 Mr, 4.5 Walker andCregh-
cite calcite, anker- body ppm Au cur (1982)
itc, dolomite
Silicifica- Pyrite, chalcopyrite, Quartz, barite, Not recognized Latite por- 31 Mr, 1.9 ppm Porter andRipIcy
tion, seri- bornitc, galena,sphal- sericite, fiuora- phyry Au (1985)
citic erite patire stock(?)
Calc-silicate Pyrite, chalcopyrite Calcite, diopside, Absent Quartz fatire 2.2 Mr, 2.4% Atkinson et al.
garnet, quartz porphyry Cu, 0.05% Bi (1982)
stock(?)
Sericitic (t), Pyrite, chalcopyrite, Quartz, sericite, Probablyabsent Latite 3,714 t Cu, Kuhn (1941), Jora-
K silicate molybdenite,bornitc chlorite, tour- 3,151 t Mo lemon (1952),
maline Simons(1964)
Sericitic Pyrite, magnetite,hema- Calcite Not recognized Quartz latite 7 Mt, 1.7 ppm Lindquist(1980),
tite, scheelite porphyry(?) Au, 0.05% Wright (1983)
WOa
Sericitic, Specularitc,pyrite, chalo Quartz, calcite, Not recognized Unknown 19 Mr, 2.6% Wade and Wandtke
chloritic copyrite,scheelite chlorite Cu; 44 Mt, (1920), Locke
0.8% Cu (1926), Thorns
(1978)
Sericitic, K Pyrite, chalcopyrite, Quartz, tourma- At leastpartly Granodiorite 1.2 Mr, 1.7% Sillitoe (1976),
silicate, molybdenite,schee- line fault related pluton(?) Cu, 0.14% Simmons and
chloritic lite W, O.O6% Sawkins(1983)
Mo
Sericitic Pyrite, sphalerite,ga- Quartz Not recognized Quartz monzo- 2 Mr, 4% Pb Albinson(1973)
lena, tetrahedrite, nite(?) q- Zn, 120
chalcopyrite ppm Ag
Propylitic Chalcopyrite,pyrite, Quartz, epidote, N 20 ø W + N Granodiorite 6 Mt, 1.2 to Escand6n(unpub.

(t) scheelite tourmaline, 70 ø E faults(?) q- granodio- 1.5% Cu, talk, 1974), Silli-
chlorite, cal- rite por- 0.04% WOa toe (1976),
cite phyry stock Sawkins(1979)
Sericitic, Pyrite, chalcopyrite, Quartz, tourma- Not recognized Granodiorite 13,600 t Cu, Carlson and Sawk-
chloritic molybdenite,arseno- line pluton 1,360 t Mo ins (1980)
(t) pyrite, wolframite,
scheelite
Sericitic (t) Pyrite, chalcopyrite Quartz, tourma- Absent Granodiorite >0.6 Mt, 3.7% Sillitoe and Sawkins
line pluton Cu (1971)
Sericitic (t) Pyrite, chalcopyrite, Quartz, tourma- Absent Granodiorite High-gradeCu, Parker et al.
specularitc,scheelite line, K-feld- pluton minor W (1963), Sillitoe
spar,calcite and Sawkins
(1971)
Sericitic (t) Chalcopyrite,molybde- Quartz, tourma- Not recognized Granodiorite 2.7 Mr, 1.27% Pimentel (1979), C.
nite, pyrite, specular- line, sericite, pluton Cu, 0.12% Llaumett (unpub.
itc calcite Mo rept., 1981)
Silicifica- Pyrite, arsenopyrite, Tourmaline, Jointing Granodiorite 38 t Bi Llambias and Mal-

tion (t) bismuthinite, chalco- quartz pluton vicini (1969)
pyrite
14 7 2 RICHARD H. SILLITOE
TABLE2--(Continued)
No. of pipes Surface Vertical

(total/ dimensions dimension Fragment
Locality Host rocks Age (m.y.) mineralized) (m) (m) form Rock flour
Y16j'firvi,Fin- Intermediate volca- 1,800 to 2/1 700 X 5-80 380 Angular Absent
land nics 1,900
Ilkwang, Quartz monzonite 69 1/1 80 X 50 >100 Angular to Absent

S. Korea rounded
Khao Soon, Argiilaceoussedi- Triassic(?) 1/1 800 X 400 >300 Angular to sub- Absent
Thailand ments rounded
Redbank, Trachytic volcanics, 1,575(?) 50/9 up to 135 >330 Angular Generally ab-
Northern dolomite, sand- sent
Territory, stone,shale
Australia
Kidston, Gneiss,granodio- Middle Car- 1/1 1,300 X 900 >250 Angularto sub- <5%
Queensland, rite boniferous rounded
Australia
After Damonet al. (1983)
of meters.Megafragments > 100 m acrosshavebeen ampiesa matrixof either rock flour or hydrothermal
defined at Kidston(PlacerExplorationLtd., 1981). cementcompletelyseparatesfragments.
Severalpipesexhibita markeddecreasein the degree Somebreccias,or moregenerally,their upperparts,
of breeeiation both inward and downward, as at E1 are characterizedby tabular fragmentsto which the
Bolsleo(Pimentel, 1979), Turmalina (Carlsonand descriptiveterms shinglebreccia or dominobreccia
Sawkins,1980), Ilkwang (Fletcher, 1977), and Los have been applied (Fig. 2). In extreme eases,aspect
Pilares(Wade andWandtke, 1920). The lastis char- ratiosof tabular fragmentsattain 1:30. In many ex-
acterizedby an unbreeciatedcylindricalcore. Large amples,it is clearthat the tabularform of fragments
fragmentsin pipe interiorsmay alsodisplayzonesof is not attributableto closelyspacedjointing or bed-
marginalsheetingsimilarto thosearoundpipes. dingof prebreeeiationlithologies.Characteristically,
Breeeiafragmentswere separatedby 5 to 30 vol tabularfragmentsare alignedparallelto oneanother,
percent open spaceprior to completeor partial ee- like shingleson a roof, with attitudeschangingpro-
menrationby gangueand sulfideminerals.In a few gressivelyfrom steepin closeproximityto the pipe
pipes, silt- to sand-sizeclasticmaterial, commonly wallsthroughgentlyinwarddippingto subhorizontal
termed rock flour, is present as a matrix and is gen- in the centralpartsof pipes.Shinglebrecciais prob-
erally accompaniedby fragmentswith a greater de- ably producedby the regularbreakageand detach-
gree of rounding.Fragmentroundingandrockflour mentof zonesof sheetinglike thosearoundpipe walls
are both attributed to interfragmentattrition. Rock andlargefragments.The progressive decreasein dip
flour-bearingbrecciamaybe presentin pipesaslocal of tabularfragmentsinwardfrompipe wallssuggests
patches,asdistinctlyseparate,commonlylate bodies a processof slabbingfrom the wallsand/orroof of a
(e.g.,Victoria,Atkinsonet al., 1982;Redbank,Knut- pipe followedby downwardsettling.
sonet al., 1979), or asthe only materialpresent(e.g., Somebrecciascontainhighlyrounded,spheroidal
La Colorada,Albinson, 1973; Inguarftn,V. F. J. Es- clasts,locally up to 1 m in diameter (Fig. 3). Such
eand6n,unpub.talk, 1974). The informaldescriptive fragmentsmaybe isolatedin angularbreeciasor may
termsopenspacebrecciaandrockflourbreceiamay constitutethe majorityof the fragmentsthroughout,
be usedto distinguish betweenthesetwo end-member or in part of, a pipe, as at Bull-Domingo,Colorado
types. These terms are preferred to the roughly (Emmons,1896). The outer portionsof somesphe-
equivalentcollapseand intrusionbreeciasof Bryner roidalclastsare characterizedby closelyspacedcon-
(1968) and many subsequent workersbecausethey centricfractures,which give rise to an onionlikeap-
do not connoteformationalmechanisms.Both types pearance termed hypogene exfoliationby Farmin
of brecciasmay be clastsupported,but in many ex- (1937). Locally,the outermostconcentriclayer(s)is
Hydro-
thermal Ore reserve
alteration Principalhypogene and/or mined
(t = tour- metallic minerals Principal gangue Structural Related (M = million, t
maline) (in order of abundance) minerals control intrusive rock = metric tons) Reference
Silicifica- Arsenopyrite,chalcopy- Tourmaline Not recognized Granodiorite 4 Mt, 1.4% Cu, Himmi et al. (1979)
tion, rite, pyrrhotite, pluton •0.04%
chloritic scheelite WOa
Sericitic Pyrrhotite, chalcopy- Quartz, tourma- Absent Quartz monzo- 3,500 t Cu, 40 Fletcher (1977)
rite, arsenopyrite, line nite stock tW
wolframite
Sericitic, si- Ferberite, pyrite Quartz Nearby fault Unknown W Ishihara et al.
lieifiea- (1980)
tion
K-feldspar- Chalcopyrite Dolomite, quartz, E to NE linea- Trachyte 3.5 Mt, 1.8% Orridge and Mason
chlorite chlorite ments plugs(?) Cu (1975), Knutson
et al. (1979)
Sericitic, Pyrite, sphalerite, ga- Quartz, calcite, Not recognized Rhyolitedikes 39 Mt, 1.76 Bain et al. (1978),
carbonate lena sericite + stock(?) ppm Au Placer Explora-
tion Ltd. (1981)
partially detachedand, in places,disaggregatedto In severaldistricts,includingsomeconfinedto sizable

producetabular fragments. plutons,smallvolumesof fine-grainedporphyriticin-
Intrusion-relatedbrecciasrarely reveal evidence trusiverock are temporally,spatially,and probably
to suggest appreciableverticaldisplacement of frag- geneticallyassociatedwith the brecciationprocess.
mentsduringpipe emplacement. In fact,in partsof The intrusiverockmayoccurasdikesandsmallbod-
somepipes,fragmentsappearmerelyto havebeen ies, angularbreccia fragments,and irregular, partly
pulledapartandcanbe fittedbackintotheiroriginal disaggregatedmasseswithin the pipe. The last type
positionsasin a jigsaw(Fig. 4). Normallythe lithol- of occurrenceprovidesevidencethat the magmawas
ogiesof fragmentscloselymatchthoseof their wall plastic during brecciation. These minor intrusions
rocks,therebycommonly producing monolithologichave been emphasizedfrom the Chilean districts
breccias. Whereseveral rocktypesadjoinapipe,little (Parker et al., 1963; Sillitoe and Sawkins,1971),
mixingof fragmentsof differentlithologieshastaken CopperCreek (Simons,1964), Tribag(Blecha,1974),
placeandcontacts beyondthe pipemaybe extended Victoria (Atkinsonet al., 1982), and Kidston (Placer
throughthe breccia(Fig. 5). There is,however,nor- ExplorationLtd., 1981), and suggestthe presencein
mallya relativelysmalldownwarddisplacement of all depthof largerbodiesof the sameintrusiverockwith
fragments at mostlevelswithina pipe.Thishasbeen which pipe formationwas linked. Sucha body was
quantifiedby comparisonwith distinctivewall-rock encounteredby drillingsome800 m beneaththe out-
lithologiesat severallocalitiesand amountsto 25 m crop of the Breton pipe at Tribag (Blecha, 1974).
at Washington(Simmons andSawkins,1983), 100 m Table 2 suggests that there is no generalagreement
at Redbank(OrridgeandMason,1975) andTribag onthe roleof structurein localizationofbrecciapipes.
(Normanand Sawkins,1985), >125 m at Panuco, The impressionis gainedfrom the literature that the
Mexico (Buchanan,1983), and a maximumof 160 m importanceassignedto structuralcontrol saysmore
at Los Pilares(Wade and Wandtke,1920; Fig. 5). aboutthe proclivityof the observerthan it doesabout
Locally,however,thereis evidencefor somemixing the localizationof breccia pipes! This statementis
andupwardtransportof fragments, asat La Colorada borne out by comparingthe interpretationsof Kuhn
and Kidston. (1941) and Simons(1964) for the Copper Creek dis-
Brecciasare commonlylocatedin the upper parts trict. On the basis of available evidence, it is tenta-
of, or immediatelyabove,plutonsor stocks,or are tively concludedthat major regionalstructuresplay
distributedaround their slopingmargins.In some little part in brecciapipe formationand, if structural
districts,pipesmay be interpretedto have extended controlis significant,it is likely to be by minorfaults,
from the upper parts of a pluton into its roof rocks. fracturesand joints. One of the mostdetailed struc-
-?
FIG. 3. Spheroidalfragmentand its mould.
Alteration and mineralization: Most intrusion-re-

latedbrecciascarrycoppermineralization,although
molybdenum, tungstenand/orgoldarecommonly also
economicallyimportantcommodities(Table 2), and
a minortonnageof bismuthore wasexploitedat San
Franciscode Los Andes (Llamblasand Malvicini,
1969).Breccias at Chadbourne,GoldenSunlight,Or-
tiz, andKidston(Table2) are exploitablesolelyfor
their gold (and subordinatesilver)contents.A few
breccias are different and contain silver-lead-zinc or
tungstenmineralization(Table 2).
All brecciasof thistypeunderwentto somedegree
FIG. 1. A typicalsheetedzoneborderinga brecciapipe. Ilk-
thehydrothermal replacement
andopen-space-filling
wang, southernKorea. stages referredto below,a factwhichstronglysug-
geststhat alterationand mineralizationwere neces-
saryconsequences of the brecciationprocess.How-
tural studiesof a brecciapipe andits environswas ever,(50 percentof brecciasin anydusterof pipes
undertaken atChacritas,Chile,byReyesandCharrier are ore bearing (Table 2), a characteristicthat has
(1976),whoconcluded thatneithertheposition nor oftenfrustratedtheexplorationist
(Joralemon, 1952).
the shapeof thepipewasstructurally determined. Sericitization
is the mostcommonalterationtype
FIG.2. Shinglebrecciacementedby massive tourmalinefrom FIG. 4. Typicaljigsawbrecciacementedby tourmalineand

a brecciapipe.Yabricoya
district,Chile.Geologypickhandleas sericitizedalongfragmentmarginsandfractures.Approximately
one-third natural size.
ORE-RELATED BRECCIAS 1N VOLCANOPLUTONIC ARCS 1475
E W
rockflourinsteadof presentasopen-space
fillings.In
contrastto manybrecciavarieties(seebelow),most
SHEE•EDI
v.•• of the intrusion-related breccias considered here un-
"'"'•K•v
' [••1 •,• • VOLCANIC derwentonly singlemineralization eventsand gen-
erallylackevidencefor rebreeciationof earlymin-
eralization;Golden Sunlightand Kidstonare, how-
ever, exceptions.
Insteadof beinghomogeneously mineralized,many
brecciascontainonlyrestrictedvolumesof ore-grade
material.This is commonlypresentalongpart of a
pipemargin,immediately adjoiningthesheetedzone,
asat Victoria,LosPilares(Fig. 5), Turmalina,E1Bol-
sico(Fig.6), Ilkwang,andSanFrancisco deLosAndes.
At LosPilares,the marginalannulusof ore thickens
1001,
0 melers
,
]00
2.5-3.0•
CuORE
"=• substantially at both endsof the ovoidpipe. At Y18-
jSrvi, the four steepore shootsare locatedcloseto
FIO. 5. Crosssectionthrough the Los Pilaresbreccia pipe, the northeasternend of the extremelyelongatepipe
Sonora,Mexico. It showsthe distributionof copper orebodiesas
an annulusin the m•ginal p•t of the breccia• well assmaller
(Himmiet al., 1979).Enhanced permeability
resulting
bodieswithin it, andthe depressionof the latite-andesitecontact from more originalopen spacebetweenfragments,
within the brecciapipe. Taken from Wade and Wandtke (19•0), andproximityto the sheetedzone,is believedto ac-
with lithologicnomenclaturefrom Thorns(1978). countfor the higher-grademineralizationin the mar-
ginalpartsof pipes.The highestgradeof goldore at
Kidstonoccursat the southwesternend of the pipe
in the brecciapipesdiscussed in this sectionand is in an exceptionallywide (up to 300 m), inward-dip-
commonly accompanied by tourmaline(Table2; Figs. ping,quartz-filledsheetedzone,whichcutsPrecam-
2 and 4). Chloritizationand silicificationwere also briangranitewallrocks,the breccia,andpostbreccia
commonlydeveloped,propylitic and K silicate as- rhyolitedikes(Bainet al., 1978; Fig. 7).
semblages arerecordedin a few pipesor partsthereof, Ore maybe restrictedto portionsof pipe interiors.
and calc-silicatealterationis presentat Victoria (At- The goldorebodyat Ortiz coincides with the partof
kinson et al., 1982). Alteration generally ends the star-shaped
brecciathatcarriesthe leastrockflour
abruptlyaroundthe marginsof pipes,especiallyat (Lindquist,1980). Orebodiesin the Breton breceia
sheetedzones,but in someexamples(e.g., Ilkwang; at Tribag are confinedto domalfractures,whichare
Fletcher,1977) mayextenda few metersor eventens ovalto circularin plan, extendinto the wall rocksof
of metersinto the wall rocks.Marked changesin al- the breccia(Blecha,1974), and probablyresulted
terationtype are observedin somepipes:sericitiza- from late subsidence (Normanand Sawkins,1985).
tion changesdownwardto propylitizationat LosPi-
lares(WadeandWandtke, 1920) andtransitionsfrom
sericiticto K silicateassemblages havebeen notedin Total Cu O.30
the lowermostportionsof pipesat Washington(Sim-
monsandSawkins,1983), Childs-Aldwinkle,Copper 7 .... Mo '0.25
Creek district (Kuhn, 1941), and Los Verdes, Buena
Esperanzadistrict, Mexico (R. H. Sillitoe, unpub. ,,
rept., 1975).
The alteration(replacement)stagein brecciapipes
tookplaceimmediatelyafter,andperhapsalsoduring, ,,,•. .,.,
fragmentation. It wasfollowedby anepisodeof open-
spacefilling, duringwhichboth gangueand metallic
mineralswere precipitated(Table 2). Both are com-
2
'
'"' '
','i
' ^ I:j
ø"ø ø'øs
monlycoarsegrainedandwell crystallized,andpeg- o "• •' • '•g---• ..... • '•• "---• o
matitictexturesarecommon.In copper-bearing pipes, IN SlTU BRECCIATION ' ,
the open-space-fillingstage commencedwith the C•STS: CL^STS '?ST•C•STS J
outward growth from fragmentsof tourmaline and/
SHEE•D o 2• 5oo m SHE.D
or quartz, followedby any scheelite,wolframite,or Z•E
I I • i • i
Z•E
arsenopyrite andfinallyby pyrite (and/orpyrrhotite),

chalcopyrite, andmolybdenite. •.
Sphaleriteandgalena re.rs 6. Relationshipbetwee. coppera.d molybde.umco.-
a.d brecciach•actedstics acrossthe •1 Bolsicobrecciapipe,
followedby carbonatesand/or late quartzmay con- Chile. Mappi• a.d sampli.• carried o.t alo• the SV] adit o•
stitutea finalfilling.Ore mineralsat Inguar•tn,E1Bol- the 3,030-m level. Compiled[rom Pime•teJ(]gTg) a•d C. •Jau-
sico,andLa Coloradaare dispersedin interfragment mett (u.pub. rept., ]gS]).
pipe formationwere proposed,at leastin basicform,

