1 - Wind Energy Resources

December 29, 2010 11:12 9.75in x 6.
5in b1032-ch01 Handbook of Renewable Energy Technology
Chapter 1
Wind Energy Resources: Theory, Design

and Applications
Handbook of Renewable Energy Technology Downloaded from www.worldscientific.com
Fang Yao
by LA TROBE UNIVERSITY on 02/13/16. For personal use only.
School of Electrical, Electronic and Computer Engineering,

Faculty of Engineering, Computer and Mathematics,
University of Western Australia
[email protected]
Ramesh C. Bansal
School of Information Technology and Electrical Engineering,
The University of Queensland, Australia
[email protected]
Zhao Yang Dong

Department of Electrical Engineering,
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong
Ram K. Saket
Department of Electrical Engineering, Institute of Technology,
Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi (U.P.), India
Jitendra S. Shakya
Samrat Ashok Technological Institute, Vidisha, M.P., India
The technology of obtaining wind energy has become more and more important
over the last few decades. The purpose of this chapter is to provide a general dis-
cussion about wind power technology. The fundamental knowledge of wind power
systems and their design aspects are presented. The description of the fundamental
topics which are essential to understand the wind energy conversion and its eventual
use is also provided in the chapter. This chapter discusses the wind farms and hybrid
power systems as well.
3
December 29, 2010 11:12 9.75in x 6.5in b1032-ch01 Handbook of Renewable Energy Technology
4 F. Yao et al.
1.1 Introduction
Wind power is one of the renewable energy sources which has been widely developed
in recent years. Wind energy has many advantages such as no pollution, relatively
low capital cost involved and the short gestation period. The first wind turbine for
electricity generation was developed at the end of the 19th century. From 1940 to
1950, two important technologies, i.e., three blades structure of wind turbine and
the AC generator which replaced DC generator were developed.1 During the period
of 1973 to 1979, the oil crises led to lots of research about the wind generation. At
the end of 1990s, wind power had an important role in the sustainable energy. At the
same time, wind turbine technologies were developed in the whole world, especially
in Denmark, Germany, and Spain. Today, wind energy is the fastest growing energy
source. According to the Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC), global wind power
capacity has increased from 7600 MW at the end of 1997 to 195.2 GW by 2009.
However wind power accounts for less than 1.0% of world’s electrical demand. It
is inferred that the wind power energy will develop to about 12% of the world’s
electrical supply by 2020.2
A lot of developments have been taken place in the design of wind energy con-
version systems (WECS). Modern wind turbines are highly sophisticated machines
built on the aerodynamic principles developed from the aerospace industry, incorpo-
rating advanced materials and electronics and are designed to deliver energy across
a wide-range of wind speeds. The following sections will discuss the different issues
related to wind power generation and wind turbines design.
The rest of the chapter is organized as follows. A number of important topics
including aerodynamic principle of wind turbine, power available in the wind, rotor
efficiency, factors affecting power in the wind, wind turbine power curve, opti-
mizing rotor diameter and generator rated power have been presented in Sec. 2.
Section 3 discusses a number of design considerations such as choice between two
and three blades turbine, weight and size considerations. Grid connected wind farms,
problems related with grid connections and latest trends of wind power generation
are described in Sec. 4. Section 5 discusses hybrid power system and economics of
wind power system. The conclusion is presented in Sec. 7, followed by references at
the end of chapter.
Classification of wind turbine rotors, different types of generators used in the
wind turbines, types of wind turbines, dynamic models of wind turbine will be
discussed in detail in Chap. 2 of the book.
Wind Energy Resources: Theory, Design and Applications 5
Wind
Relative
wind
(for
Lift blade
motion) Resulting wind
Drag Lift
Blade
motion
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.1. The lift in (a) is the result of faster air sliding over the top of the wind foil. In (b),
the combination of actual wind and the relative wind due to blade motion creates a resultant
that creates the blade lift.3
1.2 Power in the Wind
1.2.1 Aerodynamics principle of wind turbine

