The Muxes of Juchitán - A Preliminary Look at Transgender Identity PDF

Mirandé: The Muxes of Juchitán: A Preliminary Look at Transgender Identity
THE MUXES OF JUCHITAN: A PRELIMINARY LOOK AT

TRANSGENDER IDENTITY AND ACCEPTANCE
ALFREDO MIRANDt*
There is much public concern today in the United States with

bullying and harassment in schools and hate crimes, particularly those
directed against gay, bisexual, and/or transgender persons (GLBT)
whose sexual orientation and lifestyle threatens the prevailing
hegemonic homophobic model of sexuality and gender identity. In a
widely publicized case, for example, fifteen-year-old Lawrence King
was gunned down when Brandon McInerney, his fourteen-year-old
classmate, allegedly put two bullets into the back of King's head.,
Brandon and his friends had spent weeks tormenting King when the
effeminate youth finally responded, using flirting as his defense.2
This article reports on a preliminary study of los muxes or mushes
(pronounced "Moo-shey") of Juchitin, a city in El Istmo de
Tehuantepec in Oaxaca, M6xico. The muxes constitute a unique
group of indigenous men who openly dress in female Zapotec attire
and assume traditional female roles. "Muxes" is a Zapotec word
derived from the Spanish word for woman. The muxes are widely
accepted in the Zapotec community and have been described as a third
sex, 3 analogous to the institutionalized homosexuality found among
* Alfredo Mirand6 is a Professor of Sociology and Ethnic Studies at the

University of California, Riverside and previously taught at the Texas Tech
University School of Law. He has a Ph.D. from the University of Nebraska and a
J.D. from Stanford University.
1. See Rebecca Cathcart, Boys Killing, Labeled a Hate Crime, Stuns a Town,
N.Y. TIMES (Feb. 23, 2008), http://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/23/us/23oxnard.html.
2. A large number of youth suffer from depression and sometimes attempt
suicide in response to bullying, including internet harassment. See Michelle L.
Klampe, Father Shares Lessons Learned About Bullying, PRESS-ENTERPRISE
(Riverside, Cal.) (Aug. 23, 2011), http://www.pe.com/local-news/local-news-
headlines/20110824-murrieta-father-shares-lessons-learned-about-bullying.ece.
3. Veronika Bennholdt-Thomsen, Los Muxe's, el Tercer Sexo, in VERONIKA
BENNHOLDT-THOMSEN ET AL., JUCHITAN, LA CIUDAD DE LAS MUJERES 279, 283
509
Published by CWSL Scholarly Commons, 2011 1

California Western International Law Journal, Vol. 42 [2011], No. 2, Art. 14
510 CALIFORNIA WESTERN INTERNATIONAL LAW JOURNAL [Vol.42
some Native American groups.4 Although lacking the religious

significance associated with the berdaches among Indian tribes, they
may have had such significance in former times.5
Although Mexico City has legalized same sex unions and its Zona
Rosa is a tourist attraction known not only for the prevalence of fine
restaurants and upscale shops but for tolerance of gays and alternative
lifestyles, Mexican society has often been depicted as male
dominated, driven by the cult of machismo, patriarchy, and excessive
masculinity, and intolerant of homosexuality.' However, in Juchitin,
a city that has been described as "the most purely indigenous
community in Mexico," the muxes appear to flourish in a macho
nation. An anthropological study estimated that approximately six
percent of the men in the Istmo de Tehuantepec were muxes,8 an
estimate that does not include many gay men who are not identified as
muxe.
This article focuses on the "coming out" process and the degree of
societal acceptance of homosexuality and transgender identity in
Juchitin. It addresses the policy implications of this third sex for the
treatment and acceptance of homosexuals in the United States. In
particular, this article hopes to combat gay bashing, bullying of youth,
and homophobia. To conduct preliminary research for this essay, I
visited Juchitin, attended a muxe Vela (or festival), and conducted
(1st Spanish ed. 1997) [hereinafter Bennholdt-Thomsen, Los Muxe's, el Tercer

Sexo].
4. See Harriet Whitehead, The Bow and the Burden Strap: A New Look at
Institutionalized Homosexuality in Native North America, in SEXUAL MEANINGS:
THE CULTURAL CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER AND SEXUALITY 80, 89 (Sherry B.
Ortner & Harriet Whitehead eds., 1981); WALTER L. WILLIAMS, THE SPIRIT AND
THE FLESH: SEXUAL DIVERSITY IN AMERICAN INDIAN CULTURE (1986).
5. BEVERLY NEWBOLD CHINAS, THE IsTHMuS ZAPOTECS: A MATRIFOCAL
CULTURE OF MEXICO 109 (2d ed. 2002); Marc Lacy, A Lifestyle Distinct: The Muxe
of Mexico, N.Y. TIMES (Dec. 6, 2008), http://www.nytimes.com
/2008/12/07/weekinreview/071acey.html; WILLIAMS, supra note 4, at 135.
6. See generally MATTHEW C. GUTMANN, THE MEANINGS OF MACHO: BEING
A MAN IN MEXICO CITY (1996); ALFREDO MIRANDt , HOMBRES Y MACHOS:
MASCULINITY AND LATINO CULTURE (1997).
7. JUDITH KELLER, GRACIELA ITURBIDE: JUCHITAN 2 (2007).
8. David Rymph, Cross-Sex Behavior in an Isthmus Zapotec Village (Nov.
1974) (unpublished paper presented at 73rd Annual Meeting of the American
Anthropological Association, Mexico City).
http://scholarlycommons.law.cwsl.edu/cwilj/vol42/iss2/14 2
2012] THE MUXES OF JUCHITAN 511
interviews with members of the local muxe' organization, Las

Autinticas IntrdpidasBuscadorasdel Peligro.
HOMOSEXUALITY IN PRE-COLOMBIAN SOCIETY
While the practice of sodomy was widely condemned by the

Spanish conquistadores, open homosexual relations among men were
widespread throughout the American continent-virtually all
chroniclers of the time commented on its existence.' "At the time of
the conquest, same-sex eroticism existed in many, perhaps all, of the
indigenous societies of Latin America." 0 In Yucatan, it is clear that
"ritual transvestism existed among the last Maya societies to be
conquered."" A letter from a priest in seventeenth-century Yucatan
reported that:
'[N]ext to one of their principal temples they had a walled-around

large house of very decorous construction solely for the habitation
of acquiescents, into which entered all of those who wished to have
their sodomitic copulations, especially those who are very young,
so that they could learn there, these are ministers of the Demon
wearing women's skirts.' 2
For the Spanish, in turn, sexuality among men, particularly anal

sex or sodomy, was an abominable sin. 13 Herndin Cortis noted in his
dispatches to King Charles V that the natives worshiped false idols, or
devils, as he called them. He was especially appalled by practices
such as cannibalism and human sacrifice. In addition, he reported that
"we have learned that they all practice the abominable sin of
sodomy."l 4 The first indication that the Spaniards had seen
9. Bennholdt-Thomsen, Los Muxe's, el Tercer Sexo, supranote 3, at 295.

10. Pete Sigal, Introduction: (Homo)Sexual Desire and Masculine Power in
Colonial Latin America: Notes Toward an Integrated Analysis, in INFAMOUS
DESIRE: MALE HOMOSEXUALITY IN COLONIAL LATIN AMERICA 1 (Pete Sigal ed.,
2003).
11. Id. at 10.
12. Id. at 10 (quoting GRANT D. JONES, THE CONQUEST OF THE LAST MAYA
KINGDOM 499, n.45 (1998)).
13. Bennholdt-Thomsen, Los Muxe's, el Tercer Sexo, supra note 3, at 295.
14. Heman Cortez, First Dispatch, in CONQUEST: DISPATCHES OF CORTES
FROM THE NEW WORLD 1, 17 (Harry M. Rosen ed., 1962).

