Lecture 4 : Calculating Limits using Limit Laws

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Using the definition of the limit, limx→a f (x), we can derive many general laws of limits, that help us to
calculate limits quickly and easily. The following rules apply to any functions f (x) and g(x) and also
apply to left and right sided limits:
Suppose that c is a constant and the limits
lim f (x) and lim g(x)
x→a x→a

exist (meaning they are finite numbers). Then

1. limx→a [f (x) + g(x)] = limx→a f (x) + limx→a g(x) ;
(the limit of a sum is the sum of the limits).
2. limx→a [f (x) − g(x)] = limx→a f (x) − limx→a g(x) ;
(the limit of a difference is the difference of the limits).
3. limx→a [cf (x)] = c limx→a f (x);
(the limit of a constant times a function is the constant times the limit of the function).
4. limx→a [f (x)g(x)] = limx→a f (x) · limx→a g(x);
(The limit of a product is the product of the limits).

5. limx→a fg(x)
(x)
= lim x→a f (x)
limx→a g(x)
if limx→a g(x) 6= 0;
(the limit of a quotient is the quotient of the limits provided that the limit of the denominator is
not 0)

Example If I am given that

lim f (x) = 2, lim g(x) = 5, lim h(x) = 0.
x→2 x→2 x→2

find the limits that exist (are a finite number):

2f (x) + h(x) limx→2 (2f (x) + h(x))
(a) lim = since lim g(x) 6= 0
x→2 g(x) limx→2 g(x) x→2

2 limx→2 f (x) + limx→2 h(x) 2(2) + 0 4

= = =
limx→2 g(x) 5 5

f (x) f (x)h(x)
(b) lim (c) lim
x→2 h(x) x→2 g(x)

Note 1 If limx→a g(x) = 0 and limx→a f (x) = b, where b is a finite number with b 6= 0, Then:
the values of the quotient fg(x)
(x)
can be made arbitrarily large in absolute value as x → a and thus

1
 the limit does not exist.
If the values of fg(x)
(x)
are positive as x → a in the above situation, then limx→a f (x)
g(x)
= ∞,
If the values of fg(x)
(x)
are negative as x → a in the above situation, then limx→a fg(x)
(x)
= −∞,
If on the other hand, if limx→a g(x) = 0 = limx→a f (x), we cannot make any conclusions about
the limit.
cos x
Example Find limx→π− x−π
.

As x approaches π from the left, cos x approaches a finite number −1.

As x approaches π from the left, x − π approaches 0.
cos x
Therefore as x approaches π from the left, the quotient x−π
approaches ∞ in absolute value.
The values of both cos x and x − π are negative as x approaches π from the left, therefore
cos x
lim− = ∞.
x→π x−π

More powerful laws of limits can be derived using the above laws 1-5 and our knowledge of some
basic functions. The following can be proven reasonably easily ( we are still assuming that c is a
constant and limx→a f (x) exists );
 n
6. limx→a [f (x)]n = limx→a f (x) , where n is a positive integer (we see this using rule 4 repeatedly).

7. limx→a c = c, where c is a constant ( easy to prove from definition of limit and easy to see from
the graph, y = c).

8. limx→a x = a, (follows easily from the definition of limit)

9. limx→a xn = an where n is a positive integer (this follows from rules 6 and 8).
√ √
10. limx→a n x = n a, where n is a positive integer and a > 0 if n is even. (proof needs a little extra
work and the binomial theorem)
p p
11. limx→a n f (x) = n limx→a f (x) assuming that the limx→a f (x) > 0 if n is even. (We will look at
this in more detail when we get to continuity)

Example Evaluate the following limits and justify each step:

x3 +2x2 −x+1
(a) limx→3 x−1

√
3
(b) limx→1 x+1

2
(c) Determine the infinite limit (see note 1 above, say if the limit is ∞, −∞ or D.N.E.)
x+1
limx→2− (x−2) .