Figure 1.1(a) shows an airfoil, where the air moving the top has a greater distance
to pass before it can rejoin the air that takes the short cut under the foil. So the air
pressure on the top is lower than the air pressure under the airfoil. The air pressure
difference creates the lifting force which can hold the airplane up.
In terms of the wind turbine blade, it is more complicated than the aircraft wing.
From Fig. 1.1(b) we can find that a rotating turbine blade sees air moving toward
it not only from the wind itself, but also from the relative motion of the blade. So
the combination of the wind and blade motion is the resultant wind which moves
toward the blade at a certain angle.
The angle between the airfoil and the wind is called the angle of attack as shown
in Fig. 1.2. Increasing the angle of attack can improve the lift at the expense of
increased drag. However, if we increase the angle of attack too much the wing will
stall and the airflow will have turbulence and damage the turbine blades.
1.2.2 Power available in the wind

The total power available in wind is equal to the product of mass flow rate of wind
mw , and V 2 /2. Assuming constant area or ducted flow, the continuity equation states
6 F. Yao et al.
Stall
Wind
Drag Lift
Angle of
attack
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.2. An increase in the angle of attack can cause a wing to stall.3
that mw = ρAV , where ρ is the density of air in kg/m3 , A is the blades area in m2 ,
and V is velocity in m/s.

Thus, the total wind power,
Pw = (mw V 2 )/2 = (ρAV 3 )/2. (1.1)
Here, the ρ is a function of pressure, temperature and relative humidity. Let us
assume the inlet wind velocity is Vi and the output velocity is Vo , then the average
velocity is (Vi + Vo )/2.
The wind power recovered from the wind is given as
Pout = mw (VI2 − VO2 )/2 = (ρA/4)(Vi + VO )(Vi2 − Vo2 )
= (Pw /2)(1 + x − x2 − x3 ), (1.2)
where x = Vo /Vi . Differentiating Eq. (1.2) with respect to x and setting it to zero
gives the optimum value of x for maximum power output
d(Pout )/dx = 0 = (1 − 2x − 3x2 ) (1.3)
and then we can get xmax p = 1/3.
Substituting the value of xmax p in Eq. (1.2), the maximum power recovered is
Pout max = 16/27Pw = 0.593Pw . (1.4)
It can be found that the maximum power from a wind system is 59.3% of the total
wind power.
The electrical power output is,
P e = Cp ηm ηg Pw , (1.5)
where Cp is the efficiency coefficient of performance when the wind is converted to
mechanical power. ηm is mechanical transmission efficiency and ηg is the elec-
tricity transmission efficiency.4 The optimistic values for these coefficients are
Cp = 0.45, ηm = 0.95 and ηg = 0.9, which give an overall efficiency of 38%.
For a given system, Pw and Pe will vary with wind speed.
1.2.3 Rotor efficiency

For a given wind speed, the rotor efficiency is a function of the rotor turning rate.
If the rotor turns too slowly, the efficiency drops off because the blades are letting
too much wind pass by unaffected. However, if the rotor turns too fast, efficiency
will reduce as the turbulence caused by one blade increasingly affects the blade
that follows. The tip-speed ratio (TSR) is a function which can illustrate the rotor
efficiency. The definition of the tip-speed-ratio is:
TSR = rotor tip speed/wind speed = (πdN)/60v,

(1.6)
where N is rotor speed in rpm, d is the rotor diameter (m); and v is the wind speed
(m/s) upwind of the turbine.
1.2.4 Factors affecting wind power

1.2.4.1 Wind statistics
Wind resource is a highly variable power source, and there are several methods
of characterizing this variability. The most common method is the power duration
curve.5 Another method is to use a statistical representation, particularly a Weibull
distribution function.6 Long term wind records are used to select the rated wind
speed for wind electric generators. The wind is characterized by a Weibull density
function.
1.2.4.2 Load factor