512 CALIFORNIA WESTERN INTERNATIONAL LAW JOURNAL [Vol. 42
transvestism and heard of homosexuality can be seen in his First

Dispatch to King Charles V of Spain,' 5 where he speaks about the
region of Vera Cruz on July 10, 1519.16 Bernard Diaz del Castillo,
one of the soldiers who accompanied Cort6s in the Conquest, also
makes reference to sodomy among the Maya, Aztecas, and
Huastecos.17
In his Historia General de Las Indias, another chronicler,
Francisco L6pez de Gomara, noted that the natives went around naked
and all slept together in the same room like hens do with one rooster,
concluding "they readily couple with women, not unlike crows and
snakes, and are in addition great sodomists, indolent, deceitful,
untrustworthy, and vile."' 8 Written shortly after the Conquest, La
Historia General de las Cosas De La Nueva Espaiha (Florentine
Codex),' 9 a Nahuatl document, yielded important insights into pre and
post-Conquest Nahua history. Its author, Fray Bernardino Sahagfin, is
widely recognized as the father of modem ethnography. Sahaglin
quickly learned Nahuatl, immersed himself in native culture, used
Indians as informants, and trained them in ethnographic methods. The
HistoriaGeneral and other texts provide a rich description of pre- and
post-Nahua culture as seen through the eyes of the Nahua
themselves.2 0
There are numerous textual references to homosexuality in the
Florentine Codex, but the meaning of these references appears often
to have been literally lost in translation. According to Geoffrey
Kimball, translators of the Florentine Codex have relied on earlier
biased and erroneous translations regarding homosexuality, while
15. Bennholdt-Thomsen, Los Muxe's, el Tercer Sexo, supra note 3, at 295

n.55.
16. Cortez, supra note 14, at 18-19.
n.55.
18. FRANcisco L6PEZ DE G6MARA, HISTORIA GENERAL DE LAS INDIAS 51
(Pilar Guibelalde ed., Editorial Ibera 1954) (1552) (author's translation).
19. BERNARDINO DE SAHAG(ZN, FLORENTINE CODEX: GENERAL HISTORY OF
THE THINGS OF NEW SPAIN, bk. 10 (Charles E. Dibble & Arthur J. 0. Anderson,
trans. 1961) (1540-1585).
20. J. Jorge Klor de Alva, Sahagun and the Birth of Modern Ethnography:
Representing, Confessing, and Inscribing the Native Other, in THE WORK OF
BERNARDINO DE SAHAGUN: PIONEER ETHNOGRAPHER OF SIXTEENTH-CENTURY
MEXIcO 31, 35 (J. Jorge Klore de Alva et al. eds., 1988).
accurate translation of these passages requires knowledge of the

original Nahuatl.2 1
Aztec attitudes toward homosexuals, for example, are found in the
eleventh chapter of Book 10, which tells of the vicious and the
"perverse," and notes:
The pervert [is]
of feminine speech,
of feminine [mode of] address.
[If a woman, she is] of masculine speech,
of masculine mode of address . . . ."22
Kimball is critical of Dibble and Anderson's translations of the
Florentine Codex, maintaining that rather than serving to inform, their
limited translations of the Nahuatl text often obscure, mask, or distort
the original meaning of the text. For example, they seriously erred in
translating patlacheh as "hermaphrodite" rather than "homosexual
woman." 23 Kimball retranslates the passage substituting "[t]he one
who is homosexual" for "[t]he pervert" so that:
The one who is a homosexual is:
one who has feminine speech,
one who has feminine address;
one who has masculine speech,
one who has masculine address;
one who has genital organs ...
one who makes others into homosexuals.2 4
According to Kimball, the word xachihuah seems to mean
homosexual of either sex and is derived from the Nahuatl word for
flower or xachi-tl.25 The fact that homosexuality was often associated
with flowers seems to have eluded Dibble and Anderson. In
Illustration 61, "[t]he Sodomite" "shows two men seated on the
ground with a flower growing between them." 26 Dibble and Anderson
21. Geoffrey Kimball, Aztec Homosexuality: The Textual Evidence, 26 J.

HOMOSEXUALITY 7, 10 (1993).
22. SAHAGTN, supra note 19, at bk. 10, ch. 11, quoted in Kimball, supra 21, at
10.
23. Kimball, supra note 21, at 12.
24. Id. at 10-11.
25. Id. at 11.
26. Id.

incorrectly translate the chewers of chicle as the "effimantes" or

"sodomites." 27 Kimball provides the following corrected translation:
Those sick people
that are called homosexual men
truly it is their inheritance, the chewing of gum;
it is just as if it were their possession,
it is just as if it were their fate.
And whoever of our men chews gum in public,
he arrives to the status of faggotry,
he equals the state of male homosexuality. 28
Native attitudes toward homosexuality then ranged from
acceptance among some groups to dislike among the Aztecs, but not
to abhorrence or disdain, as was the case for the Spaniards. Instead,
the homosexual was found to be amusing and was often mocked or
ridiculed. According to the retranslation of the Florentine Codex of
the homosexual:
He is one who is fucked,
he is a homosexual man.
He is something corrupt;
he is obscene (or dirty)
he sucks an obscene (or dirty) things.
he is an obscene (or dirty), awful thing.
He is a corrupt person
he is a lost person.
He is amusing,
he is humorous ...
he is one who acts the role of the woman .29
27. SAHAGCTN, supra note 19, at bk. 10, ch. 24.

28. Kimball, supra note 21, at 17.
29. Kimball, supra note 21, at 14. A single passage contains reference to the
homosexual being burned, but Kimball suggests that "there is linguistic and internal
evidence that the attitudes that would lead to this practice were not the previous
Aztec ones" but those of the Spaniards after the Conquest. Id. at 15. For example,
the passage uses the preterite tense, not the present tense, as was the case in the
description of most professions and personality types, suggesting that the attitudes
described in the text were former attitudes. Id. But the set of verbs following,
which describe "burning" of homosexuals are in the present tense, indicating that
they reflect current post-Conquest attitudes toward homosexuality. Id.
Pre-Colombian societies tolerated or frowned upon

homosexuality, but under Spanish law homosexual men were
sentenced to death by burning, and this influenced the subsequent
treatment of homosexuals by Indians in colonial times.3 0 The work of
Juan de Torquemeda states that "[t]hey hanged those who committed
the abominable sin." 3 1
JUCHITAN: SITE OF RESISTANCE, REBELLION, AND RADICALISM
Though space limitations preclude a detailed discussion of the

history of Juchitin, it has been the site of resistance, political conflict,
and radicalism from Pre-Colombian times to the present. 2 It is, for
example the home of the Worker-Peasant-Student Coalition of the
Isthmus of Tehuantepec (COCEI), a radical Zapotec Indian coalition
that has dominated politics in the regions since the 1980s.33
In The History of the Conquest of New Spain, Bernal Diaz del
Castillo notes that the Zapotecs of Oaxaca were great warriors who
fought valiantly and initially defeated the Spaniards. 34 When the
Zapotecs would not respond after being summoned to peace, a man
named Briones was sent to pacify them along with "one hundred
Spanish soldiers ... and over a hundred allies from the pueblos which
had made peace." 35 After being defeated by the Zapotecs, Briones
remarked that they were great warriors and that "he would rather fight
30. See Louis Crompton, Gay Genocide: From Leviticus to Hitler, in THE GAY
ACADEMIC, 67, 70, 72 (Louie Crew ed., 1978).
31. Kimball, supra note 21, at 8 (quoting JUAN DE TORQUEMADA, Los VEINE
Y UN LBROs RITUALES Y MONARQUI INDIANA 380-81 (Chivez Hayhoe ed., 1943)
(1723)).
32. See MARGARITA DALTON PALOMO, MUJERES: GtNERO E IDENTIDAD EN EL
ISTMO DE TEHUANTEPEC, OAXACA 101 (2010); BRUCE STORES, THE ISTHMUS:
STORIES FROM MEXICO'S PAST, 1495-1995, at 10-14 (2009); ZAPOTEC STRUGGLES
(Howard Campbell et al. eds., 1993).
33. See generally Sergio Zermeflo, COCEI: Narodniks of Southern Mexico?,
in ZAPOTEC STRUGGLES, supra note 32, at 191; JEFFREY W. RUBIN, DECENTERING
THE REGIME: ETHNICITY, RADICALISM AND DEMOCRACY IN JUCHITAN, MEXICO
(1997).
34. BERNAL DiAz DEL CASTILLO, THE HISTORY OF THE CONQUEST OF NEW
SPAIN 326-27 (David Carrasco ed., 2008).
35. Id.


against cannon and great armies of enemies whether of Turks or
Moors than against those Zapotecs." 36
Although the Zapotecs initially sought protection from Aztec
invasion, once the Spaniards imposed colonial rule, exacting large
tribute and seizing major tracks of Indian land, they resisted
vigorously. 37 Isthmus colonial history is, in fact, filled with armed
rebellions and resistance by the Zapotecs; the most prominent of these
occurred in 1550, 1660, and 1715. Women have played a critical
role in these rebellions, as "[t]hey are the ones who participate in
demonstrations and beat policemen." 39 Juchitin also gained notoriety
in 1980 when the town elected Leopoldo de Gyves as mayor, a left-
wing, pro-socialist mayoral candidate who managed to defeat the
PartidoRevolucionario Institucional(PRI).4 0
The mid-1800s saw the people of Juchitdn participate in several
armed struggles to resist subjugation. In 1834, Jos6 Gregorio
Mel6ndez led his native Juchitdn in a revolt against the Oaxacan
government, demanding local control of the county and its salt
mines. 41 The U.S. invasion of 1846 delayed the response of Benito
Judrez, the Governor of Oaxaca, who finally sent troops to burn
Juchitin and assassinate Mel6ndez in 1850.42 But in 1866, the
indigenous people of Juchitin joined with other indigenous peoples,
under the leadership of JuArez, to repel European efforts to subjugate
their land, defeating Louis Napoleon's invading French army.43
36. Id. at 327.

