Part 1: Classical Conditioning

Pavlov was making observations on dog’s salivation every time they were given food. He noticed
how, after some time, the dogs would salivate due to the mere act of him coming into the room, even when
he was not bringing them food. This happened during the 1890s.
So Pavlov designed an experiment with this dog. He wanted to prove the existence of a programmed
response, one that is hardwired due to its connection with a different stimulus. He had his assistant bring
them food every time. Then he measured the dogs’ salivation when his assistant would come in and notice
the same amount as when the dog was presented with food.
Pavlov used a bell as a neutral stimulus that dogs would associate with food. At some point, when
the dog had associated the stimulus of the bell with salivating, the dogs would salivate to the sound of the
bell.
How did it Help with Classical Conditioning?
Pavlov realized that he had made a great discovery. The Pavlov dog associated the bell and the food
and a new behavior had been learned. This is the main tenet of classical or Pavlovian psychology.

Part 2: Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner)

The theory of B.F. Skinner is based upon the idea that learning is a function of change in overt
behavior. Changes in behavior are the result of an individual’s response to events (stimuli) that occur in the
environment. A response produces a consequence such as defining a word, hitting a ball, or solving a math
problem. When a particular Stimulus-Response (S-R) pattern is reinforced (rewarded), the individual is
conditioned to respond. The distinctive characteristic of operant conditioning relative to previous forms of
behaviorism (e.g., connectionism, drive reduction) is that the organism can emit responses instead of only
eliciting response due to an external stimulus.
Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner’s S-R theory. A reinforcer is anything that strengthens
the desired response. It could be verbal praise, a good grade or a feeling of increased accomplishment or
satisfaction. The theory also covers negative reinforcers — any stimulus that results in the increased
frequency of a response when it is withdrawn (different from adversive stimuli — punishment — which result
in reduced responses). A great deal of attention was given to schedules of reinforcement (e.g. interval versus
ratio) and their effects on establishing and maintaining behavior.
One of the distinctive aspects of Skinner’s theory is that it attempted to provide behavioral
explanations for a broad range of cognitive phenomena. For example, Skinner explained drive (motivation)
in terms of deprivation and reinforcement schedules. Skinner (1957) tried to account for verbal learning and
language within the operant conditioning paradigm, although this effort was strongly rejected by linguists
and psycholinguists. Skinner (1971) deals with the issue of free will and social control.
Application
Operant conditioning has been widely applied in clinical settings (i.e., behavior modification) as well as
teaching (i.e., classroom management) and instructional development (e.g., programmed instruction).
Parenthetically, it should be noted that Skinner rejected the idea of theories of learning (see Skinner, 1950).
Example: By way of example, consider the implications of reinforcement theory as applied to the
development of programmed instruction (Markle, 1969; Skinner, 1968).
1. Practice should take the form of question (stimulus) – answer (response) frames which expose the
student to the subject in gradual steps.
2. Require that the learner make a response for every frame and receive immediate feedback.
3. Try to arrange the difficulty of the questions so the response is always correct and hence a positive
reinforcement.
4. Ensure that good performance in the lesson is paired with secondary reinforcers such as verbal praise,
prizes and good grades.
Principles
1. Behavior that is positively reinforced will reoccur; intermittent reinforcement is particularly effective.
2. Information should be presented in small amounts so that responses can be reinforced (“shaping”).
3. Reinforcements will generalize across similar stimuli (“stimulus generalization”) producing secondary
conditioning.
Part 3: Differences Between Classical vs. Operant Conditioning
Although operant and classical conditioning both involve behaviors controlled by environmental stimuli, they
differ in nature. In operant conditioning, stimuli present when a behavior is rewarded or punished come to
control that behavior. For example, a child may learn to open a box to get the candy inside, or learn to avoid
touching a hot stove; in operant terms, the box and the stove are "discriminative stimuli". Operant
conditioning involves voluntary behavior. However, in classical conditioning, stimuli that signal significant
events produce reflexive behavior. For example, sight of candy may cause a child to salivate, or the sound of
a door slam may signal an angry parent, causing a child to tremble. Salivation and trembling are not operants;
they are not reinforced by their consequences.