many years ago and recent studiesof breccia pipe
formation have all utilized one of these mechanisms
with at most minor modification or embellishment
(Table 3). Bearingin mind the downwardmovement
of fragmentsand the existenceof up to 20 percent
openspacein manypipes,anybrecciationmechanism
mustbe capableof generatingan appreciablevoid.
Five hypotheseshave been entertainedfor the pro-
ductionof a void (Table 3): (1) localizeddissolution
and upward removalof rock material by fluids re-
leasedfromcoolingmagma(Locke,1926), (2) release,
perhapsexplosively,of volatilesfrom magmawith
material carried physicallyupward (Walker, 1928;
Emmons,1938), (3) downwardmovementof magma
by either shrinkageor withdrawal (Hulin, 1948;
Perry, 1961), (4) developmentof a bubbleon the roof
of a stockor plutonby accumulation of exsolvedfluids
(Norton and Cathies,1973), and (5) productionof
Sheeted
quartz veins
Late{Rhyolite
&microgranite
Paleozoic '•'•.-'.':•
Breccia pipe • dilatent zoneson major faultsduring displacement
(Mitcham, 1974).
Contact Precambrian
{ Granite
• Metamorphic rocks• The first four hypothesesall account for the
ubiquitous associationobserved between breccia
FIG.7. Surface mapofthebrecciapipeatKidston,
Queensland,
pipes,intrusiverocks,and alteration-mineralization,
whereas the fifth does not and therefore is discounted
Australia,to showdistributionof gold-bearingannularfractures
andpostbreccia dikes.TakenfromBainet al. (1978). asa generalbrecciationmechanism.
The four proposedmechanisms for brecciapipe
formationmay not necessarilybe consideredas mu-
At Chadbourne,gold is concentratedin cylindrical tually exclusiveand might all contributein varying
shootsofbreccia,up to 40 m wide, that havethe same degreesto brecciationif consideredin the contextof
plungeasthe pipe (Walker and Cregheur,1982). Burnham's(1979, 1985) model for energy release
Metals are commonlyzonedat the scaleof a pipe. during eraplacementand solidificationof hydrous
For example,at Turmalinathe molybdenumcontent magmasat highcrustallevels.Asquantifiedby Burn-
exceedsthat of copperin the upperpartsof the pipe ham(1985), energyisdissipated fromhydrousmagma
but decreasessteadilydownward(Carlsonand Saw- during exsolutionof an aqueousfluid phaseby the
kins, 1980), whereasin the Childs-Aldwinklepipe at second boiling reaction (water-saturatedmelt--•
Copper Creek the molybdenumcontentremainsun- crystals+ aqueousfluid), andthen by decompression
changed(0.6-1.2%), but the coppercontentincreases of both the exsolvedlow-densityaqueousfluid and
from i percent at the top to 6 to 8 percent on the the water-saturatedresidual melt. Decompression
800-ft level (Kuhn, 1941). In contrast,molybdenum causesexpansionof previouslyexsolvedfluid, exso-
increasesin gradedownwardin the Washingtonpipe lution of additionalfluid, and the expenditureof a
(Simmonsand Sawkins,1983). Horizontal metal zon- greateramountof energythanduringsecondboiling.
ing may alsobe present,as at E1 Bolsico,where Pi- Asdiscussed by Allman-Wardet al. (1982) andBurn-
mentel (1979) reporteda zonationfrom copper-mo- ham (1985), processestriggered by and accompa-
lybdenumthroughmolybdenumto a low-gradecore nyingdecompression appearto accountsatisfactorily
inward from the sheetedcontact(Fig. 6). for the formationof brecciapipes, especiallywhere
Studies of fluid inclusionsin open-space-filling fluid is releasedfrom the top of a restrictedcupola
minerals from intrusion-related breccias reveal that (givinga singlepipe) or is preferentiallychanneled
the mineralizingfluidsrangedin temperaturefrom by inhomogeneous structurallypreparedwall rocks
310 ø to 470øC andin salinityfrom 1 to 50 equiv.wt abovea more extensivepluton (giving a swarmof
percentNaC1(seeSoandShelton,1983). The higher pipes).
temperatureand higher salinityfluidsare similarto Violent and rapid expulsionof fluid from magma
thoseinvolvedin early (K silicate)stagesof porphyry wouldbe capableof generatingsteeptensilefractures,
depositformation (Sheppardet al., 1971) and like or reopeningexistingfaultsor fractures,andfurther
them maybe reasonablyinferredasat leastpartly of wideningthem by hydraulicfractureof their walls.
magmatic-hydrothermal origin. Decompressioncausedby propagationof fractures
Origin: All the principal mechanisms for breccia intohigherlevel,lowerpressure(perhapshydrostatic)
TABLE3. SomeSuggestedMechanismsfor Formation of BrecciaPipes
Principal mechanism Modification
Violent releaseof fluid from magma(Emmons,1938; Llambias Combinedwith decreasein magmapressure(Armbrust,1969•)

and Malvicini, 1969•; Knutsonet al., 1979•; Allman-Ward et Due to magmaadvance(hydraulicramming;Kents, 1964)
al., 1982•; Burnham,1985; PorterandRipley, 1985•) Due to magmaadvanceand followedby solution-induced col-
lapse(Fletcher,1977•)
With ventingof rock flour to give void for collapse(Scherken-
bach,1982•; Simmons andSawkins,1983•)
Subsurfaceshockmetamorphism(Godwin, 1973)
Collapsedue to excavationof exsolvedvapor bubble (Norton Followingfracturingdue to magmaticpulsations(Reyesand
and Cathies, 1973) Charrier,1976•)
Collapseinto void formed by rock dissolution(mineralization
stoping;Locke, 1926; McKinstry, 1955; Sillitoe and Sawkins,
1971; Mills, 1972)
Rockdissolutionalongminorfaultswith only subsidiarycol-
lapse(Kuhn,1941•; JohnstonandLowell, 1961•)
Readjustmentupon coolingof underlyingmagmawith only
subsidiary
collapse(Butler,1913•)
Collapseinto void formedby magmawithdrawal(Perry, 1961;
Blecha,1974•;Atkinsonet al., 1982•)
Collapseinto void formedby shrinkagedue to coolingof
magma(Hulin, 1948)
Collapseinto dilatent zone formed on major fault (Mitcham, Due to releaseof fluid (WalkerandCregheur,1982•)
1974)
Chemicalbrecciationin situ followingpipe formationby an-
other mechanism(Sawkins,1969)
Mechanism
proposed
for singlepipeor groupof pipes
regimeswould result in increasedfluid release from foliationin theseand other breccias(seebelow), an

themagma,andanincreased rateof fluid"streaming" instantaneous drop in confiningpressureduring de-
(Burnham,1985),bothofwhichcouldresultin mixing compression(Godwin, 1973; Sillitoe, 1976; Allman-
and milling of fragments,productionof rock flour Ward et al., 1982) is preferred to other proposed
matrix, and varying degreesof upward transportof mechanisms, suchasinterclastattrition(e.g.,Gavasci
material. Such conditions would also facilitate intru- and Kerr, 1968), mechanicaldetachmentof altered
sionof smallvolumesof magmainto andaroundde- clastrims (e.g., Simons,1964; Sillitoeand Sawkins,
velopingbrecciapipes. 1971), andthermalspallingof fluid-heatedclasts(e.g.,
If fluid pressuresdroppedto valuesbelow those McBirney, 1959; Warnaars, 1983).
necessary to maintainthe channelopenat depth,cav- Featuressuchas fragmentroundingand mixing,
ing and spallingof the wallsof the partly evacuated rock flour generation,and differential vertical dis-
conduitmight be induced.Open-spaceand shingle placementof fragmentshave been consideredby
breccias,sheetedzones,archingroof fractures,and many workers(e.g., Mayo, 1976; Woolseyet al.,
exfoliatedfragmentsmight all be producedin this 1975; McCallurn, 1985) to be compatiblewith the
way. The close association of rock flour and open operationof fiuidizationas a transportmechanism
spacebrecciasin the samepipe swarmand,locally, duringthe formationof subsurface breccias,including
evenin a singlepipe accordswell with suchfluctua- some of those under consideration in this section.
tionsin fluid pressureduringdecompression. However,in view of the great disparityin particle
It is uncertainif the fracturingandfragmentation sizesin rockflourbreccias, it seems
unlikelythatmore
involvedin the generationof sheetingand shingle than a smallfractionof a brecciawasever truly flu-
brecciacanbe attributedsolelyto the effectsof de- idized (cf. Wolfe, 1980). If particlesof a givensize
compression or whetherthe preexistenceof an array were fluidized,then finer grainedmaterialwouldun-
of concentricandradialfracturesproducedby up- dergoelutriationto accumulateat the top of the pipe
ward-directed(fluid)pressures (ReyesandChattier, abovefines-depletedbreccia(cf. Wilson, 1980); this
1976) is alsorequired.As a causefor hypogeneex- vertical zoningis never observed.It is more likely
that brecciaswhich underwent significantupward WHIPSTICKMINE Extrapolatedformerpositionof contact

movementdid so as slurries,in muchthe sameway
as the chaoticfragmentassemblages in debrisflows
(P. T. Delaney, writ. commun.,1984).
A discretevoid filled by fluid could alsobe pro-
ducedon a pluton'sroof asa resultof either localized
liftingof the roofrocksduringfluidrelease(Burnham,
1985; Fig. 8a) or, perhapslessprobably,by with-
drawal of magma(Perry, 1961; Fig. 8c). Burnham
(1985) calculatedthat energy released instanta- :::++::':{.•REPLACEMENT
PiPE
•
0 meters 100
neouslyduring decompression by a unit massof
magmawould be sufficientto lift an equivalentmass
FIG. 9. The bismuth-and molybdenum-bearing Whipstickre-
of rock for a height of 990 m, given no frictionalre- placementpipes, New SouthWales, Australia.Taken from Weber
sistance,and therefore confirmedthe feasibilityof et al. (1978).
generatinga void in this way. The reality of fluid-
filled voidsat the topsof magmachambersis con-
firmedby the existenceat Panasqueira, Portugal,of of felsic plutonsin easternAustraliaand comprise
a lensoidmassof quartz that was precipitatedin a steep,narrow(1-10 m), branchingbodies,of roughly
cavityat the apexof a granitecupola(Kelly andRye, circularto ellipticalcrosssection,filledwith remnants
!979). However,brecciapipe formationwasinhibited of sericitizedintrusiverockandpegmatiticaggregates
at Panasqueiraeither becausefluid pressureswere of quartz,molybdenite,bismuthinite, wolframite,and
insufficientto instigatehorizontalextensionfailure or other minerals(Blanchard,1947; Fig. 9). The evi-
becausethe 14-m height of the cavitywas too little dence favorsproductionof premineralizationopen-
to induce appreciablecaving. ingsby rocksolution,with the pipesperhapsnotbeing
Fluid corrosionof quartz-richrocksmight alsobe wide enoughto have permitted caving and breccia
effectivein producing or enlargingvoidsnearthe tops formation(McKinstry,1955).
of plutonsor in their immediateroof rocks(Locke, Geometricrelationships nearthe bottomsof pipes,
1926; Fig. 8b). The mechanismis viableduringcool- asschematizedin Figure 8, may prove usefulfor dis-
ing of a fluid from 520 ø to 340øC at a constantpres- tinguishingbetweenvoidsformedby fluid overpres-
surenot exceeding900 bars(the regionof retrograde sures,rock dissolution,and magmawithdrawal.
solubilityfor quartz;Fournier, 1983). Sericitization In mostintrusion-relatedbreccias,only one brec-
of feldspars alsoresultsin the productionof significant ciation event occurred and was probably accom-
void space(15-20% of the feldsparvolume; W. C. plishedby low-densityaqueousfluids (W. C. Burn-
Burnham,writ. commun.,1984). Evidencefor partial ham, writ. commun.,1984). It was followedby the
dissolutionof igneousrocksis providedboth by the open-space-fillingstageof mineralization,in which
corrodedand porousfragmentsfound in somebrec- high-salinityfluidsplayed an importantrole (see So
ciasandby the existence of unbrecciatedreplacement andShelton,1983). Fluid flowthroughmanybreccias
pipes.Theseare particularlycommonnear the roofs seemsto havebeensluggish if the coarse,locallypeg-
matitic texture of ore and ganguemineralsis attrib-
utedto slowcrystallization ratherthanto a low degree
a b c
of fluid supersaturation.
Porphyry-typedeposits
General remarks:Most porphyry systems,be they
dominatedby copper, molybdenum,gold, tin, or
tungsten,containoneor morevarietiesofbreccia(cf.
_ ___ Richard,1969). Brecciasare reportedfrom 50 to 60
percent of porphyry systems,as in westernCanada
..... (Seraphim and Hollister, 1976) or the Philippines
(SillitoeandGappe,1984). More arecertainlypresent
...........................................................
..... but either are not exposedor have not been recog-
nized.The brecciasrangefrom minoradjunctsto de-
•G. 8. Schematicrepresentationofbreccia pipesabovea plu- positsto the economicallydominantparts of some
ton roof that were formed with three different typesof transitory
void development:(a) domingof roof rocksby accumulationof porphyrysystems, asat BossMountain,CopperFlat,
exsolvedfluid, (b) dissolutionof roof rocksby exsolvedfluid, and Cumobabi, Los Bronces (Disputada),and Ardlethan
(c) magmawithdrawal. (Table 4). Even porphyry-typemineralizationasold
asearlyArchcanis well endowedwith breccias(Bar- It is clearfromTable 4 that brecciafragmentsrange

ley, 1982). from angularto roundedand that comminutedrock
Characteristics: Themostabundant andwidespread flourmayor maynot contributeto their matrices.It
brecciasin porphyrysystems aregroupedunderthis wouldappearthat heterolithologicbrecciaswith sub-
category.They exhibit a broad spectrumof charac- roundedor roundedfragments anda rockflourmatrix
teristics(Table 4), manyof them sharedwith the in- (rock flour breccias;Fig. 11) are more widespread
trusion-relatedbrecciapipesdealtwith above. than intrusion-relatedbreccia pipes (Table 4). The
The brecciascommonlyoccuraslensoid,ovoid,or rock flour matrixlocallyexhibitsirregularbut gen-
circularpipelikebodieswith steepto verticaldips erally steepalignmentof its constituentparticles,a
(Table4). Pipesmay.occursinglyor in groupsof as fabric attributed to upward fluid streaming(e.g.,
many as 25 at Copper Basin (Johnstonand Lowell, Central brecciaat Los Bronces,Warnaarset al., 1985;
1961) and 35 at Cumobabi (Scherkenbachet al., Llallagua,Fig. 12; andOk Tedi, ArnoldandFitzger-
1985). Additionalgeometriesincludedikes,irregular ald, 1977). Tabularfragmentsare uncommon.Rem-
bodies,carapacesto dikesor plugs(e.g., IslandCop- nantopenspacebetweenfragmentsis frequentlyob-
per, Cargill et al., 1976; andE1Abra, Ambrus,1977), servedbut in manycasesamountsto only a few vol-
and annularconfigurations(e.g., aroundan unbrec- ume percentof the brecciaand comprisesisolated,
ciatedcoreat Duluth, Cananea,Perry, 1935). roughlytriangularopenings in tightlyfittingfragment
The brecciabodiesrangein horizontaldimensions arrays.Clast-supported brecciasare the norm (Fig.
from a few meters to a maximum of 2 X 0.7 km for 11) althoughevery gradationto bodiescomposeden-
the compositepipe at LosBronces(Warnaars,1983). tirely of rockflourisknown.Only a smallpercentage
Known vertical dimensions are likewise considerable of brecciaspossesses an igneousmatrix(in the sense
and commonlyrange from 500 to 1,000 m at Red that it is composedof an intrusiverock). Examples
Mountain(Quinlan,1981; Fig. 10), Cananea(Perry, includea smallpart of the brecciasat BossMountain
1935, 1961), and Ardlethan(Paterson,1976) to at (Soregaroli, 1975),Bethlehem(BriskeyandBellamy,
least1;100 m at LosBronces(Warnaarset al., 1985). 1976), Granisle(Kirkham,1971), and Ok Tedi (Ar-
An upwardincreasein the rockvolumeoccupied by nold and Fitzgerald, 1977).
brecciais recordedfromsomelocalities,e.g., Sierrita- Individualporphyry-relatedbrecciasalsoseemto
Esperanza(West and Aiken, 1982) and Toquepala, exhibit a greater variety of texturesthan isolated
Peru (ZwengandClark, 1984). brecciapipes.This feature attainsits extremedevel-
Theformofpipelikebreccias in porphyrysystems opment at Los Bronces,where a sequenceof seven
is, in general,lessregularthanthat of brecciapipes principalbrecciaseachdistinguished on the basisof
divorcedfromporphyrysystems.
Irregularembay- the size and form of clasts,the nature and amount of
ments and offshoots from the main breccia bodies are matrix, and the degree and type of alteration-min-
commonplace andcontacts with the enclosing
parts eralizationconstitutes
a singlecomposite pipe (War-
of the porphyrysystemare commonly gradational,naars,1983; Warnaarset al., 1985).
althoughtheycanbe sheetedandabrupt(e.g,Whim Thedegreeof fragmentdisplacement in porphyry-
Hill brecciaat SantaRita;NortonandCathies,1973). relatedbrecciasis variedbut, in general,is greater
A numberof examples of boththe topsandbottoms thanin intrusion-related
brecciapipes,anobservation
of porphyry-relatedbrecciashave been described. supported by the frequencyof heterolithologicbrec-
Examplesof bottoming,characterized by a rapid cia.Particularlynoteworthyisthe increasedevidence
transition from breccia to stockworked or fractured for the ascent of clasts--intrusive clasts were dis-
rock,includethe Transvaalbrecciaat Cumobabi(at placedupwardby 200 m in the Infiernillobrecciaat
350 m; Scherkenbach,1982) and the Whim Hill Los Bronces(Warnaars,1983) andK silicate-altered
brecciaat SantaRita(atabout100 m astwoseparate clastswere carriedupwardat least 100 m at Mocoa
lobes;NortonandCathies,1973). Upwardtermina- (Sillitoeet al., 1984a).Descentof fragmentsis also
tionsofbreccias
havebeendescribed fromtheCapote documented,however, and amountsto 250 to 300 m
pipe at Cananea,which fades out into a mineralized at Los Bronces (Warnaars, 1983; Warnaars et al.,
limestone
horizon100m beneath
thesurface
(Perry, 1985) and >330 m in the Capotepipe at Cananea
1935; Meinert, 1982), andthe 148-155 pipe at Red (Perry,1961).Elsewhere,however,asat CopperFlat
Mountain,which tops out about 1,200 m below the (Dunn, 1982), fragmentdisplacementis considered
surface(Quinlan,1981;Fig. 10). Giventhisevidence to be minimal.
from Cananeaand Red Mountain,and observations Thebreccias described
in thissection
generallyare
elsewhere(e.g.,CopperFlat, Dunn, 1982; andSanto closelyrelatedto oneor moreporphyrystocks. Most
Nifio, Philippines,Sillitoeand Gappe,1984) sug- breccias
arerootedin porphyryintrusions,
although
gestingmarkedupwarddecreasein the sizeofbreccia in somecases,as at Cananea(Perry, 1935), Questa
bodies,it isinferredthatmostporphyry-related
brec- (Leonardsonet al., 1984), Red Mountain(Quinlan,
ciaswere originally"blind." 1981), andArdlethan(Paterson,1976), muchof the
TABLE4. SelectedExamplesof Magmatic-Hydrothermal
Hydrothermal
Principalhost Formof breccia alteration(t --
Locality rocks Age(m.y.) body Fragmentform Rockflour tourmaline)
Bethlehem, Granodiorite 200 Steepelongate Angularto Abundant Biotitic
B.C., Can- anastomosing rounded
ada bodies
BossMountain, Granodiorite 105 Irregular lenslike Angularto 0 to 70% Biotitic

B.C., Can- vertical body rounded
ada
Galore Creek, Alkalic volcanics, 174 to 198 Steep pipelike Angularto Present lo- K silicate
B.C., Can- syenitepor- bodies rounded cally (+ garnet)
ada phyry
IslandCopper, Quartz-feldspar 154 Carapaceto Rounded Abundant Pyrophyllite-
B.C., Can- porphyry, an- steepdike sericite
ada desitic volca-
nics
Mt. Pleasant, Granitepor- 330 to 340 Pipelikebody Angularand Abundant Quartz-topaz