37. Leigh Binford & Howard Campbell, Introduction to ZAPOTEC STRUGGLES,
supra note 32, at 1, 7.
38. Id.
39. Elena Poniatowska, Juchitan, a Town of Women, in ZAPOTEC STRUGGLES,
supra note 32, at 133.
40. See Leopoldo de Gyves de la Cruz, Inaugural Speech as Mayor of Juchitin
(Mar. 10, 1981), reprintedin ZAPOTEC STRUGGLES, supra note 32, at 183-84.
41. See RUBIN, supra note 33, at 32.
42. John Tutino, Ethnic Resistance: Juchitan in Mexican History, in ZAPOTEC
STRUGGLES, supra note 32, at 41, 56-58.
43. Binford & Campbell, supra note 37, at 7.
IN SEARCH OF THE AMAZONS AND MATRIARCHY
While a number of observers have commented on the strength and

independence of Juchitan women-given that Zapotec society in the
Valley of Oaxaca was militaristic and patriarchal, whereas the Istmo
was agricultural and matriarchal-the extraordinary strength of
Zapotec women is likely to have emanated from an ancient Isthmus
social structure that preceded the Zapotec.4 Writer Elena
Poniatowska described them as almost Amazon-like: "huge women,
mountain women, rattle women, women whom nothing can hurt."45
And in Juchitin everything is different as "women like to walk
embracing each other, and here they come to the marches,
overpowering, with their iron calves. Man is a kitten between their
legs, a puppy they have to admonish."4 6
Zapotec women have always been extremely and openly erotic,
and are said to have "presencia,"or a presence, which implies respect
and esteem. 4 7 Juchiticas (or "Tecas") are recognizable anywhere in
Mexico because of their long skirts, multicolored hupiles, and a long
kerchief, which is attached to the skirt. 4 8 Juchitdn shares a number of
characteristics with other matriarchal societies; they are typically
agrarian and have cyclical celebrations that revolve around the
seasons, last several days, and are tied to the harvest. 49
In discussing the so-called matriarchy in El Istmo de Tehuantepec,
it is often difficult to separate fact from fiction. But it is clear that by
the beginning of the twentieth century, the myth of Tehuantepec as the
land of liberated Amazon women had taken hold. In 1859, French
traveler and historian Brasseur de Bourbourg described the
marketplace in Tehuantepec as dominated exclusively by women and
44. Veronika Bennholdt-Thomsen, Juchitin, Ciudad de Mujeres, in

BENNHOLDT-THOMSEN ET AL., supra note 3, at 19, 45 [hereinafter Bennholdt-
Thomsen, Juchitan,Ciudadde Mujeres].
45. Elena Poniatowska, The Man with the Sweet Penis, in JUCHITAN DE LAS
MUJERES 1, 4 (Cynthia Steele & Adriana Navarro trans., 1989), quoted in KELLER,
supra note 7, at 3.
46. Poniatowska, supra note 39, at 133.
47. Cornelia Giebeler, "La Presencia":Importancia del Traje en Juchitan, in
BENNHOLDT-THOMSEN ET AL., supra note 3, at 241, 255.
48. Id. at 254.
49. Bennholdt-Thomsen, Juchitan, Ciudadde Mujeres, supra note 44, at 23.

found them to be the least reserved in the Americas. 50 "'[They]

chattered, laughed, conversed, screamed, and argued with an
incredible animation. They openly made fun of their men, who they
provoked in Spanish and Zapotec with a shamelessness hardly
equaled .... ."'1
At the urging of Jos6 Vasconcelos, a native of the city of Oaxaca
and Mexico's Minister of Education, the young Diego Rivera returned
from Europe in 1922, seeking to shed European influences in his
work.52 He made a trip to El Istmo where he sketched Isthmus
women, festivals, and landscapes.5 3 He observed Isthmus women
bathing in the Tehuantepec River and painted "The Bather of
Tehuantepec." 54 This was a turning point in his career with the
creation of a style that was free of European influences.5 5 By the late
1920s, the Isthmus had become a popular destination point and center
for many artists and intellectuals including Frida Kahlo, Sergei
Eisenstein, and Langston Hughes. 56 Whether because of bathing in
the Tehuantepec River without shame or regret, or because of the
bluntness of the Zapotec language which is said to have no forbidden
words, "[t]he Women of the Isthmus soon had a reputation as sexually
liberated Amazons" who assumed a dominant role in a matriarchal
society."
American anthropologist Beverly Chifias, on the other hand, has
denounced the matriarchy as a myth because "anthropologists have
never documented a matriarchal society anywhere in the world."5 A
team of German anthropologists led by Veronika Bennholdt-Thomsen
countered that Juchitdn is a society where matriarchy reigns supreme
and where "[e]verything that women do in Juchitdn is considered
important, not in spite of the fact that they do it but because they do
50. ToM DEMOTT, INTO THE HEARTS OF THE AMAZONS: IN SEARCH OF THE
MATRIARCHY 18 (2006).
51. Id.
52. Id. at 19.
53. Id.
54. Id.
55. Id.
56. Id. at 20.
57. Id. at 21.
58. CHIN1AS, supra note 5, at 87.
it." 59 And "the distinction between work which is valued because it is

salaried and is defined as masculine in our society, and female work
which is less valued is unknown in Juchitin." 60 Rather than assuming
the role of housewife, a more common role for women is housewife-
artisan-merchant.61
In Juchitin, going to the market entails much more than the
simple exchange of economic goods. The market is also where you
exchange news, gossip, and comment on any and all existing social
issues. But the most important function is reinforcement of
interpersonal relations. The custom is to shop at the stand of one's
friends, relatives, neighbors, and acquaintances, so that prices are
negotiated and depend on the relationship that exists between buyer
and seller. 62
The debate on whether Isthmus society is or is not a true
matriarchy may turn on how matriarchal societies are defined. Chifias
has noted that Isthmus Zapotec society is more accurately described as
a patriarchy with a matrifocal focus: "matrifocality (in contrast to
matriarchy) can function perfectly well along with a patriarchal
superstructure because matrifocality operates mainly at the informal
level and in separate arenas from the patriarchal overlay of male
roles." 63 Matrifocality can be likened to an iceberg, with the part of
the iceberg that is readily visible being the formal patriarchal system,
while the informal matrifocal system lies beneath the surface and is
not readily visible.6 4 This blend of Isthmus Zapotec gender roles leads
to balanced equality between the sexes as it is not only acceptable but
expected for women to exercise power.65
59. Bennholdt-Thomsen, Juchitan, Ciudad de Mujeres, supra note 44, at 22

(author'stranslation).
60. Id. (author's translation).
6 1.Id.
62. Veronika Bennholdt-Thomsen, El Mercado: El Coraz6n de Juchitan, in
BENNHOLDT-THOMSEN ET AL., supra note 3, at 67, 69.
63. CHIAS, supra note 5, at 87.
64. Id.
65. Matrifocality has been found in a number of societies, including those of
West Africa and Java. See id.

Los MuXES: A THIRD SEX

Isthmus Zapotec society is characterized by "two contrasting
attitudes concerning sex and gender." 66 First, under the traditional
view of gender roles, Zapotec women are expected to be virgins at
marriage, there is concern over women's honor, and traditional
Catholic and conservative views of sex and gender are accepted.6 7
Second, at the other extreme, "there is an openness and acceptance of
gender/sex 'deviations. "'68
Despite its openness toward muxes, Juchitin maintains traditional
patterns of marriage and courtship. Noviazgo ("courtship") is
traditional and virginity is still expected before marriage, and "the
daughter's behavior is mainly the mother's responsibility." 69 There
have always been two paths to marriage in Juchitin.7o In the first
form, the prospective groom, through his parents, "has a group of
honorable old men ask for the woman's hand in marriage."' The
father then asks his daughter if she wants to marry; if the answer is
yes, there is nothing to do except set the date for the wedding.7 2 But if
the girl wants to wait before giving her response, messengers convey
the response to the groom and later return for the answer.73
Rapto, or running away with a boyfriend, is the second common
route leading to marriage. 74 It occurs under different circumstances,
such as when the groom asks for the girl's hand using the legal or
conventional method and is rejected by the woman or her parents.
Or if the parents say no and the girl says yes, she voluntarily elopes
with the young man.76 "If, on the other hand, the woman rejects the
marriage proposal, the man may take her by force, literally 'dragging
66. Id. at 108.