There are two main objectives in wind turbine design. The first is to maximize
the average power output. The second one is to meet the necessary load factor
requirement of the load. The load factor is very important when the generator is
pumping irrigation water in asynchronous mode.7 Commonly assumed long-term
average load factors may be anywhere from 25% to 30%.
1.2.4.3 Seasonal and diurnal variation of wind power

It is clear that the seasonal and diurnal variations have significant effects on wind.
The diurnal variation can be reduced by increasing the height of the wind power
generator tower. In the early morning, the average power is about 80% of the long
term annual average power. On the other hand, in early afternoon hours, the average
power can be 120% of the long term average power.
8 F. Yao et al.
1.2.5 Impact of tower height

Wind speed will increase with the height because the friction at earth surface is
large.8 The rate of the increase of wind speed that is often used to characterize the
impact of the roughness of the earth’s surface on wind speed is given as:
α
v H
= , (1.7)
vo Ho
where v is the wind speed at height H, vo is the nominal wind speed at height Ho ,
and α is the friction coefficient. This can be translated into a substantial increase in
power at greater heights. Table 1.1 gives the typical values of friction coefficient for
various terrain characteristics.
It is known that power in the wind is proportional to the cube of wind speed, so
even the modest increase in wind speed will cause significant increase in the wind
power. In order to get higher speed winds, the wind turbines will be mounted on a
taller tower. The air friction is also an important aspect to be considered, in the first
few hundred meters above the ground, wind speed is greatly affected by the friction
that air experiences. So smoother is the surface, lesser is the air movement friction.
1.2.6 Wind turbine sitting

The factors that should be considered while installing wind generator are as follow:
(1) Availability of land.
(2) Availability of power grid (for a grid connected system).
(3) Accessibility of site.
(4) Terrain and soil.
(5) Frequency of lighting strokes.
Once the wind resource at a particular site has been established, the next factor
that should be considered is the availability of land.10−12 The area of the land required
depends upon the size of wind farm. In order to optimize the power output from a
Table 1.1. Friction coefficient for various terrain characteristics.9
Terrain characteristics Friction coefficient α
Smooth hard ground, calm water 0.10

Tall grass on ground 0.15
High crops and hedges 0.20
Wooded countryside, many trees 0.25
Small town with trees 0.30
Large city with tall buildings 0.40
given site, some additional information is needed, such as wind rose, wind speeds,
vegetation, topography, ground roughness, etc. In addition other information such as
convenient access to the wind farm site, load bearing capacity of the soil, frequency
of cyclones, earthquakes, etc., should also be considered. A detailed discussion on
technologies and methods used in wind resource assessment is presented in Chap. 4
of the book.
1.2.7 Idealized wind turbine power curve

The power curve is an important item for a specific wind turbine. The wind power
curve also shows the relationship between wind speed and generator electrical
output.
1.2.7.1 Cut-in wind speed

When the wind speed is below the cut-in wind speed (VC ) shown in Fig. 1.3, the wind
turbines cannot start.13,14 Power in the low speed wind is not sufficient to overcome
friction in the drive train of the turbine. The generator is not able to generate any
useful power below cut in speed.
1.2.7.2 Rated wind speed

We can see from Fig. 1.3 that as the wind speed increases, the power delivered
by the generator will increase as the cube of wind speed. When the wind speed
reached VR the rated wind speed, the generator can deliver the rated power. If the
wind speed exceeds VR , there must be some methods to control the wind power or
else the generator may be damaged. Basically, there are three control approaches
for large wind power machines: active pitch-control, passive stall-control, and the
combination of the two ways.
Rated power Shedding the wind

PR
Power delivered (kw)
Cut in wind speed

Furling or cut out
Rated wind speed
wind speed
Vc VR VF
wind speed (m/s)
Fig. 1.3. Idealized power curve.