N. B., Can- phyry rounded
ada
Sacaton,Ari- Quartz monzo- 64.5 Large irregular Mainly subangular 5 to 20% K silicate
zona nite porphyry, body to subrounded
monzonite
porphyry,
granite
Sierrita-Esper- Quartz monzo- 57 Irregular up- Angularto Abundant in K silicate

anza,Ari- nite porphyry, ward-flared rounded upper
zona quartz monzo- bodies parts
nite, quartz
diorite, andesi-
tic volcanics
Copper Basin, Quartz diorite, 64 25 vertical pipes Angularto Absent Quartz-K-feld-

Arizona quartzmonzo- rounded spar
nite, quartz
monzonite
porphyry
Red Mountain, Latitic and an- •60 Steep pipe Angular Absent K silicate
Arizona desitic volca- + •sericitic
nics
Copper Flat, Quartz monzo- 73.4 Steepelongate Angular,little dis- Absent K silicate
New Mexico nite pipe placed
SantaRita, Granodiorite 63 Elongatepipe Angular,sub- Present K silicate

New Mexico porphyry (Whim Hill rounded
breccia)
Questa,New Andesiticvolca- 23 Bodyabovecu- Subangular(?) Absent K silicate

Mexico nics pola of aplite
porphyry
Cananea,Son- Granite, lime- 59.9 • Eight principal Angularto sub- Absent Sericitic, K sil-
ora, Mexico stone, quartz- pipes rounded icate, skarn
ite, rhyolitic to destruction
andesitic vol-
canics
Cumobabi, Quartz monzo- 40.0 • •35 irregular Angularbut Absent, K silicate or

Sonora,Mex- nite porphyry pipes and rounded at La present at sericitic (t)
ico or andesitic bodies Verde pipe La Verde
volcanics pipe
BrecciasAssociated
with Porphyry-typeDeposits
Principalmetallic Principalgangue Age relativeto Economic

minerals minerals porphyrydeposit significance Reference
Chalcopyrite,bornite, Biotite,chlorite, Largelypremineral High-gradeparts BriskeyandBellamy

pyrite, molybdenite tourmaline, of orebodies (1976)
quartz
Molybdenite,pyrite Quartz Early intermineral Ore largelyre- Soregaroli(1975),

strictedto Soregaroliand
breccias Nelson (1976)
Pyrite, chalcopyrite Biotite, garnet, an- Premineral Part of orebody Allen et al. (1976)
hydrite
Pyrite, chalcopyrite,mo- Quartz, pyrophyllite Premineral Part of orebody Cargill et al. (1976)
lybdenite
Wolframite,molybdenite, Quartz, fluorite Premineral Main part of W- Kooimanet al.

arsenopyrite, native Mo orebody (1984)
bismuth, bismuthinite
Pyrite, chalcopyrite,mo- Quartz Premineral Hostsmuchof Cummings(1982)

lybdenite, specularite West orebody
Pyrite, chalcopyrite,mo- Quartz, biotite Early mineral High-gradeore West and Aiken
lybdenite (19S2)
Pyrite, chalcopyrite,mo- Quartz Largely premineral Three pipescarry Johnstonand Lowell

lybdenite high-gradeCu- (1961)
Mo ore
Chalcopyrite,pyrite, mo- Quartz, K-feldspar, Premineral High-gradeore, Quinlan (1981)

lybdenite anhydrite,calcite especiallyon
contacts
Pyrite, chalcopyrite, Quartz,biotite,K- Early mineral High-gradecen- Dunn (1982)

magnetite,molybde- feldspar,fluorite, tral part of ore-
nite calcite, apatite body
Pyrite, chalcopyrite, Quartz, K-feldspar, Early mineral Part of supergene Kerr et al. (1950),
magnetite,molybde- biotite orebody Rose and Baltosser
nite (1966), Norton
and Cathies(1973)
Molybdenite Quartz, K-feldspar, Premineral Main orebody Leonardson et al.
biotite (1984)
Chalcopyrite,bornite, Quartz, carbonate, Intermineral High-gradeore Perry (1935, 1961),

pyrite, sphalerite, mo- phlogopite (La Meinert (1982)
lybdenite, galena Colorada), chlo-
rite
Pyrite, molybdenite, Quartz, biotite, K- Premineral Four bodiescarry Sillitoe (1976),

chalcopyrite,tetrahe- feldspar,anhy- Mo ore Scherkenbach et al.
drite drite, apatite, sid- (1985)
erite or quartz,
tourmaline
TABLE4. (Continued)
Hydrothermal
Principalhost Form of breccia alteration(t --
Locality rocks Age (m.y.) body Fragmentform Rockflour tourmaline)
La Caridad, Quartzmonzo- 54.5• Irregular to Roundedto sub- <10% Sericitic+

Sonora,Mex- nite porphyry, pipelike angular silicate
ico diorite, grano- bodies
diorite
Mocoa,Colom- Dacite porphyry, 166 Irregular bodies Angularto sub- 0 to 20% K silicate
bia andesitic-daci- on roof and rounded q- sericitic
tic volcanics flank of stock
Quebrada Quartz monzo- 38 Lens-shaped Roundedto Minor Sericitic(t), K

Bianca, nite, quartz composite angular silicate
Chile and feldspar body + pipe(s)
porphyries (2 X 1 km)
E1 Abra, Chile Diorite 33 to 35 Hoodlikebodies Angularto Minor K silicate
to dacitepor- rounded
phyry plugs
Los Bronees, Quartz monzo- 7.4 to 4.9 Sevensteepbod- Angularto suban- 0 to 40% Sericitic(t),
Chile nite, andesitic ies comprising gular propylitic
volcanics 2 X 0.7-km
complex
Llallagua, Quartz latite 20 Pipes,dikes,and Subangular
to 20 to 100% Sericitic(t)
Bolivia porphyry, ar- irregular rounded
gillite bodies
Panguna, Andesitc, diorite, 3 to 5 Irregular pipe- Angularto 0 to 80% Biotitic

Papua New granodiorite like bodies rounded
Guinea
Ok Tedi, Quartz monzo- 1.1 Dikes andirreg- Angularto 0 to 100% K silicate

PapuaNew nite porphyry ular bodies rounded
Guinea (10-20% of
stock)
Ardlethan, Adamellite, 411 to 412 Four irregular Angularto Abundant Sericitic (t),
N. S.W., quartz-feldspar pipelike rounded chloritic (t)
Australia porphyry bodies
After Damonet al. (1983)
brecciationis in overlyingrocks.Locally,specificin- in the peripherallead-zinczone(RubrightandHart,

termineral intrusionsmay be singledout as closely 1968), and at Bagdad,Arizona,where the mostim-
relatedboth spatiallyand geneticallyto brecciation. portantpipe (theBlackMesa)carriescopperandmo-
Examplesincludedaciteporphyryplugsat E1 Abra lybdenummineralization(Andersonet al., 1955).
(Ambrus, 1977), a biotite granodioriteat Panguna Fault controlofbrecciasin porphyrysystems isnot
(Baldwinet al., 1978), andquartzdiorite porphyries widely recognized,althoughit is likely at somelo-
at Biga (Atlas)and SantoTomasII in the Philippines calities, such as Bethlehem, where the marked elon-
(SillitoeandGappe, 1984). gationof someof the brecciabodiesis suggestive of
Brecciasoccupya wide varietyof positionswithin structurallocalization(Briskeyand Bellamy,1976).
porphyrysystems. Manyof themarecentrallyplaced, Contactsbetweendifferentlithologies,especially
be-
asat CopperFlat (Dunn, 1982), Questa(Leonardson tween intrusions and their wall rocks, seem to have
et al., 1984), andRed Mountain(Quinlan,1981; Fig. provideda morewidespreadlocusfor brecciation.
10), whereasothers are eccentricallylocated (e.g., Alteration and mineralization: K silicate alteration
Mocoa, Sillitoe et al., 1984a; Los Bronces,Warnaars, dominatedby biotite, K-feldspar,or both mineralsis
1983). Elsewhere breccia pipes constitutepartial the mostwidespreadalterationtype in porphyry-re-
halosto porphyry copper deposits,as at Bingham, latedbreccias,althoughsericitizationis alsorelatively
Utah, where a varietyof poorlydocumentedbreccia common(Table 4). In addition,advancedargillic al-
pipes,perhapsnot all of the sameorigin, is present terationoccursat IslandCopper(Cargillet al., 1976),
Principalmetallic Principalgangue Age relative to Economic

minerals minerals porphyry deposit significance Reference
Pyrite, chalcopyrite Quartz, tourmaline Intermineral Part of chalcocite Saegartet al. (1974),
ore zone R. H. Sillitoe (un-
pub. rept., 1975)
Chalcopyrite,pyrite, mo- Quartz,K-feldspar, Intermineral Partlyhigh-grade Sillitoe et al. (1984a)

|ybdenite sericite, chlorite ore
Pyrite, chalcopyrite,bor- Quartz, biotite, K- Intermineral Lens-shaped Hunt et al. (1983)

nite, molybdenite feldspar,sericite, bodycontains
tourmaline Cu-Mo ore
Chalcopyrite,bornite Biotite Intermineral Part of ore zone R. H. Sillitoe and H.

Neumann (unpub.
rept., 1970), Am-
brus (1977)
Pyrite, chalcopyrite, Tourmaline,quartz, Intermineral Partsof four Warnaars (1983),
specularite, mo- ohiorite, sericite, breccias consti- Warnaars et al.
lybdenite anhydrite tute hypogene (1085)
ore
Cassiterite, pyrite Tourmaline,quartz Pre- and inter- Partly ore $illitoe et al. (1975),
mineral Grant et al. (1980)
Chalcopyrite,bornite Quartz, biotite, K- Intermineral High-gradeore Baldwin et al. (1978)

feldspar
Pyrite, chalcopyrite,mo- Quartz, biotite Intermineral Part of orebody Arnold and Fitzger-
lybdenite ald (1977)
Pyrite, arsenopyrite, Quartz, tourmaline, Early and inter- Comprisesmost Paterson(1976), P. J.

sphalerite,galena, sericite, chlorite, mineral of the nine ore- Eadingtonand
chalcopyrite,cassiterq siderite, fluorite bodies R. G. Paterson(un-
itc
pub. rept., 1984)
propylitization at LosBronces (Warnaars et al., 1985), Quartz is the mostwidespreadcementingmineral,

quartz-topazalterationat Mt. Pleasant(Kooimanet althoughit is absentor minor at E1Abra and Galore
al., 1984), andskarn-destructive quartz-chlorite-car- Creek.In K silicate-altered brecciasit is accompanied
bonate-hematitealteration at Cananea (Meinert, by K-feldsparand/orbiotite, to whichoneor moreof
1982). K silicatealterationis notablymoreabundant chlorite,fluorite, apatite,siderite,tourmaline,mag-
than in intrusion-relatedbrecciapipes.At somelo- netite, and specularitcmay be added.The K silicate
calities,both K silicate-alteredand sericitizedbreccias assemblage presentasa matrixto brecciasat Questa
are presentin closeproximity(e.g., Mocoa;Sillitoe (Leonardson et al., 1984), CopperFlat (Dunn, 1982),
et al., 1984a); elsewhere sericitic alteration over- andthe Coloradapipeat Cananea(Perry,1935, 1961)
printedearlyK silicateassemblages (e.g.,Cumobabi; is pegmatitic in texture. Tourmaline tends to be a
Scherkenbach, 1982) or characterizes the apexand morecommonconstituentof sericitizedbreccias(Ta-
flanksof a largelyK silicate-altered pipe (e.g.,Red ble 4). Garnetoccursasboth an alterationandmatrix
Mountain;Quinlan,1981). At Cumobabi,brecciaslo- mineralat GaloreCreek (Allen et al., 1976). One or
catednearthecenterof thehydrothermal system are moreof chalcopyrite,pyrite, andmolybdeniteis also
K silicatealtered and constitutemolybdenumore present as a matrix component,even in rock flour
whereasmore peripheralbrecciasare propylitized breccias.Cassiteriteis the economically mostimpor-
and/orsericitizedandare devoidof ore to explored tant cementingmineral at Llallaguaand Ardlethan,
depths(Sillitoe,1976; Scherkenbach, 1982). as is wolframite at Mt. Pleasant.
148-155
B•ECCIA riPE
/I
1 I
o m•.. '•
FIG. 10. Diagrammaticcrosssectionthroughthe Red Mountain

porphyrycopper system,Arizona, to showthe central position FIG. 12. Swirly flow texturein rock flour matrixto hetero-
of the 148-155 brecciapipe. Taken from Quinlan (1981). lithologicbreccia.Orurotin deposit,Bolivia.Approximately half
natural size.
Bre•cias
inporphyry
systems
arecommonly
char-
acterizedby higher contentsof exploitablemetals ries more than 15 timesthe averagemolybdenum
than the surroundingstockworks.The situation gradeof the restof the deposit(Hunt et al., 1983)
reachesan extreme at BossMountain (Soregaroli, and at SantoTomasII, Philippines,smallpipelike
1975), CopperFlat (Dunn, 1982), Cumobabi(Scher- brecciashavemarkedlyhigherMo to Cu andMo to
kenbach,1982), and Los Bronces(Warnaarset al., Au ratiosthan the rest of the deposit(Sillit.oeand
1985), where the porphyry copperstockworksbe- Gappe, 1984).
yondthe brecciasdonotattainoregrades.Elsewhere, In commonwith intrusion-relatedbreccia pipes,
however,includingIslandCopper,Cananea,Mocoa, somebreccias in porphyrysystems arecharacterized
QuebradaBianca,Questa,Llallagua,Mt. Pleasant,and by a preferreddistributionof oreminerals.Examples
Ardlethan,brecciasconstitutethe highestgradeparts maybe citedfromthe 148-155pipeatRedMountain,
of the orebodies.Locally,asat LosBronces(Warnaars, wherecopper,molybdenum, andsilvergradesaround
1983) andMocoa(Sillitoeet al., 1984a),metalgrades the marginsare severaltimesgreaterthanthosein
are appreciablyenhancedby the presenceof previ- itsinterior(Quinlan,1981),andfromtheDonoso pipe
ouslymineralizedclastsin the breccias.In somebrec- at Los Bronces,where copperis concentratedin a
cias,the metalbudgetis distinctlydifferentfromthat seriesof downward-closing shells(Warnaars,1983).
characteristic
of the porphyrydepositasa whole.As Basedonthe examples selectedforTable4, breccia
examples,at QuebradaBianca,a dikelikebrecciacar- emplacement in porphyrysystems rangesin agefrom
premineralto intermineral.In premineralexamples
there is no evidenceof any earlier stagesof miner-
alization, and at some localities, such as Bethlehem
(BriskeyandBellamy,1976), the mainmineralized
stockwork crosscuts the breccia bodies. Where brec-
ciasare designated asearly mineral(Table4), there
is only minor evidencefrom constituentfragments
,, •-- _•. ,,' -• , • • *•. • ; •.• • • '• forprebrecciation alterationandmineralization.This
is exemplifiedby low-gradepyrite-chalcopyrite min-
eralizationrelated to pervasivesericitizationthat
. -.. • ß ... q ß .• • . -• , • '-*•
predatedthe brecciation-Ksilicatealterationevent
at CopperFlat (Dunn, 1982), a barren prebreccia
.- ..• **":•-•:'..../.,.;•:•.:.•.,d -• .%•" ..'.- •;•-..• ,[ ,,•
stageof quartz-K-feldspar veiningat Sierrita-Esper-
anza(WestandAiken,1982), andprebrecciaquartz-
topazalterationat Ardlethan(P. J. Eadingtonand
R. G. Paterson,unpub.rept., 1984). In contrast,in-
termineralbrecciaswere emplacedlater thanoneor
•O. 11. T•ie•! rock flourbreccia.EI Abra porphyrycopper more main stagesof alterationand mineralization.
depo,it, •hile. Evidencefor this conclusion is commonlyprovided
by the restrictionof ore-bearingveinletsto individual attributed to the same late magmatic processes
fragmentsin a breccia(Fig. 13), as emphasizedfor (Burnham,1979).
Granisleandelsewhereby Kirkham(1971), or by the The spectrumof texturesand relationshipssum-
truncationof alterationandstockworkveinletsby an marizedabovefor brecciasin porphyrysystemsmay
entire brecciabody. Intermineralbrecciasmay also be attributedto the samemechanisms usedto explain
contain clasts of mineralized breccia derived from comparablefeaturesin isolatedbreccia pipes. It is
preexisting bodies,a relativelycommonfeatureat Los thereforeno longernecessaryto invokeseparateor-
Bronces(Warnaars,1983) and elsewhere. iginsfor texturallyandgeometricallydifferentbrec-
In somecases,copperandmolybdenumintroduc- ciasthat occur in closeproximity in many porphyry
tion to intermineralbreeeiasaccompanied renewed systems; they may all be relatedto the sameOverall
(or continued)K silicatealteration,whereaselsewhere mechanism.
it was associatedwith localized serieitie, or in most Rockflourbrecciasshowingevidenceof mixingand
Philippineexamples,ohiotitlealteration(Si!litoeand upward transportof fragmentsare apparentlymore
Gappe, 1984). widespreadin porphyry systemsthan in isolated
Stableisotopestudiesto determinethe sourceof brecciapipesandmaybe due to the efficientrelease
fluids responsiblefor alteration-mineralizationof of largervolumesof fluidsfromsubvolcanic porphyry
breeeiasin porphyrysystemshave not been carried stocksthan from the roofsof deeper seatedplutons
out. However, the coincidence of brecciation and K (seeBurnham,1985). A more protractedreleaseof
silicatealterationduringthe earlydevelopment stages fluids,or severalstagesof releaseasa resultof mul-
of manyporphyrysystems (Table4) suggeststhatme- tiple intrusion,effectivelyexplainsthe intermineral
teoric-hydrothermal fluidsgenerallywere subordi- positionof manybrecciasin porphyrysystems.In-
nate to fluidsof direct magmatic-hydrothermal par- termineralbrecciationmayalsobe favoredby the re-
entage(Sheppard et al., 1971). duction of rock permeabilityresultingfrom early
Origin: Most workers in the last two decadeshave stagesof K silicatealteration(particularlyquartzpre-
attributedthe principalbreeeiasin porphyrysystems cipitation)andmineralization(seeFournier, 1983).
to theviolentreleaseofmagmatic-hydrothermal fluids
from coolingstocks(e.g., Phillips,1973; Seraphim Phreatic(Hydromagmatic)Breccias
and Hollister, 1976). It is clear that the model of
Burnham(1979, 1985) andothersfor brecciationby Epithetrealprecious(_ base)metal deposits
fluid liberationduringsecondboiling,followedby General remarks:Epithermal preciousmetal de-
decompression of the releasedfluids,is as effective positsmay be subdividedconvenientlyinto three
in explainingthe widevarietyof breeeiasin porphyry principalcategories(Bonhamand Giles, 1983): vol-
systemsasit is the isolatedintrusion-relatedbreeeia canic-hosted deposits,
hotspring-related
deposits,and
pipesdescribedabove.Furthermore,the widespread carbonate-hosted(Carlin-type) deposits.A shallow
stockworkfracturesin porphyrysystems mayalsobe (< 1,000 m) levelof emplacement isinferredfor most
epithermaldeposits.An association of epithermalde-
positswith volcanicstructures or landforms, including
flow-domecomplexes,maar-diatremesystems,and
calderaring fractures(Table5), emphasizes the shal-
low depthsof emplacement.In fact,severalof the hot
spring-relateddepositsattained the contemporary
surfaceasshownby their association with sinters(Ta-
ble 5). As a consequence of their shallowsettings,
mostdepositsrangefrom Mioceneto Pleistocenein
age and lack large volumesof associatedintrusive
rocks(Table 5).
It is widely acceptedthat brecciasare a common
accompaniment to volcanic-hostedandhot spring-re-
latedepithermaldepositsandare consideredby Ber-
gerandEimon(1983)andBonham andGiles(1983)
asan integralpart of the latter category.Their im-
portancein many Carlin-typedepositshasalsobeen
emphasized
recently(Sillitoe,1983a).
Characteristics:
A broadrangeof brecciatypesis
FIG. 13. Intermineralbreeeiawith quartzveinlet confinedto foundin epithermalsystems(Table 5). Their geom-
clastnearthe middleof photograph.Chlorite-bearing rockflour etriesrangefrom smallveinsandveinlets(Fig. 14) to
matrix. largepipes,tabularmasses,andirregularanastomos-
TABLE5. SelectedExamplesof Phreatic Breccias
Locality Host rocks Age (m.y.) Volcanicsetting Form Fragmentcharacteristics
Equity Silver, Dacitic tuffs 59 None known Irregulartabular Angularto rounded,at