67. Id.
68. Id.
69. Id. at 51.
70. Andr6s Henestrosa, The Forms of Sexual Life in Juchitin, in ZAPOTEC
STRUGGLES, supra note 32, at 129, 130.
71. Id.
72. Id.
73. Id.
74. Id.
75. Id.
76. Id.
her away."'" Rapto also provides some protection for the girl and her
family as "the man who takes a woman is obligated to marry her or to
pay an indemnity to her family."78
Because value is placed on female virginity and premarital sexual
intercourse is frowned upon, muxes reportedly often introduce young
men to sex. Cristal, for example, a fifty-something muxe interviewed
by Bennholdt-Thomsen, is well known and sought out in the
community as one who initiates young men into sex.79 Another
distinguishing characteristic of muxes is that their sexual partners are
heterosexual men rather than other muxes or homosexual men. Juan, a
thirty-one year old muxe also interviewed by Bennholdt-Thomsen and
known as "la rubia," or the blond girl, explained "that only one
member of a couple is considered a muxe, the other is clearly and
openly a man."80
The muxe, or "man-woman," is a person who seems
predominantly male but displays female characteristics such as
dressing in the traditional Zapotec female attire. Muxes wear their
hair in ponytails, use makeup and jewelry, and take on some of the
characteristics of each gender. The muxes are an anomaly, given
prevailing homophobic attitudes toward homosexuals in most of
M6xico, because in the Isthmus they are officially recognized and
accepted.8 ' Juchitecos are keenly aware and proud of this difference,
"[a]nd pointing to muxes without rejection is part of a code of
acceptance." 8 2
Although muxes are distinguished from the general male
population, they are neither devalued nor subjected to
discrimination.83 Boys may occasionally be harassed or discriminated
against by mestizo youth;8 4 but Zapotec parents, especially mothers
77. Id.
78. Marina Meneses Velizquez, El Camino de ser Mujer en Juchitan, in
BENNHOLDT-THOMSEN ET AL., supra note 3, at 99, 111 (author's translation).
79. Bennholdt-Thomsen, Los Muxe's, el Tercer Sexo, supra note 3, at 286,
289.
80. Id. at 284 (author's translation).
81. Id. at 279.
83. CHIlNAS, supra note 5, at 108.
84. There have been isolated incidents of violence against muxes. For a
discussion of the alleged murder of a muxe sex worker, see Octavio V61ez Ascendio,

and women in general, readily "defend them and their rights to 'be
themselves.""' The prevailing view is that one does not choose to be,
but is born, muxe because "'God made them that way.' 86
When asked whether they identify as men or women, muxes
invariably respond that they are not one or the other, but that they are
muxes.8 7 Their status as a separate sex is reinforced by the fact that
work in Juchitin is clearly gendered. A precondition for muxe
identification with certain jobs is the existence of a clear sexual
division of labor.8 8 Under these conditions, there are intermediate
positions that can be best carried out by a third sex. 89 One job that is
defined as muxes' work is the production of paper ornaments for large
fiestas and Velas, or community festivals.9 0 Artistic work is typically
defined as men's work, but the fiestas are left to the women. 91 Lighter
things like music, poetry, and art are the concern of men, whereas
women's work is always linked to subsistence as lighter work is not
honorable for women. 92 Women have to do heavy, hard work. 93 The
models for embroidery are also frequently designed by muxes. 94
Some muxes own bars and sell liquor, work that is often associated
with women. Proprietors of such establishments are considered to be
sexuality erotic-this is consistent with the societal image of muxes. 9 5
Whether a man is viewed as a muxe is determined not only by the
type of work the person does but also by their sexuality and sexual
identity. 96 Muxes are thought to be highly intelligent and artistic and
their work is believed to be done even more artistically and more
Exigen EsclarecerMuerte de Joven Muxe en Juchitan, LA JORNADA (Mxico, D.F.,

Mex.) (Mar. 14, 2009), http://wwwjomada.unam.mx/2009/03/14/estados/025n3est.
85. CHR AS, supra note 5, at 108.
86. Id.
87. Bennholdt-Thomsen, Los Muxe's, el TercerSexo, supra note 3, at 303.
88. Id.
89. Id.
90. Id.
91. Id.
92. Id.
93. Id.
94. Id.
95. Id.
96. Id. at 304.
carefully than when it is done by women. 97 Some muxes also carry

out traditional male jobs, such as making silver and gold jewelry9 8 or
working for Pemex, the petroleum company in the state. Many
families pressure muxes to assume traditional male jobs in hopes that
it will impede their homosexual tendencies.
Given its matrifocal emphasis, it is perhaps not surprising that the
birth of a girl is celebrated in Juchitin. Marina Meneses Veldsquez
describes how after the birth of a daughter, Rosita, a seventy-eight-
year-old family friend (an expert in raising children and a midwife),
told the mother that "'[iut's great that it's a girl, now you have
someone who will take you by the hand when you are not able to
walk."' 99 The birth of a boy, on the other hand, can lead the older
women to feel sorry for the mother, stating that "'[a] bachelor was
born, you are going to have to get him married,"' referring to how
difficult and costly the wedding of a boy is for a mother. 100 Most
parents are not embarrassed or burdened by having a son who is muxe.
On the contrary, to have a homosexual son is a blessing because they
generally do not abandon the home; they stay to help their parents,
unlike heterosexual men who get married and leave.'o'
Acceptance of the muxes is such that it is misleading and
condescending to say that they are "tolerated," which implies token
and reluctant acceptance.10 2 After attending a Vela in Juchitin,
anthropologist Bennholdt-Thomsen was surprised that the host or
mayordomo (patron) of the Vela was a muxe. 103 Attired in a white
shirt, well-fitted black trousers, and fancy Italian shoes, the only thing
that distinguished the host from other men in attendance was the
massive gold jewelry he wore around his neck, wrists, and fingers-
like many other women who were present at the event, he wore a
97. CHNAS, supra note 5, at 109.

9 8. Id.
99. Velizquez, supranote 78, at 99 (author's translation).
101. Ge Zeta, Muxes (Mushes), GAYCOLECTIVO (Feb. 7, 2009, 12:06 AM),
http://gaycolectivo.blogspot.com/2009/02/muxes-mushes.html.
102. Bennholdt-Thomsen, Los Muxe's, el Tercer Sexo, supra note 3, at 280.
103. See id

necklace with thick gold coins. 10 4 The young host was accorded great
respect and unlimited acceptance.10 5
Not all muxes cross-dress in traditional attire with long skirts and
huipiles. Some dress like heterosexual men except for wearing
jewelry around their necks and on their hands, wearing makeup, or
having their hair in a ponytail. Because the market belongs to women,
a man who dedicates himself to working in the market is defined as a
muxe; only then is he accepted by the female merchants.' 06 Because
women are known as hard workers, a quality recognized and praised
by men, when a man works hard, it is said that he "'works like a
woman."' 10 7 In addition to being hard working, muxes are believed to
be the brightest and most gifted children.'0 8 Parents generally
consider them the most likely to get educated, but they will only be
supported beyond the sixth grade if they demonstrate superior
intellectual ability because of the cost of pursuing higher education.109
Muxes appear to place great value in the fact that they are socially
accepted in society. When interviewed, Juan noted repeatedly that
"'[e]veryone respects me, my neighbors appreciate me, they value me,
they like me, well, they like me as I am."' 10 As to his homosexuality,
Juan noted that he was born that way and that by the age of ten he was
already flirting with the boys, adding "'I live happily the way I am
because no one in my family chastises me, no one humiliates me; they
accept me as I am." 111
Juan only attended the first grade.1 2 He related how his first
grade teacher wanted the children to do some manual work and asked
the boys to have their families buy brushes and frames to paint and the
girls to get materials so they could embroider.1 3 Juan asked his
104. Id.
105. Id.
106. Id. at 281.
108. CHJIFAS, supra note 5, at 109.
109. Id.
(author's translation).
112. Id.
113. Id. at 283-84.
mother to buy him an aro (wooden hoop) to embroider napkins.