10 F. Yao et al.
In pitch-control system, an electronic system monitors the generator output

power. If the power exceeds the rated power, the pitch of the turbine blades will
adjust to shed some wind. The electronic system will control a hydraulic system
to slowly rotate the blades about the axes, and turn them a few degrees to reduce
the wind power. In conclusion, this strategy is to reduce the blade’s angle of attack
when the wind speeds over the rated wind speed.
For the stall-controlled machines, the turbine blades can reduce the efficiency
automatically when the winds exceed the rated speed. In this control method, there
are no moving parts, so this way is a kind of passive control. Most of the modern,
large wind turbines use this passive, stall-controlled approach.

For large (above 1.0 MW), when the wind speed exceed the rated wind speed,
the turbine machine will not reduce the angle of attack but increases it to induce
stall.
For small size wind turbines, there are a variety of techniques to spill wind. The
common way is the passive yaw control that can cause the axis of the turbine to
move more and more off the wind. Another way relies on a wind vane mounted
parallel to the plane of the blades. As winds get strong, the wind pressure on the
vane rotate the machine away from the wind.
From Fig. 1.3 we can see that there is no power generated at wind speeds below
VC ; at wind speeds between VR and VF , the output is equal to the rated power of the
generator; above VF the turbine is shut down.13,14
1.2.7.3 Cut-out or furling wind speed

Sometimes, the wind is too strong to damage the wind turbine. In Fig. 1.3 this wind
speed is called as cut-out or the furling wind speed. Above VF , the output power is
zero. In terms of active pitch-controlled and passive stall-controlled machines, the
rotor can be stopped by rotating the blades about their longitudinal axis to create a
stall. However, for the stall-controlled machines, there will be the spring-loaded on
the large turbine and rotating tips on the ends of the blades. When it is necessary,
the hydraulic system will trip the spring and blade tips rotate 90◦ out of the wind
and stop the turbine.
1.2.7.4 Optimizing rotor diameter and generator rated power

Figure 1.4 shows the trade-offs between rotor diameter and generator size as methods
to increase the energy delivered by a wind turbine. In terms of Fig. 1.4(a), increasing
the rotor diameter and keeping the same generator will shift the power curve upward.
In this situation, the turbine generator can get the rated power at a lower wind speed.
For Fig. 1.4(b), keeping the same rotor but increasing the generator size will allow
Large
generator
Pr
Increased
Pr
rotor diameter
Power (KW)
Power (KW)
Original rotor Original
diameter generator
Vc Vr Vc Vr
Wind speed (m/s) Wind speed (m/s)
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.4. (a) Increasing rotor diameter gives the rate power at lower wind speed, (b)
increasing the generator size increases rate power.9
the power curve to continue upward to the new rated power. Basically, for the lower
speed winds, the generator rated power need not change, but for the high wind speed
area, increasing the rated power is a good strategy.9,15,16
1.2.8 Speed control for maximum power

It is known that the rotor efficiency Cp depends on the tip-speed ratio (TSR). Modern
wind turbines operate optimally when their TSR is in the range of around 4–6.15 In
order to get the maximum efficiency, turbine blades should change their speed as
the wind speed changes. There are different ways to control the rotor blades speed:
1.2.8.1 Pole-changing induction generators

In terms of the induction generator, the rotor spins at a frequency which is largely
controlled by the number of poles. If it is possible for us to change the number of
poles, we can make the wind turbine spin at different operating speeds. The stator
can have external connections that switch the number of poles from one value to
another without change in the rotor.
1.2.8.2 Variable slip induction generators