B.C., Canada body leasttwo generations
Cinola, B.C., Conglomerates, Late Ceno- None known Extensive,poorly Angularto rounded(?)
Canada siltstones zoic defined bodies
Delamar, Idaho Rhyolite domes, 15 Rhyolite flow- Irregularvein Angular,monolithologic

plugs,flows dome com- andpipelike to subrounded,het-
plex bodies erolithologic
Cripple Creek Latite-phonolite 27 to 28 Interior of dia- Irregular bodies Angular,monolithologic

(Globe Hill), intrusions treme andpipesto to rounded,hetero-
Colorado >330 m lithologic;three
generations
Summitville, Quartz latite por- 22 to 23 Dome on older Pods,pipes,and Angularto subrounded,

Colorado phyry dome calderaring tabular bodies mono- or heterolitho-
fracture logic, three
generations
Red Mountain, Rhyolitic to 22.5 Ring fracture of Pipesto >370 m Angularto rounded,het-
Colorado quartz latitic older caldera erolithologic
volcanics,
quartz latite
porphyry plugs
Round Mountain, Metasediments, 25 On calderaring Upward-flared Angularto subangular,
Nevada ignimbrite fracture pipelikebody heterolithologic,
to >350 m movedupward
Buckhorn, Basaltic andesitic Late Tertiary Graben Pipelikebody Angular
Nevada volcanics,argil- + subaerial(?)
lite patches
Buckskin, Rhyolitic pyro- 15.5 Rhyoliteflow- Pipelikebody Angularto rounded,

Nevada clastics dome com- sortedparallelto con-
plex tact
Hasbrouck Volcaniclastic 16.3 Rhyoliteflow- Extensive irregu- Angularto rounded,het-

Mountain, sediments,ig- dome com- lar bodies erolithologic,moved
Nevada nimbrite plex upward
Northumberland, Limestone, dolo- 84.6(?) None known Structurallyand Angular

Nevada mite, shale, silt- stratigraphi-
stone cally con-
trolled bodies
AlligatorRidge, Limestones, Tertiary(?) None known Irregular(?) Angular

Nevada shales bodies
La Coipa,Chile Siltstone, dacitic Miocene(?) Dacite domes Irregular pipes Angularto subrounded
ignimbrite and bodies
4- tuff
Rosia Montana, Dacite porphyry Late Mio- Probable flow- Breccia pipes to Angularto rounded(?)
Romania cene dome com- 500 m
plex
Chinkuashih, Sandstone,shale Pleistocene Dacite porphyry Smallpipes Angularor rounded,
Taiwan flow-dome and dikes to movedupward,het-
complex >200 m erolithologic
Wau, Papua New Phyllites,explo- <4 to >2.4 Tuff ring around Anastomosing Angularto rounded,het-
Guinea sion breccia maar veins and erolithologic
pods,subaerial
apron
1486
Associatedwith PreciousMetal Deposits
Ore deposit type

and ore reserve
Hydrothermal Principalhypogene (M = million, Relation to Relation to
alteration minerals t: metric tons) palcosurface orebody Reference
Advanced Quartz,pyrite,arseno- BulkAg-Cu-Au-Sb; Subsurface Constitutes

ore Cyr et al. (1984),
argillic pyrite, tetrahedrite, 28 Mt, 106 ppm (1,000 m?) Wodjak and Sinclair
chalcopyrite,sphaler- Ag, 0.38% Cu, (1984)
itc, galena 0.96 ppm Au
Silicification Quartz,pyrite,marcasite BulkAu; 41 Mt, Subsurface,
proba- Constitutes
ore Cruson et al. (1983)
1.85 ppm Au bly shallow
Silicification, Quartz,pyrite, nauman- BulkAg-Au;9 Mt, Shallowsubsurface Partlyore Pansze(1975), R. H.
argillic nite, argentitc 86 ppm Ag, i and at paleosur- Sillitoe and H. F.
ppm Au face (sinter) Bonham(unpub. ob-
servations,1981)
Quartz, sericite, Quartz, fluorite,carbon- BulkAu, 2 orebod- Subsurface Constitutes ore Thompsonet al.
chlorite, ate, celestite,anhy- ies; •4 Mt, 1.3 (1985)
montmoril- drite, pyrite, galena, to 1.8 ppm Au
1onite sphalerite,chalcopy-
rite, pyrrhotite
Silicification, Quartz,alunite,pyrite, Au-Ag-Culodes Shallowsubsurface Ore bearing Steven and Ratt•
advanced enargite,covellite, na- and pipes and postore (1960), Perkinsand
argillic rive sulfur Nieman (1983)
Silicification, Quartz, clays,pyrite, en- Cu-Au-Ag pods Subsurface Contains ore- Burbank(1941),
advanced argite, chalcocite,co- and pipes bodies Fisher and Leedy
argillic veilitc, bornitc,sphal- (1973), Lipman et
erite, galena al. (1976)
Silicification Pyrite Bulk Au; 204 Mt, Shallow subsurface Barren, central Mills (1982), Berger
1.2 ppm Au to orebody and Eimon (1983)
Silicification, Quartz, pyrite, marcasite Bulk Au; 4.6 Mt, Shallow subsurface Constitutes part Monroe and Plahuta
kaolinitc, ad- 1.54 ppm Au and paleosur- of orebody (1984)
ularia, seri- face(?)(sinter
cite fragments)
Silicification, Quartz, pyrite, stibnite, Vein and stock- Shallow subsurface Cut by veins Vikre (1983)
alunite sulfosalts,cinnabar work Au-Ag and palcosur-
face (sinter)
Silicification, Quartz, pyrite, acan- Bulk Au-Ag Shallow subsurface Constitutes ore- Bonham and Carside
adularia,illite thite, stibnite,pyrar- (<150 m) to pa- body (1979), R. H. Silli-
gyrite, chalcopyrite leosurface(sin- toe and H. F. Bon-
ter) ham (unpub. obser-
vations, 1981), Gra-
ney (1984)
Silicification Quartz, barite, pyrite Carlin-type Au; Subsurface Constitutes ore Motter and Chapman
(jasperold) •40 Mt, 2.4 (1984), R. H. Silli-
ppm Au toe and H. F. Bon-
ham (unpub.obser-
vations, 1981)
Silicification Quartz, calcite, barite, Carlin-type Au; Subsurface Partly ore Klessig(1984), R. H.
(jasperoid) pyrite, stibnite 4.5 Mr, 4.1 ppm Sillitoe and H. F.
Au Bonham(unpub. ob-
servations,1981)
Silicification, Quartz, pyrite, sphaler- Bulk Ag-Au pros- Shallow subsurface Partly mineral- R. H. Sillitoe (unpub.
advanced itc, galena,chalcopy- pect and palcosur- ized rept., i980)
argillic rite, sulfosalts face (sinter)
Silicification, Quartz, rhodochrosite, Au Subsurface Partly ore R5dulescu et al.
adularia, pyrite, sphalerite,ga- (1981)
argillic lena, chalcopyrite
Silicification Pyrite, enargite,quartz, Cu-Au veins Subsurface Partly ore Chu (1975)
alunite + breccias
Minor Quartz, calcite, manga- Bulk Au-Ag Shallow subsurface Constitutes ore Sillitoe et al. (1984b)
nocalcite,pyrite, galena, and paleosur-
sphalerite face
1487
breccias,especiallythosethat underwenthypogene
leachingduringadvancedargillicalteration,asat Red
Mountain(Burbank,1941). Someepithermalbreccias
displaya cleargradation to stockwork fracturing(e.g.,
Delamar,HasbrouckMountain,GlobeHill at Cripple
Creek, AlligatorRidge,andEquity Silver).
Many epithermalbrecciasprovide evidenceof
multiplestagesof silicification,mineralization,and
brecciation,and at some localitiesa temporal se-
quence,with eachbrecciaexhibitingits own distinc-
tive characteristics,
maybe determined.For example,
Thompsonet al. (1985) proposedfourstagesofbrec-
ciation,eachaccompanied by mineralization,in the
GlobeHill areaat Cripple Creek. The intermineral
(and,locally,evenpostmineral)timingof brecciation
FIG. 14. Typicalbrecciaveinletresultingfromhydraulicfrac- is emphasized at manylocalitiesby the restrictionof
ture. Matrix comprisessilicifiedrock flour. Epithermal precious distinctivetypesof silicification
or sulfideveiningto
metal prospect,Chile. isolatedfragments.For example,asmanyasfour va-
rieties of silicified limestone occur .in breccia in the
ingbodies.Severalepithermalbreccias possess known Taylor district,Nevada(Loveringand Heyl, 1974).
verticalextentsof 200 to 500 m (Table 5). The reg- A structuralcontrolof epithermalbrecciasis em-
ularlyshapedpipesat RedMountain(Burbank,1941) phasizedmore frequently than for deeper seated
and Chinkuashih(Chu, 1975) are reminiscentof the brecciasassociatedmore closelywith plutonsand
intrusion-related pipesdescribedabove.It istherefore stocks. Minor faults are considered to have localized
significantthat marginalsheetedzonesand a close the Red Mountainpipes(Burbank,1941; Fisherand
relation of brecciasto quartz latite porphyryplugs Leedy, 1973) andthe Chinkuashihbrecciadikesand
are characteristic of severalpipesat Red Mountain pipes(Chu,1975), whereasa majoroblique-slipfault
(Burbank,1941; FisherandLeedy, 1973) andlarge abuts and probably localized the Cinola breccias
isolatedspheroidalfragmentswere reported from (Crusonet al., 1983). In the GlobeHill areaat Cripple
Chinkuashih(Chu, 1975). Creek, faulting took place during brecciationand
At severallocalities,suchasRoundMountain(Mills, actedas an importantspatialcontrol(Thompsonet
1972),thereisa markedupwardflareto pipe-shaped al., 1985). High-anglefaultsand stratigraphichori-
bodies,which is interpretedto be due to their ap- zons, especiallylimestone-shalecontacts,localized
proachto the contemporaryland surface.In fact, at much of the silicification and brecciation in carbonate-
Buckhorn (Monroe and Plahuta, 1984), Buckskin hostedepithermaldeposits,as at Northumberland
(Vikre, 1983), HasbrouckMountain(Graney,1984), (Motter and Chapman,1984) and Alligator Ridge
Delamar(R.H. SillitoeandH. F. Bonham,Jr.,unpub. (Klessig,1984). Structuresof volcanicorigin also
observations, 1981), La Coipa(R. H. Sillitoe,unpub. controlled brecciation and mineralization in several
rept., 1980), and Wau (Sillitoeet al., 1984b), brec- epithermaldistricts,asat Wau whereshortlow-angle
ciationbreachedthe palcosurface.Remnantsof sub- extensionalstructuresbetweena diatremering fault
aerialbrecciaapronsare still preservedat Wau. Es- (seebelow)anda regionalfault localizedbrecciation
sentiallysubaerial brecciasat the Milestoneprospect (Sillitoeet al., 1984b).
(Delamar),Buckhorn,andHasbrouckMountaincon- Alteration and mineralization: The dominant fea-
tain fragments of sinteraswell asa varietyof under- ture that distinguishes epithermalbrecciasfrommost
lying rocks,whereasat La Coipa (and in placesat magmatic-hydrothermal brecciasis the widespread
McLaughlin,California)surfacehot springsinters occurrence of quartzasbotha pervasivereplacement
underwent brecciation more or less in situ. Silicified of, and a cementto, fragments.It is generallyfine
logsaccompany sinterfragmentsat Milestone. grainedandcommonlychalcedonic, andcharacterizes
The texturesof epithermalbrecciasare extremely allbutthreeof theexamples citedin Table5. Silicified
varied.Rockflourandopen-space brecciasare both carbonaterocks.aregenerallyreferredto asjasperoid.
widespread (BergerandEimon,1983) andbothmay In epithermalpreciousmetaldepositswhere silic-
occur in individual breccia bodies. Rock flour is com- ificationis widespread, there is a closerelationship
monly maskedby silicification(Fig. 14). There is betweenthe developmentof pervasivechalcedonic
commonlyevidencefor relativelyrestrictedupward silicaandbrecciation,asseenat Summitville(Steven
displacement of fragments, but thisisclaimedto attain andRatt6,1960),in thecarbonate-hosted epithermal
200 m in rock flour brecciasat Chinkuashih(Chu, deposits(Table5), andelsewhere.The brecciapipes
1975).Appreciableopenspaceiswidespread in some at RedMountain(Burbank,1941) arecappedby mas-
sivesilicification.
Silicification is accompanied by, or the casein the zoneof advancedargillicalterationat
grades into,advanced argillicalteration richin alunite Julcani,Peru,wherea radialswarm of tourmaline--
at Summitville,Red Mountain,La Coipa,andChink- bearing brecciadikesemplaced priorto themainbase
uashihbut is surrounded by lessacidalterationtypes andprecious metalmineralization is interpretedby
at the other localities listed in Table 5. Patches of Shelnuttand Noble (1985) to be a productof deep-
silicification
andassociated brecciation arealsotypical seatedmagmatic-hydrothermal fluids.
of the similarzonesof advanced argillicalterationthat Modernanalogs: Someepithermal breccias maybe
characterizethe upper (volcanic)partsof porphyry compared directlyto the productsof brecciationas-
coppersystems (Sillitoe,1983b). sociatedwith activemeteoricwater-dominatedgeo-
The presenceor absenceof advancedargillical- thermalsystems in theTaupovolcaniczoneof North
teration is the dominant control on the sulfide and Island,New Zealand,the westernUnited States,and
gangue mineralogy of the breccias. Sulfur-rich
sUl- elsewhere.Brecciationis a commonphenomenonat
fides,especiallypyrite, enargite,luzonite,andcov- shallowlevelsin geothermal systems,
andlocallyit
ellitc, generallycement silicifiedbrecciaswithin breachedthe land surfaceto producecraterssur-
zonesof advancedargillicalteration,whereasmuch roundedby apronsof breccia(Fig. 15). In keeping
smalleramountsof pyrite, either aloneor accompa- with the inferred mechanismof formation, the sub-
niedby sphalerite,galena,chalcopyrite, tennantite- aerialejectahavebeencalledhydrothermal explosion
tetrahedriteand/orargentitcoccurwhereadvanced breccias(Muffleret al., 1971) or hydrothermalerup-
with tionbreccias(Lloyd,1959).Hydrothermaleruptions
argillicalterationis absent.Brecciasassociated
Carlin-typedepositstend to be cementedby a re- (hydroexplosions; Sheridan andWohletz,1983)were
strictednumberof minerals,of whichquartz,calcite, observedat Waimangu,New Zealand,in 1900-1904
pyrite,barite,andstibniteare the mostwidespread. andagainin 1917 (LloydandKeam,1965; Fig. 15),
Epithermal breccias commonly goldand/ andat La Soufri•re,Guadeloupe,
constitute FrenchWestIndies
or silverore. Breccias mayprovidethe mainlocifor in 1976 (Heiken et al., 1980).
ore, asat RedMountain(Burbank,1941), or maysim- In North Island, New Zealand, an area southwest
ply hostsomeof thehighestgradeportions of anore of the Taraweraflow-domecomplex,on the edgeof
body,asat HasbrouckMountain(Graney,1984) or the Okatainacaldera(Fig. 16), is characterized by
Northumberland(Motter and Chapman, 1984). In manyhydrothermal explosionbreccias.Duringthe
theseandmostof the other examplesin Table 5 the emplacement of theyoungest Taraweradomesabout
preciousmetalmineralization
is presentmainlyin the 900 yearsago(Cole,1979),a seriesof hydrothermal
brecciacement.Locally,however,as at Buckskin eruptionstook placein the nearbyWaiotapugeo-
(Vikre, 1983), preciousmetalsare presentonly in thermalsystem,manyof themlocalizedby the Nga-
veinsand stockworksthat cut breccia. At Wan, much pouriandassociated faults(Lloyd,1959;Cross,1963;
of the goldin the brecciasis presentin clastsof vein Hedenquist,1983; Hedenquistand Henley, 1985).
material($illitoeet al., 1984b).In contrast,the brec- The cratersalongthetraceof the Ngapourifault(Fig.
cia pipe at RoundMountainis barren,althoughit is 16) are occupiedby lakesmeasuring100 to 750 m
surrounded by ore (Mills, 1982). Manyof the brec- in diameter,whicharesurrounded by circularto oval
ciatedjasperoidsassociated with carbonate-hosted
epithermaldepositscontainonly traceamountsof
precious metals,althoughat Northumberland andAl-
ligatorRidge(Table5) they are integralpartsof the
orebodies.
Onlysparse
information
isavailable
concerning
the
fluidsinvolvedin the formationof the epithermalde-
positslistedin Table 5 (e.g.,CrippleCreek,Thomp-
sonet al, 1985; EquitySilver,Wodjakand Sinclair,
1984). In commonwith most epithermalprecious
metal deposits,however,the ore fluidsare assumed
to have been dominatedby meteoricwater (e.g.,
O'Neil andSilberman,
1974;Radtkeet al., 1980).
The mostlikely exceptions
to thisgeneralization
are
thevolcanic-hosted
deposits
thatcontain
ena•gite
and
gold as componentsof advancedargillic alteration
(Summitville,Red Mountain,andChinkuashihin Ta-
FIG. 15. Hydrothermaleruption of the Waimangu"geyser,"
ble 5), in whichmagmatic-hydrothermalfluidscould probablyin early 1904. Note the apronof brecciaalongsidethe
conceivably havebeenimportantat leastduringearly eruptioncrater.TakenfromLloydandKeam(1976) afteranorig-
stagesof mineralization.
This appearsto havebeen inal by Iles Photo,Rotorua.
I
176•15ß•.
Lake
raraweca
/ /
38015 '-
$.
Lake
Waimongu Rerewhakaaitu
(•)
ß LotePleistocene
dome
rhyolites
• Lore(;luotemory.
foults:
... observed/conceeled
L.Ngdkoro
• ß ß Hydrothermel
eruptioncraters
::.• Lake
Rotomehane
pre-1886
0 5 10km. •
L __ • -- -- I 1
I
•.,.t LimitofOkatoino
Volcanic
Center
FIG. 16. Map of the Tarawera volcaniccomplexand associatedhydrothermaleruption craters,

North Island, New Zealand.Compiled from Lloyd (1959), Cross(1963), and Healy et al. (1964).
ejectaapronsrangingfrom i to 6 km2in area(Cross, destroyeda building,0.8 km away,and claimedtwo

