TOPIC T5: UNSTEADY FLOW IN PIPES AUTUMN 2013

Objectives

(1) Recognise the potential for large pressure transients when pipe flow is stopped abruptly.
(2) Predict pressure rise and the speed of water-hammer waves in rigid and non-rigid pipes.
(3) Predict the time series of events at any point in a pipeline following sudden closure.
(4) Derive and use the unsteady incompressible pipe-flow equation to analyse the
behaviour of surge tanks and pump bypasses.

1. Unsteady flow in pipes

1.1 Introduction – pressure transients
1.2 Unsteady incompressible pipe-flow equation

2. Water hammer
2.1 Speed of pressure waves in rigid pipes
2.2 Speed of pressure waves in non-rigid pipes
2.3 Time series of events following sudden closure
2.4 “Slow” and “rapid” closure

3. Slow closure: unsteady incompressible pipe flow

3.1 Surge tank
3.2 Pump bypass

References

Massey (2011) – Chapter 12

Hamill (2011) – Chapter 11 (sections 11.8, 11.9)
Chadwick and Morfett (2013) – Chapter 6

Hydraulics 2 T5-1 David Apsley

1. Unsteady Flow in Pipes

1.1 Introduction – Pressure Transients

A long pipeline contains a large mass of water. If this were all to be brought to rest
simultaneously by the rapid closure of a valve then the pressure rise would be enormous. For
example, the pressure difference required to reduce the entire fluid momentum in the pipe to
zero in time t may be estimated from:
force = mass  acceleration
0u u
( p1  p 2 ) A  (ρAL )  ( ) p1 D A  p2
t
ρLu
 Δp 
t

If the closure time t is small this leads to very large pressures. For example, if a 1 m s–1 flow
of water in a 1000 m pipeline is shut off in 1 s, then the incompressible assumption leads to a
pressure difference of 100010001/1 = 106 Pa, or about 10 atmospheres!

Such large pressure transients can lead to severe pipe or valve damage, so should be designed
against. Means of achieving a more gradual change in velocity are discussed in Section 3.

However, large pressure transients can sometimes be useful. In the ram pump or hydraulic
ram the periodic closure of a valve by a relatively low-head flow creates short bursts of high
pressure which can deliver water to a much greater height (albeit it at a smaller mean flow
rate). Since the device requires only a steady flow of water and not a power supply it is very
useful for raising water in remote regions.

1.2 Unsteady Incompressible Pipe-Flow Equation

To include the effects of friction and slope consider the flow in a length L of pipe. For
incompressible flow all the fluid in the pipe is moving at the same speed u.

p1
D A u

p2

mass  acceleration = force
du
m  p1 A  p2 A  mg sin θ  τ w  πDL
dt  
    
streamwisecomponent
net pressure wall friction
force of weight

Hence, with τ w  c f  (dynamic pressure) , and c f  λ / 4 (see Topic 2):

du z1  z2 λ 1
(ρAL )  ( p1  p2 ) A  (ρAL ) g   ρu u  πDL
dt L 2
4
accounting for flow direction

Hydraulics 2 T5-2 David Apsley

Dividing by ρAg (where A  πD 2 / 4 ) and writing p* = p + ρgz for the piezometric pressure:
L du p1 *  p 2 * L uu
  λ
g dt ρg D 2g
  
piezometric head frictional head loss

By considering infinitesimal lengths of pipe this can be shown to be correct whether the slope
is constant or not. Moreover, since the velocity is the same anywhere in the pipe, the
difference in piezometric head is the same as the difference in total head.

Unsteady pipe-flow equation

L du L uu
 H1  H 2  λ (1)
g dt D 2g

For steady flow the LHS is zero. The equation then simply says that the drop in head
( H1  H 2 ) equals the head loss due to friction.

For slow changes of velocity, pressure changes are small enough for the incompressible
approximation to remain valid, and this equation can be solved to give u as a function of
time. This is the slow-closure problem which will be used to analyse surge tanks and
pressure-relief valves in Section 3.

For rapid changes of velocity the large acceleration compressed fluid

or deceleration can only be accommodated by a u c
large change in pressure, which, in turn, causes a p
large change of density. In this rapid-closure
problem the pressure transient is huge, the
incompressibility assumption breaks down and
elastic properties of the fluid (and the pipe) must be considered. The whole of the fluid in the
pipe does not respond to the valve closure simultaneously; instead, a pressure discontinuity
(shock) propagates back along the pipe: the phenomenon of water hammer.