Polynomial and Rational Functions

Please review the relevant parts of Lectures 3, 4 and 7 from the Algebra/Precalculus review
page. This demonstration will help you visualize some rational functions:

Direct Substitution (Evaluation) Property If f is a polynomial or a rational function and

a is in the domain of f , then limx→a f (x) = f (a). This follows easily from the rules shown above.
(Note that this is the case in part (a) of the example above)
P (x)
if f (x) = Q(x)
is a rational function where P (x) and Q(x) are polynomials with Q(a) = 0, then:
P (x)
If P (a) 6= 0, we see from note 1 above that limx→a Q(x) = ±∞ or D.N.E. and is not equal to ±∞.
If P (a) = 0 we can cancel a factor of the polynomial P (x) with a factor of the polynomial Q(x)
and the resulting rational function may have a finite limit or an infinite limit or no limit at x = a.
P (x)
The limit of the new quotient as x → a is equal to limx→a Q(x) by the following observation which
we made in the last lecture:

Note 2: If h(x) = g(x) when x 6= a, then limx→a h(x) = limx→a g(x) provided the limits exist.

Example Determine if the following limits are finite, equal to ±∞ or D.N.E. and are not equal
to ±∞:
x2 −9
(a) limx→3 x−3
.

x2 −x−6
(b) limx→1− x−1
.

(c) Which of the following is true:

2 −x−6 x2 −x−6 x2 −x−6
1. limx→1 x x−1 = +∞, 2. limx→1 x−1
= −∞, 3. limx→1 x−1
D.N.E. and is not
±∞,

3
Example Evaluate the limit (finish the calculation)

(3 + h)2 − (3)2
lim .
h→0 h
(3+h)2 −(3)2 9+6h+h2 −9
limh→0 h
= limh→0 h
=

Example Evaluate the following limit:

√
x2 + 25 − 5
lim .
x→0 x2

Recall also our observation from the last day which can be proven rigorously from the definition
(this is good to keep in mind when dealing with piecewise defined functions):

Theorm limx→a f (x) = L if and only if limx→a− f (x) = L = limx→a+ f (x).

Example Evaluate the limit if it exists:

3x + 6
lim
x→−2 |x + 2|

The following theorems help us calculate some important limits by comparing the behavior of a
function with that of other functions for which we can calculate limits:

4
Theorem If f (x) ≤ g(x) when x is near a(except possible at a) and the limits of f (x) and g(x)
both exist as x approaches a, then

lim f (x) ≤ lim g(x).

x→a x→a

The Sandwich (squeeze) Theorem If f (x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x) when x is near a (except
possibly at a) and
lim f (x) = lim h(x) = L
x→a x→a

then
lim g(x) = L.
x→a

Recall last day, we saw that limx→0 sin(1/x) does not exist because of how the function oscil-
lates near x = 0. However we can see from the graph below and the above theorem that
limx→0 x2 sin(1/x) = 0, since the graph of the function is sandwiched between y = −x2 and
y = x2 : 1

0.5

K1 K0.5 0 0.5 1
x

K0.5

Example Calculate the limit limx→0 x2 sin x1 . K1

We have −1 ≤ sin(1/x) ≤ 1O for all x,
multiplying across by x2 (which is positive), we get −x2 ≤ x2 sin(1/x) ≤ x2 for all x,
Using the Sandwich theorem, we get

0 = lim −x2 ≤ lim x2 sin(1/x) ≤ lim x2 = 0

x→0 x→o x→0

Hence we can conclude that

lim x2 sin(1/x) = 0.
x→0

Example Decide if the following limit exists and if so find its values:

limx→o x100 cos2 (π/x)

5
 Extra Examples, attempt the problems before looking at the solutions

Decide if the following limits exist and if a limit exists, find its value.

(1) limx→1 x4 + 2x3 + x2 + 3

x2 −3x+2
(2) limx→2 (x−2)2
.

(3) limx→0 ( x1 − 1
|x|
).

|x|
(4) limx→0 x2 +x+10
.

√
4+h−2
(5) limh→0 h
.

(6) If 2x ≤ g(x) ≤ x2 − x + 2 for all x, evaluate limx→1 g(x).

(7) Determine if the following limit is finite, ±∞ or D.N.E. and is not ±∞.

(x − 3)(x + 2)
lim− .
x→1 (x − 1)(x − 2)

6
 Extra Examples, attempt the problems before looking at the solutions

Decide if the following limits exist and if a limit exists, find its value.

(1) limx→1 x4 + 2x3 + x2 + 3

Since this is a polynomial function, we can calculate the limit by direct substitution:

lim x4 + 2x3 + x2 + 3 = 14 + 2(1)3 + 12 + 3 = 7.

x→1

x2 −3x+2
(2) limx→2 (x−2)2
.