1963). In the southernWaiotapuarea, an eruption lives.Ejecta attainedheightsof 300 m, but activity
crater 60 to 65 m acrossis occupiedby Champagne had nearly ceasedonly two weekslater (Lloyd and
Pool (Fig. 16), around which metal-bearingsinter Keam, 1965).
terracesare currentlyaccumulating.On the basisof Severalhydrothermaleruptioneventstook place
the lithologiesof clastsin the brecciaapronaround in the Kawerauand Orakeikorakogeothermalfields
Champagne Pool,HedenquistandHenley (1985) de- of North Island since 16,000 years ago (Nairn and
terminedthat the eruptionextendeddownwardto a Solia, 1980; Lloyd, 1972). At Kawerau, three co-
depth of about 170 m. Fragmentsin nearbybreccia alescederuptioncraters,eachestimatedto be 300 to
apronsoriginatedfrom depthsasgreatas300 m. 500 m wide, resultedfrom eruptionof materialfrom
The Tarawera volcanic complex became active depthsof at least200 m (Nairn and Solia,1980).
againin 1886, whena fissure(the Tarawerarift; Fig. In 1976, phreaticeruptionswere observedfrom
16) bisectingthe domeseruptedbasaltictephra. At fissures on the flanks of a volcanic dome at La Souf-
thesouthwestern endofthe fissure,
atWaimangu(Fig. ri•re (Heikenet al., 1980). Cloudsof steamandfine-
16), minorbasalticeruptionwasfollowedfour years grainedtephrarosebuoyantlyandwere thenpushed
later in 1900 by the inceptionof hydrothermalerup- downwardasdensitycurrentsalongsurroundingval-
tions (Lloyd and Keam, 1965, 1976). The so-called leys.
Waimangugeyser(Fig. 15) eruptedin Echo Crater The brecciasproducedby hydrothermaleruptions
andthrewjets of debris,mud,andwater to heights constituteapronsthat decreasein both thicknessand
asgreatas460 m andwascharacterizedfor fouryears constituent clast size outward from crater rims. A
by four-to nine-houreruptionsrecurringat intervals maximumthicknessof 13 m wasreportedfor breccia
of 30 to 36 hours(LloydandKeam,1965).In August on the rim of the Okaro crater at Waiotapu (Cross,
1903, the crater measured 120 X 75 m and was 14.6 1963; Fig. 16). The brecciasare heterolithologicand
m deep(LloydandKeam,1965). Some12 yearslater, matrixsupported,with somepartialroundingof frag-
anothereruptioncraterwascreatednearby.The ini- mentsobservablelocally.Clastsare up to 2 m across
tial steam-chargedblastcarryingrocksandmudpartly and commonlyinclude hydrothermallyaltered ma-
terial derived from preexistingalterationzones;py- 1984b), but it could also have been a responseto
ritized, silicified,veined,and/or hydraulicallybrec- high-leveldike intrusion.Activationof the Ngapouri
ciatedfragmentsare widespread.At Kawerau,Nairn and subsidiaryfaultsalongwith magmaticintrusion
and Solia(1980) distinguished three episodesof hy- were thoughtto havetriggeredhydrothermalerup-
draulicbrecciationfrom featuresdisplayedby breccia tions at Waiotapu (Lloyd, 1959; Cross, 1963),
clasts.Carbonized wood also occurslocally, accre- whereasfaultingalonewasfavoredasa causeforthese
tionarylapilliwerereportedat La Soufri•re(Heiken eruptionsby HedenquistandHenley (1985) andfor
et al., 1980),andfragments ofsinterwererecognized thoseat Kawerau(NairnandSolia,1980). At La Souf-
in brecciaaroundLakeNgapouri(Fig. 16; Hedenquist ri•re, there is no evidencethat faulting played any
and Henley, 1985). No juvenile clastsare present. partin the phreaticactivity,whichis morereasonably
The brecciamatricescompriseclay-richrock flour, relatedto magmaticheating(Heiken et al., 1980).
which is typically muddy when wet. Brecciasare As the prelude to hydrothermaleruption, a semi-
mostlychaoticbut maybe weaklybedded. permeablebarrier undergoesrupture by hydraulic
Ore depositsare not knownto be associated with fracturing,whichisdependentuponthefluidpressure
anyof the recenthydrothermaleruptioncratersand exceedingthe sumof the lithostaticpressureandthe
associated brecciasbut maywell be in the processof tensilestrengthof the rock.Hydraulicfracturing,with
formation in the breccia-filled vents inferred to un- or without the assistanceof faulting, causesde-
derlie the craters.Evidencefor thisnotionis provided compression of the fluid-filledfissures, whichin turn
by contentsof up to 80 ppmAu and 175 ppm Ag in causesdisruptionof their enclosingrocksand, com-
sinter aroundthe rim of the ChampagnePool crater monly,the violent conversion(flashing)of water to
(Weissberg,1969) and by the model presentedby steam.Continuedviolent dischargeof water, steam,
HedenquistandHenley (1985). and entraineddebrisprogressivelywidensinitial fis-
Origin: Work by Henley and Thornley (1979), suresto form larger brecciabodiesand pipes.The
Nairn and Solia (1980), Hedenquist(1983), Berger first eruptionsat Waimanguin 1900 and at Kawerau
andEimon (1983), Fournier (1983), Hedenquistand are suspectedto havebeen basesurges(Lloyd and
Henley (1985), and NelsonandGiles(1985) hasled Keam, 1976; Nairn and Solia, 1980).
to a goodunderstanding of the likely mechanismsfor Availableenergycanbe dissipated in the subsurface
phreaticbrecciationassociated with epithermalpre- to giveriseto "blind" brecciasor it maybe sufficient,
ciousmetal depositsand analogousgeothermalsys- to maximumdepthsof about1 km (NelsonandGiles,
tems.The brecciationseemsgenerallyto be depen- 1985), to causefissurepropagationto the paleosur-
dentupona buildupof hydrostaticpressurebeneath face and hydrothermaleruption to take place. Evi-
a local barrier of low permeability.Permeabilityis denceissummarized abovefor hydrothermaleruption
commonlyreducedby localizedself-sealing(Facca in severalhot spring-relatedpreciousmetal deposits,
and Tonani, 1967) in responseto dumpingof silica but brecciationis likely to havebeenan entirely sub-
as fluids cooledon approachto the surface.Hence surfacephenomenonin manycarbonate-hosted epi-
the widespreadoccurrenceof silicificationin and thermaldepositsandprobablyalsoin somevolcanic-
aroundepithermalbrecciasandthe presenceof silic- hostedepithermaldeposits.The self-sealing-rupture
ified (or silica-carbonate)
clastsin mosthydrothermal sequenceis likely to be episodicin mostepithermal
brecciasobservedat the tops of hydrothermalsys- environments,as shownby evidencefor multiple
tems.Alternatively,zonesof low permeabilitymay brecciationand silicificationcited above.Boilingand
be providedby gouge-filledfault zones,shalebeds, chemicalchangesaccompanying or immediatelyfol-
or denselywelded volcanicrocks.Hydrostaticpres- lowing brecciationmay be instrumentalin precious
sureincreasebeneatha localizedbarrier maybe due metal precipitation(Bergerand Eimon, 1983; Hed-
directly to ascendingfluidsor, as proposedby Hed- enquistandHenley, 1985).
enquistand Henley (1985), to the transmission of
deeperfluid pressuresto the barrier via a compress- Porphyry-type
and otherintrusion-related
deposits
ible cap of gas(particularlyCO2) that separatedand
accumulatedduring boiling. Magmaticheating also General remarks:This sectiontreats a variety of
providesan effectivemeansof increasingfluid pres- generallypoorlyalteredandmineralizedbrecciasas-
sures(Nelsonand Giles, 1985). sociatedwith porphyry-type andotherdeposits.
The
The trigger for phreaticbrecciationis commonly brecciasdiffer from thoseassignedaboveto a mag-
attributed to intrusionof magmaand/or seismically matic-hydrothermalorigin.
inducedfaulting,althoughmoretransienteffectsmay Characteristics:Brecciasincludedin this category
alsoprove adequate(e.g., earth tides;Heiken et al., (Table 6) may be broadlysubdividedinto two ge-
1980). At Wau, brecciationwas attributed to rapid ometries:irregularto pipelikebodies,anddikesand
reductionsof confiningpressureinducedby sliding their offshoots.
Many examplesof the latter type are
of rock massesinto a maar crater (Sillitoe et al., calledpebbledikes,a term of someantiquity(e.g.,
TABLE6. SelectedExamplesof PhreaticBreccias
Fragment
Locality Control Age (m.y.) Form characteristics Matrix
Butte, Montana Quartz porphyry 62.8 to 57.7 Irregularbodies Angularto rounded, Rockflour
dike contacts (Modoc brec- monolithologic
cias)
Butte, Montana Above quartz la- 62.8 to 57.7 Dikes, pipes Angularto rounded, Rockflour
tite porphyry (Mtn. View heterolithologic
dike breccias)
Urad, Colorado Rhyoliteporphyry "-30 Shallowirregu- Angularto rounded, Rockflour or
contacts lar bodies mono- to heterolith- none
ologic
Mt. Emmons, None known "-16 Dikes (up to Subrounded Rock flour
Colorado 750 m)
Central City, Partly east-north- 59 Steep pipe (230 Angularto rounded Rock flour
Colorado east fractures X 140, 480 m
(The Patch) deep)
Leadville, Col- Postmineralquartz Early Ter- Dikes Angularto rounded, Rock flour
orado monzonitepor- tiary heterolithologic + porphyry
phyry
Tintic, Utah Fractures,monzo- Oligocene Dikes, lenses, Angularto rounded, Rock flour, mi-
nite porphyry sills heterolithologic nor porphyry
dikes
Bisbee,Ari- Faults,bedding 163 Dikes, sills, Subangularto rounded, Rock flour

zona planes pipes heterolithologic
Cuajone,Peru Northwestfaults, 51 Steeptabular Rounded,heterolitho- Latite porphyry,

latite porphyry + irregular logic minor rock
bodies flour
Toquepala, Latite porphyry 59 Irregular pipe, Rounded Rock flour

Peru dikes
E1 Salvador, Northwest + ra- 41 Dikes Angularto rounded, Rock flour

Chile dial fractures, heterolithologic
latite porphyry
Mt. Morgan, Partly northeast Middle De- Dikes Angularto rounded, Rock flour
Queensland, fault vonian heterolithologic
Australia
Parsons,1925) used to describedikelike bodiesof rock flour-dominated over short distances. There is a
brecciain which the fragmentsare well rounded. tendencyfor the brecciasto be monolithologic, with
In Table6, the firsttypeisrepresentedby theRed little evidencefor appreciablefragmenttransport.At
Mountainbrecciasdescribedby Wallaceet al. (1978) both Urad and Butte, this type of brecciais closely
at Red Mountain (Urad), the Modocbrecciasstudied relatedto particularphasesofporphyryintrusionand
by Minervini(1975) at Butte,andThe Patchreferred tends to be concentratedas sleevesor envelopes
to by BastinandHill (1917) andSimset al. (1963)in aroundthe resultingintrusivebodies.
the CentralCity district.Fragmentsin thesebreccias The secondtype comprisesmainlydikes(Fig. 17),
rangefrom angularto roundedandare setin variable whichat somelocalitiesare accompanied by sill-like
amountsof rockflour.At Urad,both the JunkRock bodies,pipes,andirregularbodies.Abrupttransitions
andRubbleRockbrecciasvary from openspace-to from one geometryto anotherare commonplace, as
Associated
with PorphyryandRelatedDeposits
Upward
fragment
Hydrothermal Cementing displace- Relationship
to
alteration minerals ment(m) Ore deposittype orebody Reference
Propylitic Chlorite,epidote, Present PorphyryCu-Mo Pre-MainStage Minervini (1975)

pyrite, sphaler- + veins veins,barren
ire, chalcopy-
rite
Minor None > 120 PorphyryCu-Mo Post-MainStage Sales(1914), Meyer et al.

+ veins veins (1968)
Partlysericitic None Minor Mo lode in porphyry Postore Wallace et al. (1978)

Mo system
None None 500 PorphyryMo Postore Thomasand Galey (1982)
Sericitic Quartz,pyrite, Unknown Au-Ag-Cu-Pb-Zn Preore Bastinand Hill (1917),

sphalerite, veins + breccia Simset al. (1963)
chalcopyrite,
galena, tetrahe-
drite
None None Present Pb-Zn-AgoAu

re- Postore Thompsonet al. (1983)
placement + vein
Partlysilicified Quartz,pyrite, upto 1,800 Pb-ZnoAg-Au

veins Preore,largely Farmin (1934), Lovering
localPb-Znore + replacements barren et al. (1949), Morris
and Lovering (1979)
None None >1,000 PorphyryCu + re- Postore Bryant and Metz (1966),
placement Cu Bryant (1968, 1983)
+ Pb-Zn
Partlysilicified Quartz,pyrite Present PorphyryCu-Mo Postmineral Satchwell(1983)
Minor Minor Present PorphyryCu-Mo Late to post- Richardand Courtright

mineral (1958)
Chlorite, calcite None Present PorphyryCu-Mo Late to post- Gustafson and Hunt
(deep); serici- mineral (1975)
tic, advanced
argillic (shal-
low)
None None Unknown Cu-Aupyritic re- Postmineral Cornelius(1967)
placement
at Bisbee(Bryant,1968). Dikes rangein thickness like bodiesare up to 150 m in diameter at Bisbee

from1 cmto 10 m andcommonly tendto pinchand (Bryant, 1968). All bodiespossessabrupt contacts
swellbothverticallyandhorizontally.They are con- with wall rocks(Fig. 17). Faultsandfracturesof well-
tinuousin a verticalsensefor at least600 m (e.g., definedstrikeappearto havelocalizedbrecciadikes
Tintic, MorrisandLovering, 1979; E1Salvador,Gus- at the majorityof deposits(Tintic, Bisbee,Cuajone,
tarsonandHunt, 1975) andpossess strikeextentsas E1Salvador,andMt. Morgan).At E1Salvador,pebble
great as 1 km at E1 Salvador(Gustarsonand Hunt, dikes become less numerous downward and die out
1975) and 0.75 km at Mt. Emmons(Thomasand completelysome600 m beneaththe surface(Gustaf-
Galey, 1982). Pebbledikesmay occursingly(e.g., sonand Hunt, 1975).
Mt. Emmons)or in swarms.Sill-like bodieshave sim- The breccia dikes and associated bodies all contain
ilarthicknesses
butaregenerallylessextensive.
Pipe- angularto roundedclastsof a varietyof rocktypesin
1494 I•ICH.4•,D H. SILLITOE
waydownwardto monzonite porphyrydikesatTintic

(Farmin, 1934; Morris and Lovering, 1979) and
quartzlatiteporphyryat Butte(Meyeret al., 1968).
Availabilityof magmaat the timeof pebbledikeem-
placementis shownby mutuallycrosscutting rela-
tionships
betweenlatiteporphyry
and•ebbledikes
at El Salvador(Gustarson andHunt, 1975).
Alterationand mineralization:Bothtypesof brec-
ciasdiscussedin thissection,exceptfor thoseat Tintic
and Central City, were emplaced!ate in their re-
spectivemineralizationsequences. Brecciadikeswere
characteristically
the lastadditionsandpostdatedall
mineralization
(andotherbrecciation)
in many.dis-
tricts.At RedMountain(Urad),the brecciaspostdated
the Urad molybdenum orebodyand only constitute
ore locallybecauseof highconcentrations of molyb-
denitc-bearingclasts(Wallaceet al., 1978). The Mo-
doebrecciasat Butte carry clastsof Pre-MainStage
(i.e., porphyrytype) mineralizationbut were cut by
Main Stagerhodochrositeveinletsand locally ce-
mentedby minoramountsof basemetal sulfides(Mi-
nervini, 1975).
Breccia dikes are generally unaltered, or only
slightlyaltered (Table 6), and carry sulfidesmainly
ascomponents of fragments.At Bisbee,for example,
pebblebrecciaslocallymakeore on accountof high
concentrationsof fragmental sulfides,especially
where they abut replacement copper orebodies
(Bryant,1983). Ore-bearingfragmentsare alsopres-
FIG. 17. Pebbledike. Rio Blancoporphyrycopperdeposit, ent, albeit in lesser concentrations,at Leadville, El
Chile.
Salvador,Mt. Morgan,andMt. Emmons,with molyb-
denum-bearing fragmentshavingascendedat least
500 m at the.lastlocality(ThomasandGaley, 1982).
a sand-to silt-sizerock flour matrix (Fig. 17). The In contrast
to the majorityof pebbledikes,those'at
matrixcomprises fromabout30 to nearly100 percent El Salvadorwere emplacedwhile sericiticand ad-
of a breccia.Fragments becomeprogressively more vancedargillicalterationwasactiveat shallowlevels
roundedupwardat Tintic (Farmin,1937; Morrisand of theporphyrysystem,.
although
ore-related
altera-
Lovering,1979) andEl Salvador(Gustafson andHunt, tioneventshadceasedat depth(Gustarson andHunt,
1975).'Exceptionallywell roundedfragments(Fig. 1975). The pebbledikesat Tintic only locallymake
17), someexhibitinghypogeneexfoliation,are com- ore but were interpretedby Lovering6t al. (1949)
mon, as at Tintic (Farmin, 1934, 1937) and Bisbee and Morris and Lovering (1979) to have been em-
(Bryant,1968). Flow-bandingis presentin the rock placedprior to mineralization.
flourmatrixof somedikes.Comparison of clastlith- Althoughthe nature of the fluidsresponsiblefor
ologieswith the localgeologyhasenableddetermi- this weak alteration and mineralization has not been
nationof an appreciableupwardtransportof some determined,a meteoric-hydrothermal origin is not
fragmentsin mostpebbledikes:500 m at Mr. Emmons inconsistent with field relationships.
(Thomasand Galey, 1982), >1,000 m at Bisbee Origin:Manyof thesebreccias wereempiaced in
(Bryant,1968),andatleast1,800m atTintic(Farmin, closeassociation with poorly mineralizedand frac-
1934). tured intrusive rocks after much of the associated al-
A closespatial(andprobablytemporal)relationship teration and mineralization had ceased. These rela-
is commonlyapparentbetween breccia dikes and tionshipssuggestthat brecciationmayhavebeen in-
specific
phases of intrusion,
whicharecommonly late ducedby meteoricfluidsunderthe influenceof heat
to postmineral in ageanddikelikein form.Thisclose from an igneousintrusion(cf. Gustarson and Hunt,
relationshipis manifested by the occupancy
of fattits 1975; Morris andLovering,1979).
or'fractures
bybothigneous andpebbledikesandby It is possiblethat thermal expansionof meteoric
the local occurrenceof an igneousrock as an un- fluidsin the wall rocksof stocksor dikes,asproposed
brecciated matrixto brecciadikes.Pebbledikesgive by McBirney (1963) and modeledby Knapp and
Knight (1977) and Delaney (1982), couldprovide a felsiclavaor fragmentalvolcanicrocks(Fig. 18). The
suitablemechanism for the generationof both little- breccias occur as lateral extensions of bodies of mas-
movedmonolithologic brecciasaroundor abovepor- siveore or, lesscommonly,overliethem. Mostof the
phyry stocksor dikes,asat Urad, Butte, and Central brecciasgenerally are not underlain by stockwork
City, andheterolithologicbrecciadikes. mineralization.It is clearthat manyof thesebreccia
Applicationof the mechanismassumesthat wall bodies are allochthonous distal accumulations of sul-
rocks were saturatedwith relatively cool meteoric fide-bearing fragmental material.The geometryof the
water or hadbecomerechargedwith meteoricwater brecciabodiesrangesfrom lensesthroughelongate
followingcompletion of the mainstages of magmatic- tabular bodies to sheets,with thicknessesup to a
hydrothermalmineralization--asthey certainlyhad maximumof about25 m (Fig. 18). The linearbreccia
at E1Salvador,where a shallowhot springsystemwas bodythat constitutes the Macleanorebodyat Buchans
shownto haveoperatedduringpebbledikeformation is 870 m long (Thurlow and Swanson,1981). Com-
(Gustarsonand Hunt, 1975). Delaney's (1982) cal- monlythe brecciasoccupypaleotopographic depres-
culationsshowedthat pressurizationand expansion sionswhich in places,as at Buchans,have been de-
of groundwatersare mosteffectiveduringrapid em- fined aselongatetroughs(Thurlowet al., 1975).
placement of magma into relatively impermeable Many of thesesulfide-bearing brecciasare hetero-
rocksat shallowdepths(•1 km). Late-stagedike em- lithologicandcomprisevariableamountsof felsicto
placementinto hydrothermallyhealedrocksin the basicvolcanicrocks,argillaceous rocks,massivesul-
upper parts of porphyry systemswould therefore fide, andbarite. Clastsof gypsumor siliceousstock-
provide a suitable environment.Brittle failure and workarealsopresent,asarepiecesof earlierbreccias.
brecciationwouldresultfromrapidincreases of pore The clasts,up to > 10 m in size,aregenerallyangular
fluidpressuresufficientto exceedthe lithostaticload to subrounded in outline,but well-roundedfragments
plustensilestrengthof the rock.If waterapproached have alsobeen described(e.g., Kurosawa;Motegi,
the boilingpointcurvefor a givendepth,then it is 1974). At Buchans,for example,sulfide-poor"breccia
likely to haveflashedto steamduringdike intrusion, conglomerate"and"graniteconglomerate" were de-
asenvisaged for the E1Salvadorpebbledikesby Gus- scribedby Thurlow et al. (1975) and Thurlow and
tarsonandHunt (1975). Violentlyexpandingsteam Swanson(1981), namesthat reflect the spheroidal
couldthen haveopenedfracturesabovethe dikesand form of many of the fragments.The granitebreccia
perhapscaused theirpropagation to thepaleosurface.containsspheroidalgranitefragmentsup to 6 m in
Repeatedsteamproductionduringintrusionwould size of an unknown,but presumablya deeperlevel,
haveresultedin shattering,entrainment,andupward source(Thurlow and Swanson,1981), which appear
transportof materialalongthe wallsof fracturesabove to have gainedtheir form throughhypogeneexfo-
thedikes.A highproportionofsteamin theupfiowing liation. At Buchans(Thurlow and Swanson,1981),
fluid-rockmixturewouldhavegivenrise to the ex- Ainai (Ishikawaand Yanagisawa,1974), and else-
treme mobilitysuggested by the transportof material where, someof the massivesulfideclastsexhibit bent,
over large verticaldistancesand its injectionalong wispyoutlinesinterpretedto resultfrom fragmenta-
tortuouspathways.Decompressive eventsconsequent tion and incorporationwhile still in a semilithified
uponrepeatedopeningof fracturescouldhavecaused state.The brecciasrangefrom clastto matrix sup-
thewidespread hypogeneexfoliation of fragments and ported. Matrix is generallyfine-grainedclasticma-
wouldhavefavoredlocalizedascentandpenetration terial, whichmaybe dominatedby comminuted lith-
of magmainto still-mobilebreccia. ics, sulfides,and/orbarite. The brecciasrangefrom
chaotic,unbeddedaggregates,as at Buchansand
Kuroko-typemassivesulfidedeposits Vauze, to well-bedded accumulations characterized
Generalremarks:Kuroko-typedepositswere gen- by gradedbeddingandothersedimentarystructures,
eratedat andimmediatelybeneaththe seafloorin a as at severalJapaneselocalities(Table 7).
physicallyunstableenvironmentcharacterizedby There is someevidencefor the existenceof a spec-
volcanic,hydrothermal,andmechanicalactivity.It is trum ofbrecciatypesin the Kurokoenvironmentthat
not surprisingthereforethat a varietyof fragmental rangefromthosecomposed entirelyof massivesulfide
accumulations and textures characterize both Kuroko- clasts(e.g.,Ainai)throughbrecciaswith both massive
type depositsand their immediatehostrocks(Clark, sulfideandlithic clasts(Table 7) to severalend-mem-
1971, 1983;Eldridgeet al., 1983). Selectedexamples ber types dominatedby lithic clasts.The breccias
ofbreccias associated withKuroko-type depositsfrom composedmainlyof sulfideclastsgenerallyconstitute
Archeanto mid-Miocenein ageare consideredin this ore (Table 7). Lithic brecciaspre- and postdateore
section. formation;the preorevariety includesthe Motoyama-
Characteristics:
Mostof the sulfide-bearing
breccias type brecciasof Horikoshi(1969), which commonly
consideredhere (Table 7) are locatedon the flanks underlie massive sulfide ore.
of, or asapronsaround,felsiclavadomesandoverlie The crosscutting brecciasummarizedin Table 7
breccias,synore brecciascarrying plasticallyde-