A more precise definition of what constitutes “slow” or “rapid” closure will be given later.

Hydraulics 2 T5-3 David Apsley

2. Water Hammer

The near-instantaneous stopping of all the water in a long pipeline can only be brought about
by huge pressures.

In practice, the fluid adjacent to the valve is compressed and a positive pressure pulse
propagates back along the pipe at speed c (rather akin to the build-up of cars in a motorway
pile-up). The propagating front is referred to as a shock, and the phenomenon in pipelines as
water hammer.

Although the phenomenon is most often associated with valve closure, large negative
pressure pulses may occur if the valve is opened rapidly, and may lead to cavitation, which
should be avoided at all costs.

2.1 Speed of Pressure Waves in Rigid Pipes

The elastic properties of a fluid are determined by its bulk modulus K, which is the ratio of
the change in pressure, Δp, to the volumetric strain (fractional change in volume):
(ΔV )
Δp  K
V
or in terms of the fractional change in density:
Δρ
Δp  K (2)
ρ

The bulk modulus of water is about 2.2 GPa (2.2109 Pa).

Consider a discontinuity propagating at speed c (the celerity) to the left in response to a valve
closure. In front of it is fluid with velocity u which as yet has not felt the effect of the closure.

Fluid properties change from (p, ρ) to (p + Δp, ρ + Δρ) across the shock. In the first instance
we assume that the pipe is rigid – i.e. the cross-sectional area A is unchanged.

u c
u=0
p,  p+p, +

The problem is easier to analyse in the reference frame of the shock. To get this simply add
the same right-directed velocity c to all velocities in the diagram:

u+c c
p,  p+p, +

Hydraulics 2 T5-4 David Apsley

Continuity:

ρ(c  u) A  (ρ  Δρ)cA
Dividing by ρcA:
u Δρ
1  1
c ρ
Hence,
u Δρ
 (3)
c ρ
By assumption, both sides are << 1.

Momentum (mass flux  change in velocity = force):

ρ(c  u) A  (u)  pA  ( p  Δp) A
Hence,
ρ(c  u)u  Δp
Since u << c this gives:
Pressure rise across a shock
Δp  ρcu (4)

Δρ
Substituting (3) and (4) into the compressibility relationship Δp  K gives
ρ
u
ρcu  K
c

Hence,
Pressure-wave speed in a rigid pipe
K
c (5)
ρ
where K is bulk modulus, ρ is density. This is effectively the speed of sound in the fluid.

Example.
Water (density 1000 kg m–3, bulk modulus 2.2 GPa) is flowing at 0.5 m s–1 in a pipe when the
flow is suddenly halted. Assuming that the walls of the pipe are sufficiently thick for it to be
approximated as rigid find:
(a) the speed of water hammer waves;
(b) the pressure rise.

Answer: (a) 1480 m s–1; (b) 7.42105 Pa

Hydraulics 2 T5-5 David Apsley

2.2 Speed of Pressure Waves in Non-Rigid Pipes

In practice the pressure rise may be sufficient to deform the pipe, increasing its cross-section.
The pipe itself absorbs strain energy and reduces the speed of the pressure wave.

To include the area-change effects in the continuity equation 

we need to relate the change in cross-sectional area to the
t
pressure rise. Formally, the internal pressure is balanced by an
increased circumferential (“hoop”) stress, which is related to
the change in diameter and thence the change in area by the D p
elastic properties of the pipe.