When he showed up at school the next day, the teacher said, "'That
work is not for you. It's for girls.""' 4 Juan told the teacher that he
could not do the work he was asked to do and that if he couldn't do
the work that he wanted, he would leave.' 15 And so he left and
continued embroidering.
Not all muxes are immediately accepted, however. Cristal,
recognized as an important embroidery artist in the community,
commented that in the past it was more difficult to "come out."1 1 6 His
mother, for example, beat him regularly and his place as a muxe was
not assured until he was twenty because his parents punished and
ridiculed him in public."' Today he notes that in the past it was more
difficult for them to dress like women or use makeup while today you
can do both without any problems. 1 8
Bennholdt-Thomsen describes a "coming out" or initiation ritual
in which authoritarian parents used corporal punishment as a test to
determine whether their sons were really muxes.119 If the child
persisted in his effeminate behavior in the face of habitual corporal
punishment, it affirmed the child's natural predisposition to be a muxe
and led to his acceptance by the family and the community.120 On the
other hand, the muxes themselves often interpreted their resistance and
persistence as evidence that they were born with different
characteristics, as all muxes are proud to defend their "birthright" to be
different in the face of all kinds of attacks and adversities.' 2 1
Because muxes identify as women, they are attracted to and prefer
to be with straight men, although there are men who never live with a
woman and are involved in serial relations with a variety of muxes.
Interestingly, these men do not define themselves as either muxes or as
homosexuals. Juan, for example, does not approve of a man who has

115. Id.
116. Id. at 286-87.
117. Id. at 287.
118. Id. at 286-87.
119. Id at 288.
120. See id
121. Id.

come out as a muxe pairing up with a woman or with another muxe. 122
Juan was also personally opposed to living in a permanent relationship
with a man because the muxe is the one who has to work to support
the man. 123 He felt that a man would restrict him too much and that he
would not be able to go out dancing and partying with friends if he
was in a relationship with a man. 124
There are also men who are married, have children, and who still
define themselves and are recognized by others as muxes. 12 5 One of
the muxes interviewed by Bennholdt-Thomsen mentioned that she
knew a man in his fifties who was married, had children, would go out
as a muxe and take more time to get dressed and put on his makeup
than his wife.12 6 This was the subject of a great deal of good-natured
kidding and joking.12 7 Some muxes like Juan disapproved, but others
like Cristal accepted him.' 2 8
THE MUXE ORGANIZATION: "AUTHENTIC INTREPID

SEEKERS OF DANGER"
The foregoing overview of Juchitin and the muxes provides a

backdrop for my study of this unique population and to report and
reflect on my trip to Juchitin to carry out field research on the muxes.
Several days before departing for Juchitin, I was in the city of Oaxaca
and had the opportunity to meet with "Julie," a hair stylist in the
neighborhood where I was staying. Because Julie is not a muxe, I
wanted to get the perspective of an Oaxacan gay man on the muxes.
My son-in-law is a native of Oaxaca and Julie is his hairstylist and a
person who knows quite a bit about muxes. She was very gracious
and asked me to come to her hair salon at around five o'clock in the
afternoon, which is the time she has her dinner there. The interview
was brief but informative and Julie kept chewing on her food and
sipping a refresco ("soda") as we talked. She said, "We are all
122. Id. at 285.

123. Id.
124. Id.
125. Id.
126. Id.
127. Id.
128. Id.
technically gay but the muxes distinguish themselves from other gays
because they consider themselves to be a sort of third sex." 1 29 Most
also live the muxe lifestyle "24/7" and are always out of the closet.
Julie mentioned that their origins are in Zapotec culture, that most
spoke Zapoteco, and that they were generally accepted in their
community and culture, whereas gays were not accepted in Oaxaca or
in Mdxico as a whole.' 3 0 Julie confided that she had come to the
United States as a bracero and remarked that she was mistreated, not
by the Americans but by mexicanos.
My daughter and her husband had attended a Muxe Vela or
festival in the city in October. They knew I was interested in the topic
and wanted to attend so they could report back to me and made a
video of the event for me. They had a really good time and were
fortunate enough to have met a muxe from Juchitan named Biiniza.
She gave them an invitation to the Vela in Juchitin in November,
which they scanned and forwarded to me. They told Biiniza that I was
interested in the muxes and she gave them her e-mail address and told
them to have me contact her. Biiniza also commented that there were
only a couple of muxes at the Vela in Oaxaca, even though many of
the men in attendance were dressed in traditional Zapotec attire and
looked very much like muxes to the unsuspecting eye. The rest were
pretenders and not genuine.' 3 1
I contacted Biiniza via e-mail several times both prior to and after
arriving in Oaxaca and called her immediately after arriving in
Juchitin. It turned out that she had given me the number at the salon
where she works. The owner answered the phone and told me that
Biiniza was in Oaxaca and had not returned. The salon owner had a
somewhat hoarse voice that sounded like a woman to me or perhaps
more accurately like a man trying to sound like a woman. The day
after I arrived, I sent an e-mail to Biiniza telling her I was at the Hotel
Lopez Lena and gave her the telephone number. She wrote back and
said, "I will communicate with you today, okay."' 32 Unfortunately,
Biiniza never contacted me. In fact, the only time I saw her was at the
129. Interview with "Julie" the hairdresser, in Oaxaca, Mex. (Nov. 17, 2009).
130. Id.
131. Interview with "Biinitza," in Juchitdn, Mex. (Oct. 17, 2009).
132. E-mail from "Biinitza" to author (Nov. 19, 2009, 1:07 PM) (on file with
author).

Muxe Vela on stage where she was surrounded by people. I never had
an opportunity to talk to her directly but she was introduced and I saw
her walking down the red carpet in a glamorous low-cut gown.' 33
When I called her number again her co-worker answered. She
asked me to come down to the salon at five that evening to see if
Biiniza would pop in to work. The name of the salon was "Estitica
Felina" but I misunderstood and thought she said "Selina," so I was
asking people downtown if they knew of an Estetica (beauty salon)
called Selina. I was lucky and eventually found the salon and figured
out the correct name but Biiniza never showed and still appeared to be
in Oaxaca City. Felina was very pleasant and welcoming. It was
clear from the way she was dressed that she too was a muxe. I
introduced myself and told her I was a professor and researcher who
was interested in the muxes. She invited me to an event at the
Ecological Preserve that was about six or seven blocks from the
downtown area. She told me that several of them would be meeting
with a politician from Mexico City who was instrumental in passing
domestic partner legislation for the City, which legalized or at least
formally recognized Gay unions, an important issue for the muxes.
Mexico City subsequently legalized gay marriages. This would give
me a chance to meet some of the muxes and to socialize with them in
an informal setting and I took advantage of the opportunity.
The next morning I went to breakfast at a little restaurant that was
down the street from my hotel. The waiter was a young man around
twenty-one or twenty-two years of age. In the course of the
conversation, he asked what I was doing in Juchitin. I said I was a
researcher and that I was in town to study the muxes. He confessed
that he was gay but not a muxe and that he was not originally from
Oaxaca. He also mentioned that he knew a couple of people down the
street who were involved in a splinter group of muxes that had
separated from a larger group. He added that there was a Vela that
night, noting that the proprietor of a bar down the street was a muxe
and that Enrique the owner of Enrique's hair salon, would be a good
person to talk to. I went to the bar and I don't know if I made a
mistake on the location but the manager told me I had the wrong
place. I also went by Enrique's Estitica three different times, but it
was closed (perhaps because it was a national holiday). I was upbeat
133. I was able to meet and to interview Biinitza on a subsequent trip.
after meeting this young man and Felina because it seemed like some
doors were beginning to open up for me.
I attended the meeting at the Ecological Preserve. The first person
that I met was a freelance photographer from M6xico City as we
waited for the muxes to arrive. She told me she was there to cover the
muxes, specifically the meeting with the politician. The photographer
requested a picture and one of the young men really hammed it up,
taking cheek-to-cheek pictures with an older man who struck me as
being straight but went along with the joke and posed for the pictures.
People who were standing nearby and watching were also smiling and
laughing at the scene. Also present was a film crew from Colombia
that was doing a documentary on the muxes. The six to eight muxes in
attendance were friendly and I had a chance to hang out with them for
several hours. People were warm but there were no formal
introductions because I think almost everyone knew everyone else, so
the introductions were one-on-one and informal. I had an opportunity
to meet and to chat with several of the people in attendance.
At first they announced that the politician, a woman, would not be
attending but that she had sent one of her assistants to represent her.
However, it soon became clear that no one was coming. The members
of the group were obviously disappointed but everyone took it in
stride. One of the members had made sandwiches for the group and
passed them around. They were simple counterparts to a bologna
sandwich on pan Bimbo (white bread). Several muxes were disgusted
because they had reserved a room for the meeting and members of the
splinter group had arrived first and occupied the room. It was clear
the groups were in competition and that there was tension between
them but that this was the main organization and that the other was a
splinter group.
I was later able to interview Felina. We initially made an
appointment to talk at 5 p.m. at the salon. When I arrived, she told me
that she had to take another muchacha (muxe) home and then go
shopping for the Vela the next night. She said to call her after 8:00
p.m. When I called she asked me to call her after 9:00 p.m. When I
called again she suggested that we meet at her salon at 10:30 p.m. She
didn't arrive until after 11:00 p.m. We proceeded with the interview,
which went well, except for the fact that people kept dropping in to
chat. This was bad because it interfered with the flow of our
conversation but good because I was able to meet a number of muxes