formedsulfides,andpostorebreccias.
In mostcases,the ejectedfragmentalmaterialap-
pears to have been transportedvariable distances
downslopeawayfrom the eruptionsite,presumably
becausefragmentscameto rest on a steepslopeor,
alternatively,becausefragmentaccumulation caused
.0..*•BEDDED
FRAGMENTAL
ORE
• MUDSTONE oversteepening of an existingslope.Earthquakeac-
• MASSIVE
ORE •'•'] RHYOLITIC
BRECCIA tivity or continuedor reneweddomeemplacement
:• STOCKWORK
ORE +J'•+-J
FELSIC
LAVADOME couldalsohavecausedlandsliding of near-ventbrec-
cia accumulations. In the caseof poorlysortedbrec-
FIG. 18. Schematicsection through a Kuroko-type massive ciaslackinginternal structure,either transportwas
sulfidedepositto showrelationshipsof fragmentalore. Basedon
Lee et al.'s (1974) interpretationof the Kamikitadeposit,Japan.
limited, as at Vauze where the breccia resemblesa
talus-coveredslope(Spence,1975), or over greater
distances,asat Buchans,transportis inferredto have
from Mt. Chalmersis distinctlydifferentfrom those takenplaceasdensityflows(Thurlowand Swanson,
breccias described above. It occurs as a siliceous, 1981; Walker and Barbour,1981). Massflowageap-
chimneylikebodyandisflankedby polymetallicmas- pearsto havebeentransitionalto turbiditycurrents,
sive sulfidedeposits(Large and Both, 1980). The which were probablythe main transportingagents
chimneycomprises angularto subrounded fragments for well-beddedbrecciasthatexhibita varietyof sed-
of chalcedony andjasperrecementedby chalcedony imentary structures.
and minor barite and sericite. The breccia carries 2 The presenceof a varietyof fragmentlithologies,
to 10 wt percent disseminatedpyrite and was ex- includingargillizedand chloritizedvolcanicrocks,
ploitedfor its goldcontent(LargeandBoth, 1980). stockworkore, and previouslyformed breccias,is
The Mt. Chalmersbrecciais similarin manywaysto strongevidencefor the origin of heterolithologic
the silicifiedbrecciasassociated
withmanyepithermal brecciasby hydrothermaleruption.It must be ad-
precious metaldeposits generatedin subaerial
settings mitted,however,thatsomebreccias,especiallythose
(seeabove). composedessentiallyof massivesulfidefragments,
Origin: Horikoshi (1969) proposedan origin by couldhaveformedsimplyby fragmentation during
phreatic steamexplosionsfor the Motoyama-type slumpingandlandsliding.
brecciasassociated with manyJapanese Kurokode-
posits.He envisagedexplosiveactivity to have been Phreatomagmatic(Hydromagmatic)Breccias
triggeredby ingressof coolseawaterto consolidated
but still hot felsic lava domes on the sea floor. A similar Porphyry-typeand epithermalprecious(_ base)
mechanism hasbeenappliedby severalworkers,in- metal deposits
cludingClark(1971, 1983),IshikawaandYanagisawa General remarks: The breccias in this section are
(1974), Spence(1975),Thurlowet al. (1975),Walker associated mainlywith epithermaldepositsand por-
et al. (1975),HenleyandThornley(1979, 1981),and phyrycopperdepositsandappearto be appreciably
ThurlowandSwanson (1981), to the massivesulfide- lesswidespreadthan other varietiesof brecciade-
bearingbreccias thatconstitute partsof someKuroko- scribedabovefromthesetwo oredeposittypes.These
type deposits.By analogywith near-surfacebreccia- brecciaswere firstrecognizedasassociates of ore de-
tion in subaerialgeothermalsystems(see above), positsby SillitoeandBonham(1984), althoughthey
Henley and Thornley(1979, 1981) attributedgen- would appear to include some of the "prehydro-
erationof the massive sulfide-bearingbrecciasto hy- thermal"brecciasof Bryner(1961) andto constitute
drothermaleruptionstriggeredby separationof vol- the brecciacategoryaddressed by Wolfe (1980).
atiles(includingCO2)fromascending fluids,with ac- The term diatremeis preferredto that of breccia
cumulationof the volatilesbeneathsemipermeablepipe for breccia-filledconduitsof this type because
caprocks.A decreasein permeabilitycouldbe caused of their intrinsicdifferencesandbecausethey arebe-
by silicificationof the subsea-floor conduit(asat Mt. lievedto havebeen generatedin a mannerthat com-
Chalmers)or cappingof the conduitby massivesul- plieswith Daubrf•e's(1891) originaldefinitionof a
fide. Rapidruptureof the caprock wouldhavebeen diatremeasa vent producedby volcanicexplosion.
accompanied by fragmentationof massivesulfides Characteristics:
This categorypossesses a number
with or without underlyingmineralizedand/or un- of unifyingcharacteristics that help to distinguishit
mineralizedrocksandby their ejectionon to the sea from other typesof breccia.Many examplesof this
floor.As notedby HenleyandThornley(1979), the brecciatype,especiallythoseat CrippleCreek,Mon-
processis potentiallyrepetitive,therebyexplaining tanaTunnels(Fig. 19), Cerro de Pasco,E1Teniente,
theformation oftheMotoyama-type andotherpreore Guinaoang,Dizon, and Acupan (Table 8), are fine
grainedandlargelymatrixsupported;from50 to 90
percentmatrixmaterialis usual.At MontanaTunnels,
matrixmaterialis <2 mmin grainsizebut isdeficient
in silt- and clay-sizefractions(Sillitoeet al., 1985).
Many of the brecciashavea juveniletuffaeeous com-
ponent,besidesrockflour,in their matrices.The tuff-
aceousmaterial commonlyapproximatesdaeite in
composition andcomprises bothbrokenandunbroken
crystals of quartz,biotite,andfeldspar.The tuffaeeous
componentis oftendifficultto recognizewhereit is
intenselyaltered, as at MontanaTunnels(Fig. 19).
Breccias.with a wholly or partly tuffaceousmatrix
were denominated"tuffisite"by Cloos(1941).
The abundantmatrixmaterialgenerallyprecludes
FIG. 19. Highly sericitized, matrix-rich phreatomagmatic the.presence of significantopenspacein mostbrec-
breccia.Note polishedsubroundedclastnearendof pocketknife. cias,althoughlargecavelikeopeningshavebeen en-
Montana Tunnels, Montana. countered at El Teniente and Dizon. Those at El Ten-
TABLE8. SelectedPhreatomagmatic
Diatremesand
Probable
Locality Horizontal Vertical juvenile
(diatremename) Hostrocks Age(m.y.) dimensions dimensions component Otherfeatures
.
MontanaTunnels, LateCretaceousvol- 45 to 50 2.1 X up to 0.6 >310 Quartzlatitie Cut by quartz

Montana eanies,Eoceneig- tuff latite por-
nimbrites phyrydikes
CrippleCreek, Precambrian
granite, 27.9to 29.3 5.9 X 2.7 >1,000 Latite-phonolite Cut by bodies
Colorado gneiss,schist tuff of alkaline
rock, basaltic
breccia
Bassick,
Colorado Precambrian
gneiss, Oligocene 1.3 x 0.85 >430 Andesitctuff(?)
granite
Cerrode Pasco, Silurian-Devonian 14 to 15 2.7 X 2.3 >800 Felsictuff Quartzlatite

Peru(Rumial- phyllite,Permian porphyry
!anaAgglomer- red beds,Trias-]u- flow-dome
ate) rassiclimestones complex,
dikes
Mi Vida,Argen- LatePrecambrian 6.8 2.3 x 1.1 >500 Rhyoliticpyro-

tina (Carudo schists,migmatites, clastics
breceia) granite;Miocene
syenodiorite
El Teniente, Mioceneandesitic 4 to 5 1.3 x 1.3 >1,600 Minorfelsic Cutby daeite
Chile(Braden voleanies tuff(?) ' porphyry
"pipe") bodies
Guinaoang,
Phil- Mesozoic(?)
schist, 2.9 8.5 X 3.5 >400 Dacitictuff Cutby daeite
ippines Mio-Plioeene
an- porphyry
desitic volcanics dome
Acupan,
Philip- Cretaceous-Paleogene
Pleisto- 1.0X0.6 >1,000 None
pines(Balatuc andesiticvoleanics, cene(?)
"plug") Mioeene diorite
Dizon,Philip- LateTertiaryandes- LateTertiary > 1.0 >300 Dacitictuff Cutbydacite
pines(Puadia- iticvoltanits, porphyry
treme) microdiorite dikes,
dome(?)
Wau,PapuaNew LateCretaceous-Pa- <4 to >2.4 1.4 X 1.4 >200 Daciticpyro- Cut by domes,
Guinea leogenephyllite, clastics dikes
Plioceneignimbrite
+ clastic sediments
iente were up to 8 m in diameter, filled with water, ones,are polished.Large spheroidalclasts,someof

and lined with crystalsof gypsum,up to 3 m long, them displayinghypogene exfoliation features, are
andotherhypogeneminerals(A. Enrione,pers.com- presentat severallocalities,includingMi Vida (Kouk-
mum, 1983). harskyandMirr•, 1976) andDizon (Malihan,1982;
Clastsin thesebrecciasare heterolithologicand Fig. 21).
compriseall known wall rocks to the diatremes.In Severalfaciesofbrecciaarerecognizedin a number
addition to these accidental lithic clasts, some dia- of diatremes.For example,at Guinaoang,an early
tremesalsocontainrhyolitic to dacitic (latitic-pho- tuffaceousfaciesis cut by, and incorporatedasfrag-
noliticat Cripple Creek) clastsof apparentlyjuvenile mentsin, coarse-andfine-grainedlithic breccias(Sil-
origin (e.g., Fig. 20). Most of the clastsare poorly litoe and Angeles, 1985). At Acupan, 95 percent of
vesiculated(cognatelithics),but daciticpumice has the Balatocdiatreme is occupiedby a late breccia
alsobeen recognizedat Dizon (Sillitoeand Gappe, that becomesprogressivelyfiner grainedinward.An
1984) and Guinaoang(Sillitoeand Angeles,1985), early, even finer grainedbrecciaoccursas remnants
where the pumiceis flattenedparallelto the inclined around the walls of the diatreme (Damascoand de
contactof the diatreme.Clastsrangeup to 10 or more Guzman,1977). At Cripple Creek, a distinctivelate
metersin diameterandare subangular to roundedin phaseof brecciawith a basaltictuff componentin its
form. Clasts,especiallythe more commonsmaller matrix constitutesthe pipelike Cresson"Blowout"
MaarsAssociated
with Preciousand BaseMetal Deposits
Alteration and
mineralizationof Evidence for surface Ore deposit Location of Timing of
breccia connection type mineralization brecciation Reference
Sericite, siderite, Logs,basesurgeas Disseminated Within diatreme Pre- and inter- Sillitoe et al. (1985)
manganocal- blocks Au-Ag-Zn- mineral
cite, pyrite Pb
Sericite, dolo- Logs,lacustrinesedi- Au veins, Mainly within Premineral Lindgren and Ransome
mite, pyrite ments,accretionary breccias diatreme (1906), Loughlin and
lapilli Koschmann(1935),
Thompsonet al.
(1985)
Clays(?) Logs,basesurgede- Au-Ag-Pb-Zn Within southern Premineral Cross(1896), Emmons
posits(?) pipe part of dia- (•896)
treme
Propylitic,pyrite Basesurgedeposits Pb-Zn-Ag-Cu Mainly south- Premineral Geologicstaffof Cerro

veins,re- eastedge of de PascoCorporation
placements diatreme (1950), Silberman
and Noble (1977)
Advancedargil- None Porphyry Pipe in dia- Late mineral Koukharskyand Mirr•

lic, pyrite, co- Cu-Mo, treme (1976)
vellite, char- Cu-Pb-Zn-
gite Ag pipe
Weak sericite, Beddingof base(?) Porphyry Surroundsdia- Postmineral Lindgren and Bastin
tourmaline, py- surgeorigin Cu-Mo treme (1922), Howell and
rite Molloy (1960)
Weak chlorite, Basesurgedeposits, Porphyry Southeastof Postmineral Sillitoe and Angeles
calcite,clays, accretionarylapilli Cu-Au diatreme (1985)
pyrite
Chlorite, calcite, Logs Au in pipe- Annulusto dia- Intermineral(?) Worley (1967), Da-
sericite, pyrite like brec- treme masco and de Guz-
cias man (1977)
Weak chlorite, Logs,basesurgede- Porphyry North of dia- Postmineral Mallhah (1982), Sillitoe
calcite,clay, posits,accretionary Cu-Au treme and Gappe (1984)
specularitc lapilli
Quartz, calcite, Lacustrine sediments, Au veins, In tuff ring near Premineral Sillitoe et al. (1984b)
clays,pyrite; basesurge,accre- stockwork maar ring
kaolinte,alu- tionarylapilli fault
nite, pyrite
commun.,1983). Many of the diatremespossess in-

ward-dippingwalls'and severalof them are funnel
shaped,a form that is believedto typify their upper
parts.The contactsare generallyabruptanddefined
by ring faultsin which gougeand fault brecciaare
common.The wall rocksabutingthe ring faultsare
shattered and, in some cases,brecciated. Discontin-
uousannuli of open-spacebrecciaadjoin diatremes
at E1Teniente(HowellandMolloy,1960) andAcupan
(Damascoand de Guzman, 1977; Fig. 22); they ap-
pearto predatediatremeeraplacement.Largeblocks
of wall rock,up to severalhundredmeterslong,be-
came detached from the walls of some diatremes and
are particularlywidespreadin the marginalpartsof
the breccias;some of those at Montana Tunnels are
FIG. 20. Heterolithologic(explosion)brecciafrom degraded nearlyvertical (Sillitoeet al., 1985).
tuff ringaroundmaarcrater.Phyllite(black)anddaciteporphyry At Wan, Sillitoeet al. (1984b) presentedevidence
(white) clastsare prominent.Namie breccia from Wau, Papua
New Guinea. for partialpreservationof a maarcraterandencircling
tuff ring, which are inferred to be undedainby a
breccia-filleddiatremecomparable to thosedescribed
above.Two varietiesof breccia are presentboth
(LoughlinandKoschmann,1935). A coarserbreccia
typicallycharacterizesthe marginalparts of some
diatremes,as exemplifiedby the pebble brecciaat
Dizon andthe coarselithie brecciaat Guinaoang.
Diatremesare typically larger than most breccia
pipes.With onlyoneexception,the examplesin Table
8 alloccupy> 1 km2at surface.Thetwolargest,Crip-
ple CreekandGuinaoang, havemaximumsurfacedi-
mensions of 5.9 and8.5 km, respectively,
andappear
to haveformedby coalescence of severalsmallerdia-
tremes. The vertical extents of diatremes are also
large,with CrippleCreek,El Teniente,andAcupan
all exceeding1,000 m. The Bradenpipeat E1Teniente
possesses an irregulardogtoothcontactwith a post-
mineraldaciteporphyryat a depthof about1,600 m
and may not extendany deeper (A. Enrione,pers.
• Diotreme Ixeccia
(ac•,toc'thug')
Diorite
vl•• Andesilk:
volconics • v•.l• stri-tun
FIG. 22. Plan of the 1,500-m level of the Acupangold mine,