From the diagram, an increase in pressure Δp induces a hoop

stress σ. If D is the internal diameter of the pipe and t is the 
wall thickness then, equating forces per unit length:
2σt  Δp.D (6)
But,
stress = Young’s modulus  strain
πΔD ΔD
σ  E E
πD D
so that
ΔD D
 Δp (7)
D 2 Et

This is the fractional change in diameter. We require the fractional change in area. From the
geometry,
πD 2 dA 2πD ΔA ΔD
A  ΔA  ΔD  ΔD  2
4 dD 4 A D
Hence,
ΔA D
 Δp (8)
A Et

u+c c
A A+A
p,  p+p, +

The pressure change across the shock is still given by Δp  ρcu (consider the acceleration of
fluid on the centreline) but continuity must account for the change of cross-sectional area:
ρ(c  u) A  (ρ  Δρ)c( A  ΔA)

Dividing by ρcA:
u Δρ ΔA Δρ ΔA
1   (1  )(1  )  1   2 nd  order terms
c ρ A ρ A
or

Hydraulics 2 T5-6 David Apsley

 u Δρ ΔA
 
c ρ A

Hence, using u/c  Δp/ρc 2 (from momentum), Δρ/ρ  Δp/K (from compressibility) and
ΔA/A  ( D/Et )Δp (from elasticity):
Δp Δp DΔp
 
ρc 2 K Et
whence:
1 1 D
 
ρc 2
K Et

For convenience, and by comparison with the rigid-pipe limit, we write this as
1 1

ρc 2
K
in terms of an effective bulk modulus K ′.

Pressure-wave speed in non-rigid pipes:

K
c (9)
ρ
where the effective bulk modulus K ′ is given by
1 1 D
  (10)
K  K Et

Example.
Repeat the example at the end of Section 2.1 for pipes of internal diameter D = 200 mm and
wall thickness 5 mm made of:
(i) steel (E = 210 GPa);
(ii) PVC (E = 2.6 GPa).

Answer: (i) 1250 m s–1 and 6.23105 Pa; (ii) 251 m s–1 and 1.26105 Pa

Hydraulics 2 T5-7 David Apsley

2.3 Time Series of Events Following Sudden Closure

Consider flow from a large reservoir (constant pressure; excess pressure p = 0) at speed u0. If
a valve at the end of the pipeline is suddenly closed, pressure waves travel back and forth
along the pipe. The time taken for pressure waves to travel from one end of the pipe to the
other is
L
Δt  (11)
c
The sequence of events is as follows.

1. At t = 0 the valve is closed. The water

immediately next to the valve is compressed to an
excess pressure +Δp and a pressure wave starts to
propagate back along the pipe. u  u 0 u0
p0 c p   Δp
0  t  Δt
For 0 < t < Δt the propagating wave moves into
unaffected fluid (u = u0 and p = 0). Behind the
shock is stationary, compressed fluid (u = 0,
p = +Δp)

2. At t = Δt the wave reaches the reservoir. All the

fluid in the pipe is at rest; however, it is
compressed to a higher pressure than the
reservoir, so begins to drive a flow u0 back u  u 0 u0
toward the reservoir. The water-hammer wave is Δt  t  2Δt p0 c p   Δp
reflected.

For Δt < t < 2Δt the wave propagates back toward

the valve, gradually decompressing the pipe.

3. At t = 2Δt the wave arrives back at the valve. The

entire pipe is now decompressed; however the
fluid in it is all moving backwards and cannot be
brought to rest immediately. u  u 0 u0
p0 c p   Δp
2Δt  t  3Δt
For 2Δt < t < 3Δt a negative pressure wave
travels toward the reservoir, leaving behind lower
pressure fluid, p = –Δp.

4. At t = 3Δt the wave reaches the reservoir. All of

the fluid in the pipe is now at rest; however it is at
lower pressure than the reservoir, so a forward-
moving flow (u = u0) begins to rush in. The wave u  u 0 u0
is again reflected. 3Δt  t  4Δt p0 c p   Δp

For 3Δt < t < 4Δt the pressure wave travels back
toward the valve, restoring the initial conditions
in the pipe.

In the absence of friction the whole cycle would repeat with period 4Δt  4L / c .

Hydraulics 2 T5-8 David Apsley

Notes.

(1) At the open boundary (reservoir):

– the pressure is always 0;
– the velocity reflects with change of phase (positive to negative and vice versa).
At the solid boundary (valve):
– the pressure reflects with change of phase;
– the velocity is always 0.