and their friends as they came by to say hello. The hair salon was
clearly a place where the muxes felt comfortable hanging out and
socializing.
Felina is one of the leaders of the group and the outgoing
President of the muxe organization. She was obviously very busy
getting ready for the Vela and I appreciated that she took time to talk
to me. The Vela is very important and is the culmination of the
activities for the year. She said some very interesting things. The
group that had splintered off was made up of fourteen people who
were very negative, so they formed their own group. Predictably, they
subsequently had an internal disagreement and split into two groups,
one with eight and the other with six members. Felina remarked that
their members came from all walks of life, including accountants,
lawyers, and merchants.
She added that the muxes were different from gays because they
did not date one another. Felina also said that you would not find any
gay bars or clubs in Juchitdn because the muxes were integrated into
the entire community.13 4 She repeated that not only did they not date
each other but that their partners were heterosexual men. In response
to the question regarding major problems facing the muxes, she said
that one of the problems is the they are well aligned with the PRI, the
dominant political party in Oaxaca, which had been the ruling party in
M6xico for seventy-one years prior to the 2000 Presidential election.
Because the muxe organization is supported by the PRI a lot of the
members are not very progressive politically and this is frustrating. 135
In the middle of the interview one of the muxes came in to say hello.
She is a one-armed muxe, Amaranta, who had given a speech in front
of the Municipal Palace the night that I first arrived in Juchitin.
Amaranta apparently lost her arm in a recent automobile accident.
She was extremely articulate and political and I was very impressed
both with her public-speaking skills and with how articulate she was
in person, even though when she came in she was obviously a bit
tipsy. I had stopped the tape but she wanted to say something and
asked me to turn it on. One of the problems with the muxes is that
they would not accept people like her because she was too much of a
134. Interview with "Felina," in Juchitin, Mex. (Nov. 20, 2009).

135. Id.
leftist and progressive.136 Amaranta noted that most of the members

of the group belonged to the PRI and that the PRI supported the
organization. 137 This meant that many of the members were not very
progressive politically and were reluctant to speak out on important
controversial issues in the community.
THE GREAT MUxE VELA
The economy of Juchitdn remains embedded in what Bennholdt-

Thomsen terms a "prestige economy" in which, in the prevailing
societal and cultural context, the highest esteem is not accorded to
"the one who owns most, but the one who gives most" in the
community. More specifically "one earns one's merits in the
community through the festivals." 38 At the top-ranked merit festivals
are Velas, wonderful festivals that occur about three times per month,
or thirty-five per year. These festivals last for four days and are
attended by several thousand people. To assume the sponsorship or
patronage of a Vela is the dream of each "Teca" (Juchitica), since
Velas largely fall within the sphere of women and it is through them
that they gain prestige for themselves and their families. Bennholdt-
Thomsen notes that "[i]t is easy to detect fertility rites as the roots of
the Velas which are celebrated by groups of interrelated people who
live in the same area" and "come from matrilineal clans who assemble
around a Clan-Totem or a Nahuatl Part of each Vela."' 39 In total,
some 628 great street festivals are celebrated in Juchitin, including
birthdays, weddings, and initiation rites for young girls on their
fifteenth birthday or Quinceaileras.1 40 There are no comparable
festivals for young men.
In general, one person is primarily responsible for the Vela, the
mayordomo/a, but there are multiple godmothers, or festival sponsors,
who assume part of the responsibility for organizing and financing the
136. Interview with "Amaranta," in Juchitdn, Mex. (Nov. 20, 2009).

137. Id.
138. Veronika Bennholdt-Thomsen, A Matriarchal Society in the Age of
Globalization: Juchitin/Southern Mexico (Jutta Ried trans., 2003) (select paper from
the First World Congress on Matriarchal Studies, Luxembourg), available at
http://www.second-congress-matriarchal-studies.com/bennholdtthomsen.html.
139. Id.
140. Id.

event. 14 1 The guests also contribute through offerings and gifts. In

addition, most of the neighborhood women are actively involved,
beginning at 4 a.m., preparing food for hundreds of guests who will be
attending. The host is expected to keep track of these contributions as
strict reciprocity is expected. It is in this way that festivals become an
integral part of the economy, maintaining the mutual exchange, and
encouraging "the spirit of reciprocity."
When I first met with Felina, she told me that people would be
going to the place where the Vela was being held in order to set up the
night before the event. This was good for me because I was able to go
that day, hang out with the muxes, and see them relate to one another
in an informal setting. The event's location was huge but
disappointing. The decision was made to hold the muxe Vela outside
this year because it had just gotten too large. The site was a large,
open field near a local university. There were two large stages on
opposite ends of the locale, connected by an asphalt floor. It looked
like a very large asphalt basketball court, surrounded by a field with a
dirt floor. Acting as godmother of the festival, each muxe staked out
an area for their invited guests. In each area, they set up wooden
chairs around the periphery and plastic tables in the middle for food
and beer. I began to help by opening and arranging the wooden chairs
in a large rectangular shape. They were small, new, and, therefore,
hard to open and unfold. It took about three hours to set up and I was
tired and my hands were sore the next day.
I decided to help "Mandis" set up. She was one of the more
serious and mature muxes I had been talking with and I developed
some rapport with her. Mandis is around fifty years old and has
thinning hair. Interestingly, she and Angel were among the few muxes
who did not dress like women or wear traditional Zapotec clothing.
They dressed like ordinary men, although Angel was very flamboyant
in his dress at the Vela. Mandis explained that she could not dress like
a muxe because she worked for the government in the Office of
Tourism.14 2 When they finished, someone brought out quart-size
bottles of beer and people started to drink and socialize.
141. Id.
142. Interview with "Mandis," in Juchitin, Mex. (Nov. 20, 2009).
On Saturday morning, there was a mass for the muxes. They were
being recognized and incorporated as a society within the Church.
There were two groups of muxes and each had sponsors and a banner
or standard that represented their group. The main muxe group
standard read, "Las Autinticas Intrdpidas Buscadoras del Peligro."
Many of the muxes were dressed like women in traditional Tehuana
dress with their hair braided with pretty flowers. Some of them really
looked like women, others like men in drag. The priest talked about
the muxes in his sermon and formally welcomed them as a society into
the Church, like the Knights of Columbus or other groups. He had to
be corrected because initially he was only recognizing one group. The
priest apologized and proceeded to formally acknowledge and to
recognize both groups, as each group and its leaders went up to the
alter in a procession with their standard at the front. In addition to the
muxes, there was a ceremony for a little girl who was being
recognized and incorporated into the Church as a member. She must
have been around four years old and was dressed in her Tehuana dress
with her hair in braids with flowers and was extremely cute. Her
mother and father proudly stood at her side.
As we walked out of the church after the service we were handed
colorful banners. We then marched through the downtown area to a
hall owned by the PRI about a mile away where we had a traditional
Oaxacan breakfast with mole and champurrada. We marched as a
group with banners and balloons through the middle of town. It was a
muxe parade, although we were walking down the main street of
Juchitin and did not have any cars or floats. Most of the muxes were
dressed up like Tehuanas with flowers in their hair and a lot of golden
jewelry, but a few were dressed in street clothes. Mandis was dressed
in civilian attire and attended the event with her partner who looked
like an ordinary heterosexual man but was clearly in a relationship
with her.
When I attended the Muxes Vela, the celebration was really
impressive. It was hard to believe that this was the same place that we
had helped to set up the previous day because it had been dramatically
transformed and looked beautiful. Tents had been placed around each
area and there was lighting. The two stages were also colorfully
decorated and well lit. There were three stages now, two for the bands
and the other for the muxe celebration and crowning of the new
Queen. As a fee for the event, each gentleman bought a case of beer