FIG. 21. Hypogeneexfoliationexhibitedby fragmentfrom Philippines,to showopen-spacebrecciaand the containedG.W.
the marginalpart of the Pua diatreme,Dizon porphyrycopper- orebodiesasan annulusto the Balatocdiatreme("plug"). Taken
gold deposit,Philippines. from Damascoandde Guzman(1977).
within the maarcrater andasthe solecomponentsof Noble,1977),Guinaoang (SillitoeandAngeles,1985),

the tuff ring. About90 percentof the brecciais mas- Wau (Sillitoeet al., 1984b), andpossibly,Dizon (Sil-
sive,unbedded,angular,heterolithologicand matrix litoe andGappe,1984). The dikesandbodiesof por-
supported(Fig. 20). It is similarto the "explosion phyryencountered in a numberof diatremesarelikely
breccia" defined by Wohletz and Sheridan(1983) to havefed domesat higher, now-erodedlevels.
frombasaltictuff ringsandtuff conesandis therefore A structuralcontrol of diatreme emplacementis
probably of ballisticfall origin. The remaining10 apparentat MontanaTunnels,Cerro de Pasco,and
percentis sandto pebblesizeanddisplayslow-angle Wau, which all lie on major regionalfaults.
crossbedding and dune forms.These finer grained Alteration and mineralization:It may be appre-
horizons,which are up to severalmetersthick, also ciated from Table 8 that diatremes associated with
containabundantaccretionarylapilli. Thesecharac- epithermalpreciousmetal depositswere emplaced
teristicsare typicalof pyroclasticbasesurgedeposits either before mineralization commenced or, at Mon-
(e.g., Moore, 1967; FisherandWaters, 1970), which tanaTunnelsandpossiblyalsoat Acupan,whileit was
are commonconstituents of maarvolcanoes(e.g,Lor- takingplace.In contrast,the diatremesthat accom-
enz, 1973; SheridanandWohletz, 1983). Lacustrine panyporphyrycopperdepositsare commonlyvery
sediments,rich in plantremains,dominatethe upper late or postmineralin age.
partsof the intramaarsequenceat Wau and are over- There is a tendencyfor precious(_ base)metal
lain by blocksof basementphyllite and its tuff ring mineralizationto be concentratedaroundthe edges
coverthat slid into the maar followingthe cessation of diatremes,althoughtheir interiorsmayalsobe ore
of explosiveactivity (Sillitoeet al., 1984b). bearing.Examplesof marginalore include:a huge
Fine-grained,cross-stratified brecciasimilarin ap- silica-pyritebody and associated Ag-Pb-Zn-Cumin-
pearanceto the basesurgedepositsat Wau, and ap- eralization at Cerro de Pasco(Cerro de PascoCor-
parentlyof the sameorigin,hasbeen observedin re- poration,1950), an annulusof gold-bearingopen-
strictedparts of the diatremesat MontanaTunnels spacebrecciaat Acupan(Fig. 22), and shallowgold
(Sillitoe et al., 1985), Cripple Creek (Lindgrenand lodes and associatedstockworksat Wau (Sillitoe et
Ransome,1906), Cerro de Pasco(Silbermanand No- al., 1984b). Gold telluride ore is alsoconcentrated
ble, 1977), E1Teniente(LindgrenandBastin,1922), aroundthe CressonBlowout,a late faciesof the Crip-
Guinaoang(Sillitoeand Angeles,1985), Dizon (Sil- ple Creekdiatreme(LoughlinandKoschmann, 1935).
litoe andGappe,1984), andpossibly,Bassick Enhancedpermeabilityprovidedby ring faultsand
(Cross,
1896). Accretionarylapilli are presentin thesebase associated shatteringor brecciationof wall rocksis
surgedepositsat Cripple Creek (Thompsonet al., the primereasonfor ore depositionaroundthe mar-
1985), Guinaoang,andDizon.The basesurgedeposits ginsof diatremes.At Acupan,11 principallenslike
clearlyconstituteblocksat MontanaTunnels,Cripple bodiesof brecciaparallelthe diatremecontactover
Creek, Guinaoang,andDizon, but this is lesscertain verticalintervalsof up to 600 m and are thoughtto
at Cerro de Pasco, Bassick, and El Teniente. These have been suppliedwith mineralizingfluidswhere
basesurgedepositsarebelievedto havesubsided into they are intersectedby auriferousveins (Worley,
the diatremesfrom subaerialtuff rings.The presence 1967; Damascoandde Guzman,1977; Fig. 22).
of fiuviolacustrine
sediments,characterizedby ripple Preciousmetalmineralizationis alsopresentwithin
marksand dessicationcracks,to depthsof >300 m diatremes:gold-bearingveinsand phreaticbreccias
below the presentsurfaceat Cripple Creek is ex- (seeabove)at CrippleCreek(Thompson et al., 1985),
plainedin the samemanner(Thompsonet al., 1985). a preciousmetal-bearingpipe at Bassick(Emmons,
Further evidencethat diatremesintersectedthe pa- 1896), anda zoneof largelydisseminated Au-Ag-Zn-
lcosurfaceis providedby the presenceof piecesof Pb mineralizationat MontanaTunnels(Sillitoeet al.,
carbonizedwoodat MontanaTunnels,Bassick,Crip- 1985). At MontanaTunnels,the presenceof an ap-
ple Creek, Acupan,and Dizon (Table 8). preciableamountof clasticsulfides(includingveinlet
Severaldiatremeswere cut by dikes or irregular fragments)in the brecciashowsthat mineralization
bodiesof intrusiverock,asat MontanaTunnels,Crip- continuedduring the period of active brecciation,
ple Creek, Cerro de Pasco,E1Teniente, Dizon, and probablyduringpausesin explosiveactivity.
Wau (Table 8). At MontanaTunnelsandE1Teniente, In the caseof the four porphyry copper deposits
brecciationwas still activeduringintrusion,as evi- in Table 8, ore is locatedbeyondthe limits of the
dencedby the irregular,swirly,andmutuallycross- diatremes, althoughmineralizedclastsarewidespread
cuttingcontactsbetweenbrecciaand intrusiverock in the diatreme breccias themselves. At Mi Vida,
and, at the former locality, by chilled marginsto however,significantlate-stageadvancedargillical-
piecesof dike rock incorporatedin the breccia (Sil- teration affected much of the breccia and gave rise
litoe et al., 1985). At severallocalitieswhere erosion to a zoned, pipelike body of copper and lead-zinc
is minimal or not far advanced,endogenousdomes mineralizationin the diatreme'sinterior (Koukharsky
arerecognizable, e.g., Cerrode Pasco(Silbermanand and Mirr•, 1976).
EchoCrete,
WAIMANGU • • 1886
explosion
crater'-'-':•
Pre-I••kes.
• •r•t• of• su•, •.• C•tou•in•
: --- • 3' km inferr•f• cross•i•. •1• levi.
•ke
•nt
FIG. 23. Volcanicexplosioncratersformedin 1886 alongthe Tarawerarift at Lake Rotomahana

andWaimangu,North Island,New Zealand.The mainphreatomagmatic basesurgedepositoriginated
from Great Crater basin.Pre-1886 andpresentlake levelsshown.Taken from Nairn (1979).
The diatreme brecciasare weakly but pervasively activitytook place after Rotomahanabecamequies-
alteredirrespectiveof whetheror not their emplace- cent, as shown by the hydrothermal eruptions at
mentwaspre- or postmineral.The alteration(except nearbyWaimangusomefour yearslater (Figs.16 and
for that at MontanaTunnelsandMi Vida) appearsto 23; see above).
bear no direct relation to mineralizationand is gen- Origin: Sheridanand Wohletz (1981, 1983) con-
erallycharacterized by oneor moreof sericite,clays, cludedthat the phreatomagmaticexplosiveactivity
chlorite, carbonate,zeolites, specularite,and pyrite responsible for maar-diatremegenerationmayresult
(Table 8). However, part of the pyrite is invariably from a fuel-coolant type of interaction between
clastic.This alterationis attributedto the high fluid magmaand an external water source.In the caseof
contents of the breccias at the times of their formation the diatremes under discussionhere, the source is
(seebelow). believedto havebeen an aquiferchargedwith ground
Modern analogs:Maar volcanoesare widespread water at depthsof 1 to œkm, or even more (e.g., E1
volcanicphenomena,althoughthoseinvolvingmag- Teniente),beneaththe paleosurface. Fault zonesalso
masof rhyolitic to daciticcompositionappearto be may have facilitated ground-water accessin some
lesscommonthan their basiccounterparts.This may places.Lindgrenand Bastin(1922) were the first to
be in part due to their destructionduringlater dome proposethe explosiveinteractionof magmaand me-
emplacement,asat Julcani,Peru (ShelnuttandNoble, teoric water as a mechanism for formation of one of
1985). From the standpointof epithermal mineral- the diatremesdiscussed here--the Bradenpipe at E1
ization, the 1886 eruption of Rotomahanain the Teniente.
Taupo volcaniczone of North Island, New Zealand It is clear that the diatremes(Table 8) were gen-
(Fig. 16), is of someinterestalthoughit did not give eratedby multiple explosions, eachinvolvingexpan-
rise to a typical monogeneticmaar volcano. sionandvaporizationof groundwater, andfragmen-
At the time of basalticeruptionfrom the Tarawera tationand entrainmentof magmaparticles(Sheridan
rift (seeabove),basalticmagmaascendingalongthe and Wohletz, 1983). The essential(magmatic)and
southwestward continuation of the fissure is believed accidental(wall-rock) componentsof the resulting
to haveinteractedwith meteoricfluidsof the Roto- pyroclasticproductsare characterizedby a high de-
mahanageothermalsystemto trigger a catastrophic greeof comminution (SelfandSparks,1978;Sheridan
phreatomagmaticeruption (Nairn, 1979). Water-sat- andWohletz, 1983), asobservedin manyof the brec-
urated basesurgestraveled westwardfor at least 6 cias.Ascentof fragmentedmagma,rock, steam,and
km from vents now 95 percent concealedbeneath water in diatremesgave rise to distinctiveeruption
Lake Rotomahana(Fig. œ3)to producethe Rotoma- products(WohletzandSheridan,1983), amongwhich
hanamud.The explosions two largehot pyroclastic
disintegrated basesurgedeposits andaccretionarylapilli
spring sinter apronsthat capped part of the Roto- are particularly diagnostic.However, eruption was
mahanageothermalsystem,aswell asa largevolume characterizedby pyroclasticfall activityaswell asby
of alteredrockfromthe systemitself.Hydrothermal laterallydirected,water-saturated
basesurges,with
the formerbecomingdominantasthe availabilityof Magmatie Breeeias

ground water was reduced (Sheridanand Wohletz,
Porphyry-typeand otherbaseand precious
1981). Eruptedproductsconstructedejecta aprons, metal deposits
which commonlyhave the form of tuff ringsor tuff
cones(Wohletz and Sheridan,1983). Generalremarks:
Thisclassofbreccias
isnotwidely
Subsidence, aswell asexplosiveactivity,playeda recognized in associationwith ore depositsand is
major role in the constructionof diatremesand the poorly documented,but it is believed to includethe
maarcratersthat overlie them (Lorenz, 1973, 1975). examplessummarizedin Table 9. Although these
Subsidence of rocksenclosedwithin ring faultswas brecciasare distinctfromthe phreatomagmatic brec-
interspersedwith and followed explosiveactivity. cias described above, the term diatreme is also em-
Rockmasses becamedetachedfromthe ring faultsat ployed to describethe vents that containthem (cf.
depth by spalling(e.g., MontanaTunnels)and near Daubr•e, 1891).
the surfaceby slumpingandlandsliding(e.g., Wau). Characteristics: These diatremes contain breccias
As a result of this gravity-controlleddetachmentof madeup of angularto roundedclastsof juvenileand,
rock masses,the walls of maar craters retreated until in subordinateamounts,accidental origins. From
theyattainedup to twicethe diameterof the subjacent availabledescriptions (Table9), it appearsthat most
subverticaldiatremes.Landslidingand fiuviolacus- of the juvenile materialcomprisespoorlyvesiculated
trine sedimentation dominated maar craters after ex- cognatelithicclastsof daciticto rhyoliticcomposition.
plosiveactivitywaned(e.g., Wau). However,vesiculated materialmaybe moreabundant
Intrusionof magmaasirregular or dikelikebodies than suggestedin the literature: ignimbrite was
andits emplacementasendogenous domesat the pa- eruptedat Rio Blanco-Los Broncesandis still partly
leosurfacetook placeduring (probablyinterspersed preserved(Stambuket al., 1982; VergaraandLatorre,
with) explosiveactivitybut becamedominantduring 1984; Warnaarset al., 1985) and rhyolitic tuffs at
the finalstagesof diatremeemplacement, probably Ashioare describedashighly weldedin the central
due to a diminutionof the meteoricwater supply partsof the diatreme(Nakamura,1970), suggesting
(Lorenz, 1975). thattheymaybe ignimbriticin character.Matrix-rich
Where mineralizationwas producedlargely by brecciasare not common,exceptat Casino(Godwin,
magmaticfluids,aswith the caseof porphyrycopper 1976) andAshio(Nakamura,1970), where rhyolitic
deposits,diatremeemplacementtended to be a late- tuffsare described.Matrix is generallytuffaceous, al-
stageevent. In contrast,where mineralizationpro- thoughaphaniticrhyoliteoccursat RedwellBasinand
cesses were dominatedby meteoricfluids,aswith the CavePeak.Residualopenspaceis scarce.Patchesof
caseof epithermaldeposits,ore formationtendedto brecciachargedwith large accidentallithic clastsare
accompanyor follow diatreme emplacement.It is found around the borders of the Casino (Godwin,
concludedtherefore that significantquantitiesof 1976),RioBlanco-Los Bronces (Stambuk et al., 1982),
groundwatercouldnot gainreadyaccess to deep(K and Ashio(Nakamura,1970; Imai et al., 1975; Fig.
silicate-altered)levels of porphyrycoppersystems 24) diatremes,with thoseat the firstlocalitycarrying
duringmagmatic-hydrothermal activity.It isnotuntil large spheroidalclasts.
late-stagecollapseof convectivelycirculatingmete- The diatremesvary greatly in horizontaldimen-
oric fluidstook placethat externalfluidshad access sions.Those at Casino,Redwell Basin,and Moonmera
to residual bodies of magma and could instigate are comparablein size with large intrusion-related
phreatomagmatic activity.In epithermalsettings,ore breccia pipes, whereasthe others are much larger
depositionwaseither controlledby existingperme- (Table9). Observedverticaldimensions are mainly
ability,suchasring faults,shatteringandbrecciation in the 500- to 1,000-m range.The Redwell Basindia-
aroundmaarsor diatremes(e.g., Acupan,Cerro de treme bottomsat a depth of about 515 m at a thin
Pasco,Wau), andby the poorlylithifiednatureof the (30-120 m) hornfelshorizon, which partially sepa-
diatremebrecciaitself (e.g., MontanaTunnels),or ratesit from an underlyingrhyolite cupola(Sharp,
accompanied generation of the requiredpermeability 1978;ThomasandGaley,1982).The diatremesrange
by phreaticbrecciation(e.g., CrippleCreek,Wau). from nearlyvertical to upwardflared in form, with
The mechanism responsible for the brecciatedan- the mostextreme caseof the latter geometrybeing
nuli aroundsomediatremes,asat AcupanandE1Ten- providedby the open funnel shapeat Ashio (Naka-
iente, remains problematic. These breccias were mura, 1970; Fig. 24). The breccia at Cave Peak is
partlygenerated beforediatremeemplacement (e.g., hourglassshaped and is preserved as an annulus
Howell and Molloy, 1960), to which they seemto arounda quartzmonzoniteplug (Sharp,1979).
have been precursors.Could the annuli have been Intrusiverocksare presentin the diatremes.Felsitic
localizedby highmagmaticand/orfluidpressures, in rhyoliteoccursasa matrixto brecciasat RedwellBasin
the mannerenvisagedby Koide and Bhattacharji and Cave Peak and is steeplyflow banded(Sharp,
(1975)? 1978, 1979). Larger masses of porphyryare alsode-
TABLE9. SelectedExamplesofMagmatic Breccias
Vertical
Horizontal dimension Probablejuvenile
Locality Host rocks Age (m.y.) dimensions(km) (m) component
Casino,Yukon, Cretaceousquartz 70.3 0.7 X 0.4 >360 Rhyolitictuff

Canada monzonite+ quartz + tuff breccia
monzoniteporphyry
RedwellBasin, Mesozoicsedimentary 15.8 0.45 x 0.27 515 Rhyoliticbreccia

Colorado rocks + flow-banded
rhyolite
CavePeak, Cambrian-Permian 37.4 to 36.1 0.76 X 0.76 >750 Rhyoliticbreccia

Texas sandstone + lime-
stone
Ortiz, New Cretaceousquartzite, Oligocene 2.5 X 0.9 >500 Latitic breccia

Mexico Oligocenemonzo- + tuff
nite
Toquepala,Peru Paleogene
felsicvolca- 59 1.3 X 1.0 >500 Daciticpyroclas-
nics tics
R•oBlanco-Los Mioceneandesiticvol- 4 1.8 x 1.8 >600 Rhyolitic(ignim-

Bronces, canics+ granodio- britic) + dacitic
Chile rite pyroclastics
Ashio,Japan Permo-Carboniferous Neogene 4.4 X 3.3 > 1,000 Rhyolitictuff

sedimentaryrocks + rhyolite
Moonmera, Permianquartz diorite 245 0.42 x 0.18 >500 Tuff

Queensland, + granodioritepor- + 0.12 x 0.06
Australia phyry
scribedby Sharp(1978) from the RedwellBasindia- Rio Blanco-LosBroncesdiatremespostdateall sig-

treme andare alsopresentat Toquepala(Richardand nificant mineralization.
Courtright,1958),RioBlanco-Los Bronces(Stambuk The diatremesat Ortiz and Ashio are both pre-
et al., 1982), and Ashio(Nakamura,1970). At Rio- mineral.Gold-bearingmagmatic-hydrothermal brec-
Blanco-LosBronces,the early dacite porphyry may cias were localized around the periphery of the
constitutethe roots of domes(Vergara and Latorre, diatremeat Ortiz (seeabove)andmassivesulfidere-
1984). placements of chertareconcentratedaroundthedia-
Alteration and mineralization: The diatremes in treme at Ashio,which is alsocut by a swarmof Cu-,
Table 9 are dividedbetween pre- (or early) mineral Sn-,Bi-, andZn-bearingveins(Nakamura,1970; Imai
andpost-(or late) mineralexamples.Premineraldia- et al., 1975; Fig. 24).
tremes are present in porphyry copper systemsat Modernanalogs:The probablesurfaceexpressions
Casino(Godwin, 1976) and Moonmera (Dummett, of the ore-related,pyroclastic-filled
ventsdiscussed
1978), where they constitutethe foei of K silicate in this sectionare widespread,but two examplessuf-
alterationand associatedeopper-molybdenummin- fice: Novaruptabasinin the Valley of Ten Thousand
eralization. The porphyry molybdenummineraliza- Smokes,Katmai, Alaska, and La Soufri•re, Guade-
tion at Cave Peak is centeredon a quartz monzonite loupe, FrenchWest Indies.
plug and only overlapsinto the surroundingannulus The 2-km-wideNovaruptabasinformed in 1912
ofbreeeia (Sharp,1979). In contrast,diatremeswere over a flared,funnel-shaped conduitby initial explo-
emplaeedlate in the evolutionof the RedwellBasin, siveejectionof lithic debris,inwardslumpingof the
Toquepala,and Rio Blanco-LosBroneesporphyry walls,andcontinuederuptivereamingof the widening
systems.The RedwellBasinbreeeiaoverliesporphyry orifice(Hildreth, 1983). Pyroclasticflowswere then
molybdenummineralizationand carriesonly minor erupted and followedby emplacementof the Nova-
lead-zinc mineralization in its upper parts (Sharp, ruptarhyolitedomeandaccompanying ejectaapron
1978; Thomasand Galey, 1982). The Toquepalaand (Hildreth, 1983). Finalactivityat Novaruptawashy-
Associatedwith Porphyry and Other Deposits
Evidence for
Alterationof surface Ore deposit Locationof Timing of
Other features breccia connection type mineralization brecciation Reference
Lithic-rich border K silicate,seri- None Porphyry Centered on dia- Premineral Godwin (1976)
phase citic Cu-Mo treme
Cut by phreatic Sericitic None PorphyryMo Mo beneathbrec- Late mineral Sharp(1978), Thomas
brecciadikes cia, Pb-Zn in and Galey (1982)
breccia
Breccia as annulus Biotitic None PorphyryMo Centeredon plug, Premineral Sharp(1979)

around quartz overlapsbrec-
monzoniteplug
Cut by latite por- Weak sericitic, None Au-bearing On diatremecon- Premineral Lindquist (1980),
phyry dikes argillic breccia tact Wright (1983)
pipe
Cut by latite por- Minor None Porphyry Southwestof dia- Late mineral Richardand Courtright
phyry + pebble Cu-Mo treme (19S8)
dikes
Cut by andes- Weak sericitic Ignimbrite flow Porphyry South ofdiatreme Postmineral Stambuket al. (1982),
ite-dacite Cu-Mo Vergara and Latorre
+ phreatic (1984), Warnaarset
breccia dikes al. (1985)
Lithic breccia on Propylitic, pipe None Cu, Sn, Zn in Within and sur- Premineral Nakamura (1970), Imai
contacts, brec- of advanced veins+ re- roundingdia- et al. (1975)
cia dikesparal- argillic placements treme
lel contact
Biotitic None Porphyry Centered on dia- Early mineral Dummett (1978)