It is known that the speed of a normal induction generator is around 1% of the
synchronous speed. The slip in the generator is a function of the dc resistance in the
rotor conductors. If we add a variable resistance to the rotor, then the slip can range
up to about 10%.15
12 F. Yao et al.
1.3 Wind Turbine Design Considerations
A wind turbine consists of rotor, power train, control and safety system, nacelle
structure, tower and foundations, etc.; the wind turbine manufacturer must consider
many factors before selecting a final configuration for development.
First of all, the intended wind location environment is the most important aspect.
The turbines for high turbulent wind sites should have robust, smaller diameter
rotors. The International Electro-technical Commission (IEC) specified design cri-
teria, which are based on the design loads on the mean wind speed and the turbulence
level.
Secondly, minimizing cost is the next most important design criteria. In fact
electricity generated by wind is more expensive than the electrical power from fuel-
based generators. So cost is a very important factor that restrains the wind power
generation from diversifying. If the cost of wind energy could be reduced by an
additional 30% to 50%, then it could be globally competitive. In order to reduce
the cost of wind energy, the wind energy designers can increase the size of the
wind turbine, tailor the turbines for specific sites, explore new structural dynamic
concepts, develop custom generators and power electronics.16
1.3.1 Basic design philosophies

There are three wind turbine design principles for handing wind loads: (i) with-
standing the loads, (ii) shedding or avoiding loads and (iii) managing loads mechan-
ically and/or electrically.17 For the first design philosophy, the classic Danish
configuration was originally developed by Paul La Com in 1890. These kinds of
designs are reliability, high solidity but non-optimum blade pitch, low tip speed
ratio (TSR) and three or more blades. For the wind turbines based on the second
design philosophy, these turbines have design criteria such as optimization for per-
formance, low solidity, optimum blade pitch, high TSR, etc. In terms of the designs
based on the third philosophy, these wind turbines have design considerations like
optimization for control, two or three blades, moderate TSR, mechanical and elec-
trical innovations.
1.3.2 Choice between two and three blade rotors

Wind turbine blades are one of the most important components of a wind turbine
rotor. Nowadays, fiber glass rotor blades are very popular. Rotor moment of inertia
is the main difference between two and three blades. For the three bladed rotors mass
movement has polar symmetry, whereas the two bladed rotor mass movements do
not have the same, so the structural dynamic equations for the two bladed turbine
system are more complex and have periodic coefficients.17 In terms of the three
bladed systems, the equations have constant coefficients which make them easier
to solve. In conclusion, the three blade turbines are more expensive than the two
blades. However, three blades can provide lower noise and polar symmetry.
1.3.3 Weight and size considerations

Wind tower is the integral component of the wind system. In order to withstand the
thrust on the wind turbine, the wind tower must be strong enough. In addition, the
wind tower must also support the wind turbine weight. It is common to use the tall
wind towers because they can minimize the turbulence induced and allow more
flexibility in siting. The ability of a wind tower to withstand the forces from the
high wind is an important factor of a wind tower. The durability of the wind tower
depends on the rotor diameter of wind turbine and its mode of operation under such
conditions. In terms of the wind tower cost, the cost of operation and maintenance
(O&M) and the cost of major overhauls and repairs also needed to be considered.
1.4 Grid Connected Wind Farms
1.4.1 Wind farms

Nowadays, a single wind turbine is just used for any particular site, such as an
off-grid home in rural places or in off-shore areas. In a good windy site, normally
there will many wind turbines which are often called as a wind farm or a wind
park. The advantages of a wind farm are reduced site development costs, simplified
connections to transmission lines, and more centralized access for operation and
maintenance.
How many wind turbines can be installed at a wind site? If the wind turbines are
located too close, it will result in upwind turbine interfering with the wind received
by those located downwind. However, if the wind turbines are located too far, it
means that the site space is not properly utilized.
When the wind passes the turbine rotor, the energy will be extracted by the
rotor and the power which is available to the downwind machines will be reduced.
Recent studies show that the wind turbine performance will degrade when the wind
turbines are too close to each other. Figure 1.5 shows the optimum spacing of towers
is estimated to be 3–5 rotor diameters between wind turbines within a row and 5–9
diameters between rows.9,15
1.4.2 Problems related with grid connections