Part 4
Classical conditioning refers to the relationship between various environmental stimuli and reflex
responses. Classical conditioning was initially promoted by Pavlov, who demonstrated that he could
condition a response (salivation) in a dog at the sound of a bell (conditioned stimulus). Today, our
understanding of learning has expanded beyond the simple relationship of conditioned and unconditioned
stimuli. However, the work of Pavlov, Watson (1919), and others has provided a firm foundation for many
current intervention strategies.
Operant conditioning describes the relationship between environmental events and behavior.
Antecedent events occur prior to the target behavior. Consequent events occur after a target behavior. A
consequent event is considered a reinforcer if the preceding behavior increases or is maintained. A
consequent event is defined as a punisher if the preceding behavior decreases in rate, duration, or intensity.
Operant conditioning has its roots in the animal research conducted by Thorndike (1905, 1911) and Skinner
(1938, 1953). Thorndike demonstrated the relationship between reinforcement and rates of learning.
Skinner, whose name is synonymous with operant conditioning and behavior modification, helped clarify the
differences between operant conditioning and classical conditioning. He encouraged researchers to study
observable behavior and promoted the use of valid and reliable scientific methods of behavioral research.
The primary differences between the behavioral and psychoanalytic approaches include the focus on
overt rather than covert behaviors, a different understanding of inappropriate behavior, a different
approach to assessment, and a different understanding of the importance of environmental and
psychological influences on behavior. The behavioral approach provides teachers and parents with direct
applications for classroom and home settings. Social learning theory expands the behavioral model and
stresses the interdependence and integration of internal variables (thoughts and feelings) with
environmental factors. The role of modeling, for example, was researched by Bandura (1977) as a significant
learning tool.
Behavior therapy is considered a modern, practical application of classical conditioning involving
several treatment strategies. These strategies include systematic desensitization, flooding, aversion therapy,
covert conditioning, modeling, and biofeedback. Wolpe (1958) used systematic desensitization as an anxiety-
reducing procedure. Applied behavior analysis expanded laboratory principles of operant conditioning to
everyday situations and settings. Baer et al. (1968, 1987) state that applied behavior analysis ought to be
applied, behavioral, analytic, technological, conceptual, effective, and capable of generalized outcomes.
The basic concepts of behavior management include behavior, responses, stimuli, antecedents,
consequences, reinforcement, punishment, and prompts and cues. Prompts may be natural, verbal, gestural,
modeling, or physical. Behaviorists believe that most behaviors are learned, behaviors are stimulus-specific,
and behaviors can be taught and modified. Behavioral interventions focus on individualized programming,
interventions for the here and now, and goals that are specific and clearly defined.
Many myths and misconceptions exist concerning behavior management techniques. These
have developed over a long history of abusive interventions with a focus on punishment. The perception of
punishment as the primary strategy of behavior management has led to negative reactions, even among
professionals. Others believe that changing another person’s behavior is coercive, the use of reinforcement
is a form of bribery, and children should work for intrinsic, not extrinsic, reinforcers. Current behavioral
interventions, however, stress the reinforcement of appropriate behavior and focus less on the modification
of inappropriate behavior directly.
Discussion
- What are the differences between classical and operant conditioning? Provide examples of each as
observed in everyday situations.
- Describe the primary differences between the psychoanalytic and behavioral approaches to
understanding behavior. Which do you think is more applicable to the classroom setting and more
functional for the classroom teacher?
- Discuss and give examples of how some of the treatment strategies in behavior therapy are related to
classical conditioning.
- Discuss the treatment strategies frequently associated with behavior therapy. Could any of the
treatment strategies be applied to the classroom setting? How?
- Discuss the relationship among antecedents, behavior, and consequences in operant conditioning. Give
examples of this relationship as observed in everyday experiences.
- List and give examples of the different types of prompts and cures that may be used as antecedent stimuli
to teach new behaviors.
- Discuss the basic concepts of behavior and behavior management as outlined in the chapter.
- What is behaviorism?