Cu-Mo treme
drothermaland gaverise to fumarolicactivity(Fen- The decompression causedby disruptionof a 1- to

ner, 1938). 3-km-highcolumnof rockthroughto the palcosurface
Duringthe late Pleistocene,formationof an explo- couldhavetriggeredexplosivefragmentationof ve-
sioncrater, eruption of pyroclasticflows,and dome siculatingmagmain the underlyingchamberandthe
emplacementtook place asa similarseriesof events consequent surfaceeruptionof pyroclasticfall or flow
atLa Soufri•reand,asnotedabove,phreaticeruptions deposits.The magmaticdiatremesdiscussed here are
then occurredon the flanksof the dome(Heiken et believedto be theconduits throughwhichfragmented
al., 1980). magmawas erupted. As in the caseof phreatomag-
Origin:Thesediatremesare believedto resultfrom matic diatremes,cessationof explosiveactivity was
energy release during crystallization and/or de- commonlyfollowed by passiveascentof magmato
compression of shallowlyemplacedbodiesof hydrous give dikes,irregularbodies,and at surface,domes.
magma,as discussedby Burnham(1985) and sum-
Intrusion Breccias
marizedaboveunder the sectiondealingwith mag-
matic-hydrothermalbreccias.Magmatic-hydrother- The term intrusionbrecciawas first proposedby
malbrecciationof the outer carapacesandwall rocks Harker (1908) andsubsequently adoptedby Wright
of stockswasascribedto the exsolutionof fluidsby andBowes(1963) for the productsof the mechanical
the secondboilingreactionfollowedby decompres- fragmentationandincorporationof wall rocksby in-
sion.However,if the releaseof energyby thesepro- trusivemagma.Angularto subrounded fragmentsare
cessesis of sufficientmagnitude,brittle failure can cementedby an igneousmatrix and the resulting
attainthe surface,causedisruptionof the entire col- breccialikematerialgradesinto both intrusiverock
umnof suprajacent rock,andtriggervolcaniceruption (withor withoutwall-rockxenoliths) andunfractured
(Burnham,1972, 1985). Weakeningof the overlying wall rocks.Intrusionbrecciasare commonasirregular
rocksby previousstructuralor brecciationeventsmay patchesnearthe wallsandroofsof subvolcanic stocks,
predisposethem to catastrophic failure. asin porphyry-typedeposits.
A
1. Magmatic-hydrothermal-phreatic. For example,
in porphyry copper systemsa distinctionbetween
well-mineralized magmatic-hydrothermal breccias
emplacedearly in the deep,centralpartsof systems,
and barrenphreaticbrecciasemplacedlate and pe-
ripherally is relatively simple.However, in the case
of weakly mineralizedintermineralbrecciaslocated
on the edgesof porphyrycopperore zones,the role
of magmatic-hydrothermal vis-h-vismeteoric-hydro-
thermalfluidsislessclear.Similarly,with presentun-
derstanding, distinctionbetweensomepipelikebrec-
ciaslisted asof phreatic(e.g., Red Mountain,Colo-
rado) and magmatic-hydrothermal
(e.g., Golden
Sunlight)originsis, at best,difficult.
2. Phreatic-phreatomagmatic. The difficultyin this
caseis to assess,often with limited exposuresof a
breccia,whetheranunderlyingmagmabodycontrib-
uted only heat or heat plus a smallvolumeof frag-
mentedmelt. For example,diatremeslike that at Bal-
atoc(Acupan)are assigned a phreatomagmatic origin
even thoughno juvenile componenthasbeen iden-
tified with certainty.It is salutoryto recall,however,
that the distinction is even difficult to make for historic
deposits:a phreatic (steam explosion)origin was
widely acceptedfor the Rotomahanamud, New Zea-
O RHYOLITIC
PYROCLASTICS. land, prior to Nairn's (1979) demonstrationthat ba-
saltictephrawere directly involvedin the 1886 erup-
(•) RHYOLI?E.
•(• LI?HIC I REPLACEMENT
BRECCIA. ORE
VEINS
tion.All phreatomagmatic brecciassummarized here
are confinedto large diatremes,whereasall the epi-
thermal phreaticbrecciasoccupymuch smallercon-
:::'i!O
SANDS?ONE,
CHER?,
SLATE.
duits.The possibilityexists,however,that a phreato-
magmaticmechanismcould accountfor somesmall
FIG. 24. Plan and sectionof a magmaticdiatreme at Ashio,
Japan.Taken from Nakamura(1970).
near-surface bodiesof brecciagiventhe evidencefor
at leastsomephreatic(hydrothermal)eruptionsbeing
causedby ascentof magma(e.g., Waimangu).An ex-
ample may be providedby a near-surfacebrecciaat
Tectonic Breccias
McLaughlin,California,in whichrhyoliticpumicewas
Brittle fractureat high strainratesduringmove- tentativelyidentifiedby C. Nelsonand the writer.
ment on faultsof varioustypesgivesriseto the gen- 3. Phreatomagmatic-magmatic. Sheridan and
eration of breccias.Given the localizationof many Wohletz (1981, 1983) havequantifiedthe transition
ore depositsby faults(e.g., Newhouse,1942), fault fromphreatomagmatic to magmaticexplosiveactivity,
breccias are common in close association with min- with the latterbecomingdominantwhenthe quantity
eralization.In manyplaces,tabularor lenslikebodies of groundwater gainingaccessto a magmachamber
of faultbrecciaare ore bearing. diminishes.It is therefore probable that some dia-
tremesacted as conduitsfor both types of products
Discussion
duringtheir activelives;thoseat GuinaoangandRio
Blanco-LosBroncesmight be examples.
In this overview, a rigid categorizationof ore-re-
latedbrecciashasbeenadoptedin orderto emphasize 4. Magmatic-hydrothermal-magmatic. Since
a numberof differentpossiblemechanisms for brec-
magmaticbrecciasare inferred to have been gener-
atedby a naturalprogression
ciation.In reality, however, ore-relatedbrecciasare of the magmatic-hydro-
thoughtlikely to constitutea continuumrather thanthermalbrecciationmechanism,transitionalexamples
a seriesof discretetypes.This conclusionis empha-are inevitable.Althoughbrecciapipesthat were in-
trudedby smallvolumesof magmamaysafelybe con-
sizedboth by the occurrencesof brecciaswith inter-
mediatecharacteristics with anysingle sideredasmagmatic-hydrothermal,
irreconcilable examplessuchas
categoryandby the combinationof brecciatypesin Kidstonthat containan abundanceof felsiteandrhy-
singlepipes or diatremes.Someof the most likely olite porphyryfragmentsandare cut by rhyolitepor-
transitions
(andconfusions)arebetweenthe following phyry dikes are probablytransitionalto magmatic
brecciatypes: diatremes like those at Redwell Basin and Cave Peak.
5. Subsurfacemagmatic-subaerial volcanic.These alsophreatic;e.g., Kawerau)explosiveactivityof the

two categoriesare arbitrarilydefined,with subsurface basesurgetype.
brecciasclearly being transitionalto subaerialbrec- 4. Blocksof basesurgedeposits,fragmentsof car-
cias. The same transition is of course also the case bonizedwood,or piecesof hotspringsinterin breccia
with phreatomagmatic breccias.Volcanicbreccias, pipesor diatremesconfirmthat brecciationbreached
assignable to auto(flow)breccia,pyroclasticfall, flow the palcosurface.
andsurge,andepiclastic types(Wrightet al., 1980) 5. Restrictionof alterationand/or mineralization
are not specifically dealt with here but may cause to individualclastsatteststo an inter-or postmineral
considerable confusion in field situations,
especially timing of brecciation.Uncriticalapplicationof this
if they haveundergone pervasivehypogeneand/or criteri.on can lead to pitfalls,however,becausemin-
supergenealterationandif exposureis poor.Confu- eralized clasts are also known from subaerial volcanic
sion is prevalent if the volcanic breccia is coarse, breccias.For example,Triassiclaharic brecciasat
poorlybedded,of appreciable thickness, andareally Cariboo-Bell,Canada(Baileyand Hodgson,1979),
restricted. Examplesthat come to mind include: andthe 1982 pyroclasticfall brecciasat E1Chich6n,
crumble(talus)brecciasor pyroclasticblockandash Mexico(Luhr,1983),containporphyrycopperfrag-
flowsasapronsarounddomes,coignimbrite lag-fall ments.
deposits markingthesitesof collapse

oferuptioncol-
umnsat theproximalendsof pyroclastic (ignimbrite) This overview leads to a tentative statement on the
flows(WrightandWalker,1977), the finergrained geneticconnectionbetween brecciationand ore de-
portionsof landslidebreccias(mesobreccias) as position.If the mechanismsproposedabovefor brec-
wedgesaroundcalderawalls(Lipman,1976),andla- ciationarecorrect,thenthe fluidsresponsible
for rock
haric (volcanicmud-flow)breccias. fragmentationand subsequentmineralization are
6. Tectonic-other types. Becauseikults are be- likely, in manycases,to havebeen partsof the same
lieved to havelocalizedmanytypesof nontectonic extendedpulse,asexemplifiedby magmatic-hydro-
brecciation, faultbrecciamaycommonly beassociatedthermalbrecciasin intrusion-related pipesand por-
with or transitional to other breccia varieties. This is phyry copper systemsand by phreatic brecciasin
particularlythe casewith phreaticbrecciasbecause epithermalpreciousmetal deposits.The connection
faultingandhydraulicfracturingare commonlyinti- is moretenuousfor somephreatomagmatic andmag-
matelyrelatedeventsandtectonicdisplacements may maticdiatremes,althoughin mostcasesit is reason-
act as a triggerfor hydraulicfracture.Fine-grained able to concludethat the mineralizationevent(s)was
cataclasites (gouge)andslickensides are indicatorsof closelytied in time as well as spaceto brecciation.
tectonicrather thanhydrothermalorigin. Intrusionbrecciasand manytectonicbrecciaswere
7. Intrusion-othertypes. Small outcropsof intru- generatedwithout fluid involvement,and if miner-
frommag- alized,were subjectedto the passageof fluidsat a
sionbrecciamaybe difficultto distinguish
or phreaticbrecciasthat under- latertime. All breccias,especiallytheir contactswith
matic-hydrothermal
wentlimitedinvasionby magmaduringdecompres- wall rocksandirrespectiveof their originsor geom-
sive events. However, a gradationto xenolith-rich etries,providelow-pressurelocalesconduciveto the
intrusiverockis indicativeonly of intrusionbreccia. focusedflow of hydrothermalfluids.Ultimatelyit is
for thisreasonthat brecciascarryore, commonlyof
A disappointment of thisoverviewis the failureto abnormallyhigh grade.
isolatediagnostic geometric,textural,or lithologic Althoughthe data basefor ore-relatedbrecciasis
criteria for most types of breccias.However, it has extensive,there is still a chronicshortageof careful,
provedpossible to generalizea numberof theirchar- detailedobservations onthe geometries, textures,and
acteristics, as summarized in Table 10. A number of lithologiesof breccias.In particular,moredocumen-
featuresalsoare instructive fromthe standpoint of tationis requiredof the upwardand downwardter-
genesis: minationsof all types of breccias.Theoretical and
modelingstudiesare alsorequiredin an effortto sim-
1. Exfoliatedspheroidalfragmentsare character- ulate both the various brecciation mechanisms dis-
istic featuresof somemagmatic-hydrothermal and cussedabove and the specificfeaturesof breccias,
phreatic (especiallypebble dike) brecciasas well as suchassheetedzones,shinglebreccia,andexfoliated
somephreatomagmatic andmagmaticdiatremes(Ta- fragments.By analogywith the methodologyem-
ble 10) andare takenasindicatorsof decompressiveployedin the studyof pyroclasticrocks,particlesize
events. analysis(e.g., Walker, 1971) and SEM grainsurface
2. A juvenilecomponentin brecciaprovidesevi- analysis (e.g.,SheridanandWohletz,1983) ofbreccia
dencefor a magmatic or phreatomagmatic origin. componentsmay evolvecriteria of usefor determin-
3. Basesurgedeposits withor withoutaccretionary ing formationalmechanisms.The writer is confident
lapilli,eitherin subaerialapronsor assubsided blocks that the combination of observational data on breccias
in diatremes,confirmphreatomagmatic (or perhaps with furtherfluid inclusionand,in particular,stable
TABLE 10. Generalized Characteristics of
Ore
deposit
Brecciacategory type Geometry Diameter (m) Fragmentform Rockflour matrix
Magmatic-hydro- Isolated Singleor multiple 50-300, locally Angular-subrounded, Locallypresent

thermal pipes pipes > 1,000 locallyrounded (<30%)
Porphyry Singleor multiple up to 2,000 Angularto rounded Commonly

present
pipes,irregular (<50%)
bodies
Phreatic Epithermal Pipelikebutcom- upto •500 Angularto rounded Commonly

present
monlyirregular (<50%)
Porphyry Pipes,pebble up to •500 Angularto rounded Commonly present
dikes (upto 100%)
Kuroko Sheets,lenses up to 1,000 Angularto rounded Present(<30%)
long
Phreatomagmatic Porphyry Diatreme 1,000-3,000 Subrounded

to Present(<90%)
rounded
Epithermal Diatreme 1,000-3,000 Subrounded

to Present(<90%)
rounded
Magmatic Porphyry Diatreme 500-5,000 Subroundedto Present

rounded
Epithermal Diatreme 500-5,000 Subroundedto Present

rounded
Intrusion Intrusion- Irregular patches up to • 100 Angular Absent

related
deposits
Tectonic Any de- Steeptabular up to •50 Angularto rounded Present(up to

posit bodies wide 100%)
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EconomicGeology

Vol. 80, 1985, pp. 1467-1514

8 WestHill Park,HighgateVillage, LondonN6 6ND, England

1. Releaseofmagmatic-hydrothermal fluidsfromhigh-level hydrousmagma chambers during

chambers.The remaining categoriesof subsurface to 200 or more (Table2). Pipes(alsotermedchimneys

TABLE 2. SelectedExamplesof Mineralized

No. of pipes Surface Vertical

Copper Creek, Granodiorite,an- 68 >200/8 up to 180 >270 Angularto Absent

Washington Andesitic,latitic 45.7 • 13/2 up to 100 >400 Angularor Presentin

Inguarfm,Mi- Granite,granodio- 35.6 • 10/3 up to 600 X 300 225 Angular to 10 to >50%

Cabeza de Granodiorite, an- 62 >100/5 up to 70 > 100 Angularto Absent

El Bolsico, Quartz diorite, Paleocene 4/1 180 x 95 >170 Angularto Abundant

BrecciaPipesRelated to Intrusive Rocks

alteration Principal hypogene and/ormined

Propylitic Chalcopyrite,pyrite, Quartz, epidote, N 20 ø W + N Granodiorite 6 Mt, 1.2 to Escand6n(unpub.

Silicifica- Pyrite, arsenopyrite, Tourmaline, Jointing Granodiorite 38 t Bi Llambias and Mal-

No. of pipes Surface Vertical

Ilkwang, Quartz monzonite 69 1/1 80 X 50 >100 Angular to Absent

After Damonet al. (1983)

partially detachedand, in places,disaggregatedto In severaldistricts,includingsomeconfinedto sizable

FIG. 3. Spheroidalfragmentand its mould.

Alteration and mineralization: Most intrusion-re-

FIG.2. Shinglebrecciacementedby massive tourmalinefrom FIG. 4. Typicaljigsawbrecciacementedby tourmalineand

arsenopyrite andfinallyby pyrite (and/orpyrrhotite),

pipe formationwere proposed,at leastin basicform,

TABLE3. SomeSuggestedMechanismsfor Formation of BrecciaPipes

Principal mechanism Modification

Violent releaseof fluid from magma(Emmons,1938; Llambias Combinedwith decreasein magmapressure(Armbrust,1969•)

regimeswould result in increasedfluid release from foliationin theseand other breccias(seebelow), an

that brecciaswhich underwent significantupward WHIPSTICKMINE Extrapolatedformerpositionof contact

asearlyArchcanis well endowedwith breccias(Bar- It is clearfromTable 4 that brecciafragmentsrange

TABLE4. SelectedExamplesof Magmatic-Hydrothermal

BossMountain, Granodiorite 105 Irregular lenslike Angularto 0 to 70% Biotitic

Mt. Pleasant, Granitepor- 330 to 340 Pipelikebody Angularand Abundant Quartz-topaz

Sierrita-Esper- Quartz monzo- 57 Irregular up- Angularto Abundant in K silicate

Copper Basin, Quartz diorite, 64 25 vertical pipes Angularto Absent Quartz-K-feld-

SantaRita, Granodiorite 63 Elongatepipe Angular,sub- Present K silicate

Questa,New Andesiticvolca- 23 Bodyabovecu- Subangular(?) Absent K silicate

Cumobabi, Quartz monzo- 40.0 • •35 irregular Angularbut Absent, K silicate or

Principalmetallic Principalgangue Age relativeto Economic

Chalcopyrite,bornite, Biotite,chlorite, Largelypremineral High-gradeparts BriskeyandBellamy

Molybdenite,pyrite Quartz Early intermineral Ore largelyre- Soregaroli(1975),

Wolframite,molybdenite, Quartz, fluorite Premineral Main part of W- Kooimanet al.

Pyrite, chalcopyrite,mo- Quartz Premineral Hostsmuchof Cummings(1982)

Pyrite, chalcopyrite,mo- Quartz Largely premineral Three pipescarry Johnstonand Lowell

Chalcopyrite,pyrite, mo- Quartz, K-feldspar, Premineral High-gradeore, Quinlan (1981)

Pyrite, chalcopyrite, Quartz,biotite,K- Early mineral High-gradecen- Dunn (1982)

Chalcopyrite,bornite, Quartz, carbonate, Intermineral High-gradeore Perry (1935, 1961),

Pyrite, molybdenite, Quartz, biotite, K- Premineral Four bodiescarry Sillitoe (1976),

La Caridad, Quartzmonzo- 54.5• Irregular to Roundedto sub- <10% Sericitic+

Quebrada Quartz monzo- 38 Lens-shaped Roundedto Minor Sericitic(t), K

Panguna, Andesitc, diorite, 3 to 5 Irregular pipe- Angularto 0 to 80% Biotitic

Ok Tedi, Quartz monzo- 1.1 Dikes andirreg- Angularto 0 to 100% K silicate

After Damonet al. (1983)

brecciationis in overlyingrocks.Locally,specificin- in the peripherallead-zinczone(RubrightandHart,

Principalmetallic Principalgangue Age relative to Economic

Chalcopyrite,pyrite, mo- Quartz,K-feldspar, Intermineral Partlyhigh-grade Sillitoe et al. (1984a)

Pyrite, chalcopyrite,bor- Quartz, biotite, K- Intermineral Lens-shaped Hunt et al. (1983)