For wind power generation, there must be a reliable power grid/transmission network
near the site so that the wind generated power can be fed into the grid. Generally, the
14 F. Yao et al.
wind
3-5 diameters
5-9 diameters
Fig. 1.5. Optimum spacing of towers in wind farm.

wind turbine generates power at 400 V, which is stepped up to 11–110 kV, depending
upon the power capacity of the wind system. If the wind power capacity is up to
6 MW, the voltage level is stepped up to 11/22 kV; for a capacity of 6–10 MW, the
voltage level is increased up to 33 kV; and for capacity higher than 10 MW, it is
preferred to locate a 66 or 110 kV substation at the wind farm site.18 An unstable
wind power generation system may have the following problems:
1.4.2.1 Poor grid security and reliability

From economic point of view, the poor grid stability may cause 10–20% power
loss,18 and this deficiency may be the main reason for low actual energy output of
wind power generation.
In China, many wind farms are actually not connected to the power grid because
of the stability issues and difficulties in dispatching by the system operators. Major
wind power researches are being conducted in aspects of dispatch issues, and long
distance transmission issues.
In the Australian National Electricity Market (NEM), before the connection of
a wind farm to a power grid, the (wind) generation service provider must conduct
connectivity studies by itself and/or with the transmission network service provider
for which the wind farm is to be connected. The connectivity study needs to check
if the proposed wind generator can be hosted by the existing power grid in view
of stability as well as reliability aspects. Depending on the study results conducted
by the transmission network service provider, the cost associated and the suitability
of the connection point of the proposed wind farm will be given for the generation
company to make further decisions regarding its investment.
Table 1.2. Offshore wind farms in Europe.21
Country Project name Capacity Number of Wind turbine

(MW) turbines manufacturer
Denmark Horns Rev 1 160 80 Vestas

Denmark Nysted 165.6 72 Siemens
Denmark Horns Rev 2 209 91 Siemens
Netherlands Egmond Aan zee 108 38 Vestas
Netherlands Prinses Amaila 120 60 Vestas
Sweden Lillgund 110.4 48 Siemens

Gunfleet sands 1 and 2 Clacton-on Sear 104.4 29 Siemens
1.4.2.2 Low frequency operation

There is no doubt that the low frequency operation of the wind generation will affect
the output power. Normally, when the frequency is less than 48 Hz, many wind power
generations do not cut in. The power output loss could be around 5–10% on account
of low frequency operation.18
1.4.2.3 Impact of low power factor

A synchronous generator can supply both active and reactive power. However,
reactive power is needed by the wind power generation with induction generator
for the magnetization. However, in terms of a wind power generator with induction
generators, instead of supplying reactive power to the grid, they will absorb reactive
power from grid. As a result, a suitable reactive power compensation device is
required to supply the reactive power to wind generator/grid.19,20
1.4.3 Latest trend of wind power generation

In Europe, offshore projects are now springing up off the coasts of Denmark, Sweden,
UK, France, Germany, Belgium, Irelands, Netherlands, and Scotland. The total
offshore wind farm installed capacity in 2009 has reached 2055 MW. Table 1.2
shows operational offshore wind farms having installed of more than 100 MW in
Europe till 2009.21
1.5 Hybrid Power Systems
There are still many locations in different parts of the world that do not have electrical
connection to grid supply. A power system which can generate and supply power
to such areas is called a remote, decentralized, standalone, autonomous, isolated
16 F. Yao et al.
power system, etc. It is a common way to supply electricity to these loads by diesel
power plants. The diesel system is highly reliable which has been proved for many
years. The main problems of diesel systems are that the cost of fuel, transportation,
operation and maintenance are very high.
The cost of electricity can be reduced by integrating diesel systems with wind
power generation. This system has another advantage of reductions in size of diesel
engine and battery storage system, which can save the fuel and reduce pollution.
Such systems having a parallel operation of diesel with one or more renewable
energy based sources (wind, photovoltaic, micro hydro, biomass, etc.) to meet the
electric demand of an isolated area are called autonomous hybrid power systems.
Figure 1.6 shows a typical wind-diesel hybrid system with main components.22 A
hybrid system can have various options like wind-diesel, wind-diesel-photovoltaic,
wind-diesel-micro hydro, etc.