at the entrance. Ladies could make cash contributions. This is

consistent with the spirit of reciprocity engendered in the community.
I bought my case of beer, put it on my shoulder, walked in, and went
directly to Mandis's area and handed her the case of beer. It was early
and she was glad to see me and graciously accepted it. I then walked
around and visited with Angel who introduced me to another muxe
who, along with Mandis, was one of the founders of the muxe
organization some thirty-four years ago. Angel struck me as a very
nice person. He had a shaved head and, like Mandis, did not dress
like a Tehuana. He was, however, dressed in a very outlandish white
outfit with a large necklace, silver top hat, gray cape, and a black
cane. He told me that he made his outfit every year and that last year
Mandis and some of the other muxes had told him he had to go home
and change because his outfit was too outrageous and embarrassing. 13
He looked great during the ceremony honoring the Queen. His outfit
seemed appropriate for Carnaval.
They had three bands, but the most famous of them was Sonora
Dinamita, an iconic band that has been around for a long time. They
were reputedly paid U.S. $12,000 to play, and it was clear that the
muxe organization had to raise a lot of money to pay for the event.
The highlight of the evening was the coronation of the Queen. There
were two masters of ceremonies. One of them was Amaranta, the
very articulate one-armed Muxe that I met at Felina's salon. It was a
gala affair with everything, including a red carpet and lots of
paparazzi pushing and shoving each other, fighting to get a good
view. It was quite difficult to see the people as they came down the
red carpet. A special guest was Karen Davis, a pretty black woman
and a Guatemalan supermodel. When they introduced one of the more
hefty muxes, "Mistica," the mistress of ceremonies said that one
(Davis) was a supermodel and that the other was a Modelo Especial,
which is the name of a popular Mexican beer and means a "Special
Model." Prior to the coronation, they introduced fifty muxes from
throughout the Republic of M6xico. Some were ex-muxe Queens
while others lived in other cities in Oaxaca and other regions. Among
those introduced were ex-queens, including Felina, who was the
Queen in the early 1990s.
143. Interview with "Angel," in Juchitin, Mex. (Nov. 21, 2009).
The culmination of the ceremony was the introduction of the

Queen and her court. They had been practicing for several hours the
previous evening, when we were setting up. The Queen was a young
woman, about fourteen years old. Her court consisted of eight male
dancers who were around the same age. Interestingly, when they were
practicing the day before, the Queen and the boys were dressed
casually and I actually thought that the Queen was a girl, not a muxe.
She wore shorts and looked like a pretty girl, so I would have never
guessed she was a muxe. At the time, I thought the group was
entertainment for the evening consisting of a girl and her eight male
escorts or as they call them chambelanes. In any event, the Queen and
her court danced, and it was a great performance. They sang and the
song's lyrics spoke of being Queen for the day. The ceremony had all
the trappings of a traditional beauty contest. In fact, once the Queen
took the stage, one of the mistresses of ceremonies asked the other ex-
Queens to remove their tiaras in order to properly honor the Queen
and to acknowledge that there could only be one reigning Queen.
When I left the party, I noticed that the dance floor was so
crowded with dancers that I had to walk carefully to make my way to
the exit. The entrance to the event was crowded with vendors and
onlookers.
I later learned that the Queen was a thirteen-year-old named
Carmelo L6pez Bernal-he had made his debut at a recent annual
town-wide muxe Vela at the town of Uni6n Hidalgo, marking his first
appearance in the identity of a girl.144 Carmelo lives with his
grandmother who loves and readily accepts him. He does not go to
school, but instead cleans the homes of relatives and other neighbors.
He has begun to identify as a girl, and he is excited about growing up
and becoming like "Mistica," a popular well-known and well-liked
muxe. 145 Mistica is respected as a businesswoman and is visible
throughout the community as she sells cosmetics and other products
door to door. When asked about Carmelo, his grandmother said, "I
feel normal about it, it is how God sent him, and I love him even
144. Lacy, supra note 5 (describing the young muxe in a caption to a

photograph taken at the Vela).
145. Week in Review: In Mexico, Beyond Gay and Straight, N.Y. TIMES,
http://www.nytimes.com/slideshow/2008/12/07/weekinreview/1207-MUXE_9.html
(follow slide show to slide 8 of 15) (last visited Feb. 21, 2012).

though he isn't a woman. Who knows what kind of person he will be:
he is still young."1 46
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
In summary, though called the "The City of Women" and known

for its strong women and gender equity, Juchitin is not a matriarchal
society. Instead, it is a matrifocal family system which persists in the
face of patriarchy, where women have a great deal of power and
autonomy economically, socially, and in the kinship system. A
matrifocal society is one where: (1) the role of the mother is socially,
culturally, and affectively central; (2) the relationship between men
and women is relatively egalitarian; (3) both men and women have
important cultural and ritual roles; and (4) girls are taught to be
assertive, active, and decisive in the family and the society at large.' 47
Because women assume the role of merchants and traders in the
market, they also control familial resources and are recognized as
economic heads of households.
Juchitdn is also known for its tolerance and acceptance of muxes
who constitute a third sex or what is often described as "hombres
mujeres" ("male women"). Acceptance of persons of mixed gender
can be traced to pre-Colombian Mexico, as anthropologists have
pointed to instances of cross-dressing Aztec priests and Mayan gods
who were at once male and female.' 48
Ironically, acceptance of the muxes as a third sex appears to be
facilitated by a sharp division of sex roles and the prevalence of
gender equity. Because of the sharp division of labor there are
occupations that are in-between, not assigned to one sex or the other,
and are recognized as the work of muxes. Although certain jobs are
reserved for muxes, they are represented in virtually all walks of life.
Muxes themselves and members of the community at large believe
that rather than being a voluntary choice one is born a muxe. Indeed,
the belief expressed by young Carmelo's grandmother that "it is how
God sent him" appears to be the prevailing view. Since being muxe is
seen as an immutable characteristic, perhaps it is not surprising that
146. Id. (follow slide show to slide 9 of 15).

147. CHI&AS, supra note 5, at 85.
148. Lacy, supra note 5.
people readily distinguish between those who are genuine muxes and
those who are inauthentic and simply cross-dress or mimic the muxe
lifestyle. Biinitza, for example, noted that there were only a handful
of muxes among the hundreds of transvestite men who attended the
Vela in the city of Oaxaca. They were not muxes but gays in drag.
The idea that some transvestite men who dress and act like women are
imposters or pretenders while others are authentic is intriguing
because it conjures images of someone "impersonating" a man
impersonating a woman. This concept reinforces the socially
constructed idea that muxes constitute a distinct third sex in Juchitin
and are not simply "transvestites in drag." It also reinforces the view
that muxes are a third sex, in that being one is a 24-7 proposition, a
lifestyle that cuts across all aspects of one's life and extends beyond
how one looks or dresses. Perhaps it is for this reason that not all
muxes cross-dress and that some can be muxe without necessarily
dressing in the traditional Zapotec dress. Being muxe thus refers to
one's overall identity, an identity which transcends external,
superficial markings like one's dress or appearance.
Significantly, the name of the major muxe organization, "The
Authentic Intrepid Seekers of Danger," connotes several things about
the organization and their identity. First, it connotes that the members
of the muxe organization are audacious or fearless seekers of danger.
Second, it connotes that they are the "authentic," "true," or genuine
muxes and not imposters or pretenders.
As I reflect back on my visit to Juchitin I feel like it was very
successful. But I plan to return soon to get more in-depth information
and interviews, particularly about community response and acceptance
of muxes as a third sex. Ironically, going during the Vela is a great
time because you get to see and partake in the yearly celebration, yet it
is more difficult to talk to people because they are so busy preparing
for the event. One of the things that impressed me is not only how
accepted the muxes are but how integrated they are into the
community, not only socially and culturally but politically and even
within the Church. The night I arrived in Juchitan there was a
performance in front of the city municipal building. The event was
hosted and organized by the muxes. Some of the issues addressed
during the program were the prevention of domestic violence, birth
control, and AIDS education. I learned that the group works with