(2) The sequence of pressures at the valve are as shown. Pressures stay at Δp for the
time it takes a wave to travel along the pipe and back (2L/c)

 Δp

2Δt 4Δt
t

 Δp

The sequence of pressures at an intermediate 3

4 L 1
4 L
point – here, 1/4 of the way along the pipe from
the valve – is along the pipeline are shown
below. The length of the positive or negative
pulses is determined by the fraction of the cycle
that this point is on the valve (i.e. pressure-
varying) side of the wave.
here
p
2Δt 4Δt
 Δp

9
4 Δt 15
4 Δt
t
1
4 Δt 7
4 Δt

 Δp

(c) In reality, the “square-wave” cycle of pressures is gradually attenuated by friction.

Moreover, the negative pulse cannot take the absolute pressure below zero.

Hydraulics 2 T5-9 David Apsley

Example. (Examination, January 2005 – part)
A steel pipeline of length 1155 m discharges water at velocity 2 m s–1 to atmosphere through
a valve. The pipe has diameter 500 mm and wall thickness 10 mm. The bulk modulus of
water is 2.0 GPa and the Young’s modulus of the pipe material is 200 Gpa.

If a sudden closure of the valve occurs,

(a) determine the speed of water hammer waves;
(b) show pressure variations in time at the points immediately next to the valve and
866 m upstream of the valve.

Neglect friction in the pipe.

Answer: (a) 1155 m s–1; (b) Δp = 2.31106 Pa; Δt = 1 s

2.4 “Slow” and “Rapid” Closure

Instantaneous valve closure is impossible in reality. Conventionally, the closure is regarded

as “rapid” if it takes much less time than that for the pressure wave to travel along the pipe
and back. i.e.
L
Rapid closure  t closure  2 (use water-hammer theory)
c
L
Slow closure  t closure  2 (use unsteady-incompressible-flow theory)
c
In practice, if the closure time is of the same order as 2L/c then the pipe flow behaviour has to
be dealt with by computational techniques (“method of characteristics”) which are beyond the
scope of this course.

Hydraulics 2 T5-10 David Apsley

3. Slow Closure: Unsteady Incompressible Pipe Flow

In practice, water hammer is an undesirable phenomenon and it is common to incorporate

devices to alleviate rapid and large fluctuations in pressure. Two such are surge tanks (often
fitted to hydropower stations) and pump-bypass valves (widely used to protect pumps).

The subsequent development of the flow involves the unsteady pipe-flow equation:
L du uu
 H1  H 2  c
g dt 2g

losses
where H1, H2 are the heads at the ends of the pipe, u is the velocity from end 1 to end 2 and
c = λL/D for pipe friction alone, but may also include other forms of head losses.

If the head difference H1 – H2 along the pipeline is constant and we consider only that part of
any subsequent motion where u is positive then this equation can be rearranged as
2 L du 2g (H1  H 2 )
 a 2  u 2 , where  a2 
c dt c
This may be solved for the two cases of retarding head (H2 > H1) or driving head (H1 > H2)
respectively by separating variables and noting the standard integrals
U
 du 1
 tan 1
U
 2
0 a  u 2
a a

U
du 1 U 1 a U
 2  tanh 1  ln , (U a)
0 a  u 2
a a 2a a  U

We examine first in Section 3.1, however, a case where the head difference is not constant.

z
3.1 Surge Tank z=0
A reservoir supplies a turbine with reservoir surge
water at volumetric flow rate Q. The tank
system is protected by a surge tank, turbine
which acts to absorb large changes to
the flow when the turbine valve is
opened or closed rapidly. Assuming
negligible energy losses in the surge tank itself, the flow velocity u in the pipeline and the
level of water z in the surge tank (relative to that in the reservoir) are given by the following
coupled differential equations.

Unsteady pipe-flow equation (i.e. momentum equation):

L du L uu
 z  λ (12)
g dt D 2g
Continuity (from the difference between inflow and outflow at the surge-tank junction):
dz
As  uA  Q (13)
dt
where D is the pipe diameter, L is the pipe length and A and As are the cross-sectional areas of
the pipe and surge tank, respectively.