The operation system of a diesel engine is very important. Normally there are
two main modes of system operation which are running diesel engine either contin-
uously or intermittently. The continuous diesel system operation has the advantage
of technical simplicity and reliability. The main disadvantage of this approach is
low utilization of renewable energy sources (wind) and not very considerable fuel
savings. Basically, the minimum diesel loading should be 40% of the rated output,
and then minimum fuel consumption will be around 60% of that at full load.23 In
order to get large fuel savings, it is expected that the diesel engine runs only when
wind energy is lower than the demand. Nevertheless unless the load is significantly
DG SG
Consumer loads
Diesel generator set
Reactive
power
support
WT IG
Wind system
Control Dump loads

system Storage
system
Bus bar
Fig. 1.6. Schematic diagram of general isolated wind-diesel hybrid power system.
less than the energy supplied by the wind turbine, the diesel generator will not be
able to stay off for a long time. The start-stop can be reduced by using the energy
storage methods. To make the supply under these circumstances continuous, it is
required to add complexity in the architecture or control strategy.
As wind is highly fluctuating in nature, and it will affect the supply quality con-
siderably and may even damage the system in the absence of proper control mech-
anism. Main parameters to be controlled are the system frequency and voltage, which
determine the stability and quality of the supply. In a power system, frequency devi-
ations are mainly due to real power mismatch between the generation and demand,
whereas voltage mismatch is the sole indicator of reactive power unbalance in the
system. In the power system active power balance can be achieved by controlling
the generation, i.e., by controlling the fuel input to the diesel electric unit and this
method is called automatic generation control (AGC) or load frequency control

(LFC) or by scheduling or management of the output power. The function of the
load frequency controller is to generate, raise or lower command, depending upon
the disturbance, to the speed-gear changer of the diesel engine which in turn changes
the generation to match the load. Different methods of controlling the output power
of autonomous hybrid power systems are dump load control, priority load control,
battery storage, flywheel storage, pump storage, hydraulic/pneumatic accumulators,
super magnetic energy storage, etc.24
It is equally important to maintain the voltage within specified limits, which
is mainly related with the reactive power control of the system.9,10 In general, in
any hybrid system there will be an induction generator for the wind/hydro system.
An induction generator offers many advantages over a synchronous generator in
an autonomous hybrid power system. Reduced unit cost, ruggedness, brushless (in
squirrel cage construction), absence of separate DC source for excitation, ease of
maintenance, self-protection against severe overloads and short circuits, etc., are the
main advantages.25
However the major disadvantage of the induction generator is that it requires
reactive power for its operation. In the case of the grid-connected system, the
induction generator can get the reactive power from grid/capacitor banks, whereas
in the case of the isolated/autonomous system, reactive power can only be sup-
plied by capacitor banks. In addition, most of the loads are also inductive in nature,
therefore, the mismatch in generation and consumption of reactive power can cause
serious problem of large voltage fluctuations at generator terminals especially in an
isolated system. The terminal voltage of the system will sag if sufficient reactive
power is not provided, whereas surplus reactive power can cause high voltage
spikes in the system, which can damage the consumer’s equipment and affect the
supply quality. To take care of the reactive power/voltage control an appropriate
18 F. Yao et al.
reactive power compensating device is required.19,22,24 Another approach available