This is a rational function, where both numerator and denominator approach 0 as x approaches
2. We factor the numerator to get

x2 − 3x + 2 (x − 1)(x − 2)
lim 2
= lim
x→2 (x − 2) x→2 (x − 2)2

After cancellation, we get

(x − 1)(x − 2) (x − 1)
lim = lim .
x→2 (x − 2)2 x→2 (x − 2)

Now this is a rational function where the numerator approaches 1 as x → 2 and the denominator
approaches 0 as x → 2. Therefore
(x − 1)
lim
x→2 (x − 2)

does not exist.

We can analyze this limit a little further, by checking out the left and right hand limits at 2. As
x approaches 2 from the left, the values of (x − 1) are positive (approaching a constant 1) and
(x−1)
the values of (x − 2) are negative ( approaching 0). Therefore the values of (x−2) are negative and
become very large in absolute value. Therefore

(x − 1)
lim− = −∞.
x→2 (x − 2)

Similarly, you can show that

(x − 1)
lim− = +∞,
x→2 (x − 2)
and therefore the graph of y = (x−1)
(x−2)
has a vertical asymptote at x = 2.
(check it out on your calculator)

(3) limx→0 ( x1 − 1
|x|
).

1 1
Let f (x) = x
− |x|
. We write this function as a piecewise defined function:
 1 1
 x−x =0 x>0
f (x) = .
 1 1 2
x
+x=x x≤0

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limx→0 ( x1 − |x|
1
) exists only if the left and right hand limits exist and are equal.
limx→0+ ( x − |x| ) = limx→0+ 0 = 0 and limx→0− ( x1 − |x|
1 1 1
) = limx→0− x2 = −∞.
Since the limits do not match, we have
1 1
lim ( − ) D.N.E.
x→0 x |x|

|x|
(4) limx→0 x2 +x+10
.

Since limx→0 x2 + x + 10 = 10 6= 0, we have

|x| limx→0 |x| limx→0 |x|

lim = = .
x→0 x2 + x + 10 limx→0 (x2 + x + 10) 10

Now 
 x x>0
|x| = .
−x x≤0


Clearly limx→0+ |x| = 0 = limx→0− |x|. Hence limx→0 |x| = 0 and

|x| limx→0 |x| 0

lim = = = 0.
x→0 x2 + x + 10 10 10
√
4+h−2
(5) limh→0 h
.
√
Since limh→0 4 + h − 2 = 0 = limh→0 h, we cannot determine whether this limit exists or not
from the limit laws without some transformation. We have
√ √ √ √
4+h−2 ( 4 + h − 2)( 4 + h + 2) ( 4 + h)2 − 4)
lim = lim √ = lim √
h→0 h h→0 h( 4 + h + 2) h→0 h( 4 + h + 2)

(4 + h) − 4 h 1 1
= lim √ = lim √ = lim √ = .
h→0 h( 4 + h + 2) h→0 h( 4 + h + 2) h→0 ( 4 + h + 2) 4

(6) If 2x ≤ g(x) ≤ x2 − x + 2 for all x, evaluate limx→1 g(x).

We use the Sandwich theorem here. Since 2x ≤ g(x) ≤ x2 − x + 2, we have

lim 2x ≤ lim g(x) ≤ lim (x2 − x + 2),

x→1 x→1 x→1

therefore
2 ≤ lim g(x) ≤ 2
x→1

and hence
lim g(x) = 2.
x→1

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(7) Determine if the following limit is finite, ±∞ or D.N.E. and is not ±∞.

(x − 3)(x + 2)
lim− .
x→1 (x − 1)(x − 2)
Let P (x) = (x − 3)(x + 2) and Q(x) = (x − 1)(x − 2). We have P (1) = −6 6= 0 and Q(1) = 0.
P (x) (x−3)(x+2)
Therefore the values of Q(x) = (x−1)(x−2) get larger in absolute value as x approaches 1.
As x approaches 1 from the left, (x − 3) < 0, (x − 2) < 0, (x − 1) < 0, and (x + 2) > 0, therefore
(x−3)(x+2)
the quotient (x−1)(x−2) < 0 as x approaches 1 from the left and therefore

(x − 3)(x + 2)
lim− = −∞.
x→1 (x − 1)(x − 2)