Hydraulics 2 T5-11 David Apsley

Under steady operation (Q = Q0) the LHS of the equations is zero and the steady flow
velocity and level of water in the surge tank are given by
Q
u0  0 (14)
A
L u 02
z 0  λ (15)
D 2g
corresponding to the usual discharge and head-loss formulae. If the discharge to the turbine
varies, z and u will evolve according to equations (12) and (13).
10.0

In general, equations (12) and (13) must be Q=0.5 m3/s

solved numerically as a pair of coupled
5.0
differential equations. Examples of the Q=0 m3/s

resulting damped oscillation in water level

are shown right for complete and partial 0.0 t (s)
closures. 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000

z (m)

A useful estimate of oscillation period and, -5.0

more importantly, maximum rise may be

obtained, however, by neglecting pipe
friction. The equations then yield simple -10.0

harmonic motion about the level of water

in the reservoir:
-15.0

L du 
 z 
g dt d2 z g A
  2
 ( )z
dz  dt L As
As  uA  Q
dt 
where Q is any remaining flow to the turbine (often zero). Hence,
d2 z g A
2
 ω 2 z where ω 
dt L As
with boundary conditions
dz Q0  Q
z = 0,  at t = 0.
dt As
This has solution
z  z max sin ωt
2π Q Q
where the period is T  and the maximum surge height is z max  0 .
ω As ω
Example.
A pipe (length L = 500 m, diameter D = 1.5 m) is used to deliver water from a reservoir to a
turbine at a volumetric flow rate of 2 m3 s–1. The turbine is protected by a cylindrical surge
tank of inside diameter 5 m. If friction losses can be neglected find the maximum surge in the
surge tank and the period of oscillation if:
(a) the entire flow to the turbine is shut off;
(b) the flow to the turbine is halved.

Answer: (a) 150 s and 2.42 m; (b) 150 s and 1.21 m

Hydraulics 2 T5-12 David Apsley

3.2 Pump Bypass

If a pump were to trip out suddenly a large and damaging negative pressure would occur on
the downstream side, as it takes a finite time to arrest the flow of water away from the pump.
To prevent this, a length of pipe with a non-return valve is used to bypass the pump.

Flow

Pump

Non-return valve

Under normal operation the pressure is higher on the downstream side of the pump, keeping
the non-return valve closed. If the pump were to stop suddenly, the drop in pressure would
open the valve (automatically), sucking water through to prevent a void. The flow would then
continue until eventually stopped by friction and the downstream head.

The bypass arrangement is also useful when there are several pumps in series along a
pipeline. During low demand any pump can then be removed from the system for
maintenance without halting the flow.

Example. (Examination, January 2002)

Sewage, the density and viscosity of which differ little from those of clean water, has to be
pumped from a tank at the end of an interceptor sewer to the first tank of a treatment works
by means of a pump situated at the upstream end. The difference in liquid levels is 32 m; the
pipeline is 5.2 km long, 1.5 m diameter and has a friction factor of 0.014. The steady-flow
discharge is 4.5 m3 s–1.

(a) Calculate the steady flow velocity in the pipe and the pump power.

(b) Explain, briefly, what would happen if the inlet to the pipeline were suddenly
completely blocked, assuming that no protective devices are installed.

(c) It is proposed to install a by-pass, incorporating a non-return valve, to the pump so as

to prevent the pressure just downstream of it falling below atmospheric. Calculate the
time taken for the water to come to rest after a blockage.

Answer: (a) 2.55 m s–1 and 2.12 MW (!);

(b) large negative pressure pulse and cavitation; (c) 36.7 s

Hydraulics 2 T5-13 David Apsley

An alternative to the bypass arrangement is an AIR
air-inlet valve, which opens to allow air into the Air chamber
system in the event of failure and maintains a Non-return valve
near-constant, slightly-sub-atmospheric pressure
until the water has come to a halt.
Flow
Pump

Example.
Water is pumped from one reservoir to another in which the water level is 12 m above the
pumping station, through a horizontal pipe 1500 m long and 0.5 m diameter at a rate of
0.4 m3 s–1. The head loss due to pipe friction at this velocity is 8 m.

(a) Calculate the bulk velocity during normal operating conditions and the friction factor
in the pipe.
(b) To protect the pump an air inlet valve is fitted to the pipe just downstream of the
pump. This valve is designed to allow air to flow into the pipe when the pressure falls
to 5 m of water below atmospheric pressure. Assuming a constant friction factor,
calculate the time for the water to come to rest if the pump intake is suddenly and
completely blocked.

Answer: (a) u0 = 2.04 m s–1; λ = 0.0126; (b) 16.1 s.

Hydraulics 2 T5-14 David Apsley