youth in the community on these issues and they put on a skit with the
youth focusing on them.
Based on my interviews and observations, it is clear the muxes are
very well-integrated and accepted into the community, as most of the
people in attendance were not muxes but friends and family of the
members of the organization and represented a cross-section of
Juchitin society. The Vela was a festival sponsored by the muxes for
the community at large. In fact, the Muxe Queen was crowned by the
mayor of Juchitin. The muxes were also recognized as an
organization by the Church. I found this integration to be true across
social, economic, political, and religious aspects of Juchitin.
The treatment of muxes in Juchitdn stands in sharp contrast with
the treatment of gays in many other parts of M6xico and in the United
States. People were shocked recently, for example, by the "vicious"
hatred that apparently caused a New York City street gang's alleged
beating and torture of three gay men.' 49 The violence, according to
police, included sodomizing one of the men with a plunger handle and
torture of the others.15 0 The attacks occurred during a period of
increased attention to anti-gay bullying following a series of teen
suicides around the country the previous month.15 ' Significantly,
several of the suspects were Latino.152
The New York City attack took place in a neighborhood where
residents say homosexuality is common and tolerated. 15 3 Ironically,
the prevalence of gay neighborhoods or gay-friendly communities in
the United States may work to promote rather than to discourage
attacks against gays, bisexuals, and transgender persons because some
people go into such areas seeking to find and to victimize
homosexuals. Tolerance and acceptance of gays needs to occur across
the community at large, not simply in designated gay-safe zones, for
as Felina mentioned during the interview, you are not going to find
gay bars or a gay section of the city because the muxes are well-
integrated into the entire community.
149. NYC Leaders Condemn 'Vicious' Attack on 3 Gays, NEW HAVEN REG.
(Oct. 10, 2010), http://www.nhregister.com/articles/2010/10/10/news/cc5gaygang
101010.txt.
150. Id.
151. Id.
152. See id.
153. Id.
2012] THE MuxEs OF JUCHITAN 539
Gay advocates were recently similarly outraged by yet another

instance of bullying against gay, bisexual, or transgender students, as
an Ohio student waited in a classroom ant then viciously attacked a
15-year-old gay classmate, all captured by a bystander's cellphone.154
While the student mercilessly attacked the gay student on the floor,
other students watched and nobody did anything.15 5 The perpetrator
was suspended for three days and has not been criminally charged in
the case.156 The victim "broke two teeth, and may have suffered a
concussion."15 7 The boy's mother said, "'Just for all the people out
there who have hate in their heart-they need to let it go,"' she said.
158
"'People are going to be who they are."'
The findings of this study have important policy implications for
the treatment of GLBT in the United States. With increased concern
over harassment, gay-bashing, and bullying of gay and effeminate
youth in this country, it seems that much could be learned from the
treatment and acceptance of the muxes in a place like Juchitin and the
Isthmus of Tehuantepec. For example, because people in Juchitin are
not generally homophobic, they are not opposed to having the muxes
take an active part in working with local youth addressing issues such
as domestic violence, birth control, and AIDS education. The
prevalence of homophobia in the United States makes the idea of gays
working with youth problematic, particularly if you consider things
like the refusal of the Boy Scouts of America, the largest youth
organization in the country, to admit homosexuals into the
organization in membership or supervisory positions.1 59
Acceptance of homosexuality, bisexuality, and transgender
identity has to cut across the entire society and cannot be confined to
gay areas or gay-friendly sections of a city. Rather than occurring in
gay bars or clubs, the "coming out" process in Juchitin starts in the
154. Susan Donaldson James, Boy Assaults Gay Student as Cellphone

Captures Attack, ABC NEWS (Oct. 28, 2011), http://abcnews.go.com/Health/ohio-
bully-beating-gay-student-caught-cell-phone/story?id=14834057.
155. Id.
156. Id.
157. Id.
158. Id.
159. The right of the Boy Scouts as a private organization to restrict admission
has consistently been upheld by the courts. See, e.g., Boy Scouts of Am. v. Dale,
530 U.S. 640 (2000).

family when parents and other family members begin to recognize and
accept the fact that their son is different, effeminate, and is more
inclined to pursue feminine arts and crafts like embroidering than
traditional male endeavors. Once the boy is accepted by the family
and is ready to dress like a girl in public, he begins to cross-dress and
to appear at Velas, and is eventually recognized and accepted as a
muxe by other muxes and the society at large. Also, if bullying and
gay bashing were problems in the community, the muxes would be at
the forefront of efforts to educate people and to combat such abuse.
However, because of the general acceptance of muxes, they are free to
focus their efforts on other political and social issues in the
community.
Carmelo, the youth who reigned as Queen during the Muxe Vela,
may not have an idyllic life and future since he lives in a rural area in
relative poverty, does not attend school, and makes his living by
cleaning the houses of relatives and neighbors, but he is accepted by
his family and the community. Unlike Lawrence King who was
mercilessly harassed by his peers and gunned down by a fourteen-
year-old classmate, or other youth who are subjected to gay bashing
and bullying, Carmelo does not need to worry about being harassed or
bullied because of his lifestyle. In fact, he enjoys dressing as a girl
and is looking forward to growing up living the life of a muxe. He
even has role models and looks forward to becoming like "Mistica," a
popular and well-known muxe that he looks up to and is a reputable
and respected businesswoman in the community.

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Mirandé: The Muxes of Juchitán: A Preliminary Look at Transgender Identity

THE MUXES OF JUCHITAN: A PRELIMINARY LOOK AT

There is much public concern today in the United States with

* Alfredo Mirand6 is a Professor of Sociology and Ethnic Studies at the

Published by CWSL Scholarly Commons, 2011 1

510 CALIFORNIA WESTERN INTERNATIONAL LAW JOURNAL [Vol.42

some Native American groups.4 Although lacking the religious

(1st Spanish ed. 1997) [hereinafter Bennholdt-Thomsen, Los Muxe's, el Tercer

2012] THE MUXES OF JUCHITAN 511

interviews with members of the local muxe' organization, Las

HOMOSEXUALITY IN PRE-COLOMBIAN SOCIETY

While the practice of sodomy was widely condemned by the

'[N]ext to one of their principal temples they had a walled-around

For the Spanish, in turn, sexuality among men, particularly anal

9. Bennholdt-Thomsen, Los Muxe's, el Tercer Sexo, supranote 3, at 295.

Published by CWSL Scholarly Commons, 2011 3

512 CALIFORNIA WESTERN INTERNATIONAL LAW JOURNAL [Vol. 42

transvestism and heard of homosexuality can be seen in his First

15. Bennholdt-Thomsen, Los Muxe's, el Tercer Sexo, supra note 3, at 295

2012] THE MUXES OF JUCHITAN 513

accurate translation of these passages requires knowledge of the

21. Geoffrey Kimball, Aztec Homosexuality: The Textual Evidence, 26 J.

Published by CWSL Scholarly Commons, 2011 5

514 CALIFORNIA WESTERN INTERNATIONAL LAW JOURNAL [Vol. 42

incorrectly translate the chewers of chicle as the "effimantes" or

27. SAHAGCTN, supra note 19, at bk. 10, ch. 24.

2012] THE MUXES OF JUCHITAN 515

Pre-Colombian societies tolerated or frowned upon

JUCHITAN: SITE OF RESISTANCE, REBELLION, AND RADICALISM

Though space limitations preclude a detailed discussion of the

Published by CWSL Scholarly Commons, 2011 7

516 CALIFORNIA WESTERN INTERNATIONAL LAW JOURNAL [Vol. 42

36. Id. at 327.

2012] THE MUXES OF JUCHITAN 517

IN SEARCH OF THE AMAZONS AND MATRIARCHY

While a number of observers have commented on the strength and

44. Veronika Bennholdt-Thomsen, Juchitin, Ciudad de Mujeres, in

Published by CWSL Scholarly Commons, 2011 9

518 CALIFORNIA WESTERN INTERNATIONAL LAW JOURNAL [Vol. 42

found them to be the least reserved in the Americas. 50 "'[They]

2012] THE MUXES OF JUCHITAN 519

it." 59 And "the distinction between work which is valued because it is

59. Bennholdt-Thomsen, Juchitan, Ciudad de Mujeres, supra note 44, at 22

Published by CWSL Scholarly Commons, 2011 11

520 CALIFORNIA WESTERN INTERNATIONAL LAW JOURNAL [Vol. 42

Los MuXES: A THIRD SEX

66. Id. at 108.

2012] THE MUXES OF JUCHITAN 521

Published by CWSL Scholarly Commons, 2011 13

522 CALIFORNIA WESTERN INTERNATIONAL LAW JOURNAL [Vol. 42

Exigen EsclarecerMuerte de Joven Muxe en Juchitan, LA JORNADA (Mxico, D.F.,

2012] THE MUXES OF JUCHITAN 523

carefully than when it is done by women. 97 Some muxes also carry

97. CHNAS, supra note 5, at 109.

Published by CWSL Scholarly Commons, 2011 15

524 CALIFORNIA WESTERN INTERNATIONAL LAW JOURNAL [Vol. 42

2012] THE MUXES OF JUCHITAN 525

mother to buy him an aro (wooden hoop) to embroider napkins.

114. Id. at 284 (author's translation).