from ENERCON27 consists of a wind turbine based on an annular generator con-
nected to a diesel generator with energy storage to form a stand-alone power
system.
1.6 Economics of Wind Power Systems
There is no doubt that the purpose of all types of energy generation ultimately
depends on the scale of economics. Wind power generation costs have been falling
over recent years. It is estimated that wind power in many countries is already
competitive with fossil fuel and nuclear power if social/environmental costs are
considered.26
The installation cost of a wind system is the capital cost of a wind turbine (see
Fig. 1.7 for the normalized contribution of an individual sub-system towards total
capital cost of a wind turbine), land, tower, and its accessories, and it accounts for
less than any state or federal tax credits.
The installation cost of a wind system is the cost of wind turbine, land, tower,
and its accessories and it accounts for less than any state or federal tax credits.
The maintenance cost of the wind system is normally very small and annual mainte-
nance cost is about 2% of the total system cost. The cost of financing to purchase the
wind system is significant in the overall cost of wind system. Furthermore the extra
cost such as property tax, insurance of wind system and accidents caused from the
wind system. One of the main advantages of generating electricity from the wind
system is that the wind is free. The cost of the wind system just occurs once. On the
Fig. 1.7. Contribution of various sub-systems towards capital cost of wind turbine.
other hand, the cost of non-renewable energies is more and more expensive, which
is required for renewable energies such as wind power.
Nowadays, research and development make the wind power generation compet-
itive with other non-renewable fuels such as fossil fuel and nuclear power. Lots of
efforts have been done to reduce the cost of wind power by design improvement,
better manufacturing technology, finding new sites for wind systems, development
of better control strategies (output and power quality control), development of policy
and instruments, human resource development, etc.20
1.7 Conclusion
Wind power generation is very essential in today’s society development. Lots

of wind power technologies have been researched and numbers of wind farms
have been installed. The performance of wind energy conversion systems depends
on the subsystems such as wind turbine (aerodynamic), gears (mechanical), and
generator (electrical). In this chapter a number of wind power issues, such as power
in the wind, impact of tower height, maximum rotor efficiency, speed control for
maximum power, some of the design considerations in wind turbine design, wind
farms, latest trend of wind power generation from off shore sites, problems related
with grid connections and hybrid power systems have been discussed.
References
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conversion systems,” Energy Conversion and Management 43 (2002) 2175–2187.
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New York, 1991).
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New Jersey, 2004).
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20 F. Yao et al.
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Application (John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Ho, New Jersey, 2002).
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Int. J. Wind Energy 1 (1998) 5–24.
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and systems,” Int. J. Wind Energy 1 (1998) 70–85.
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conversion systems,” Interdisciplinary J. Institution on Engineers (India) 82 (2001) 25–28.

19. Z. Saad-Saund, M.L. Lisboa, J.B. Ekanayka, N. Jenkins and G. Strbac, “Application of
STATCOMs to wind farms,” IEE-Proc. Generation, Transmission and Distribution 145 (1998)
511–516.
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(2002) 77–87.
21. European Wind Energy Association, http://www.ewea.org.
22. R.C. Bansal and T.S. Bhatti, Small Signal Analysis of Isolated Hybrid Power Systems: Reactive
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December 29, 2010 11:12 9.75in x 6.

5in b1032-ch01 Handbook of Renewable Energy Technology

Wind Energy Resources: Theory, Design

School of Electrical, Electronic and Computer Engineering,

Zhao Yang Dong

Wind Energy Resources: Theory, Design and Applications 5

1.2 Power in the Wind

1.2.1 Aerodynamics principle of wind turbine

1.2.2 Power available in the wind

and V is velocity in m/s.

Wind Energy Resources: Theory, Design and Applications 7

1.2.3 Rotor efficiency

TSR = rotor tip speed/wind speed = (πdN)/60v,

(m/s) upwind of the turbine.

1.2.4 Factors affecting wind power

1.2.4.2 Load factor

1.2.4.3 Seasonal and diurnal variation of wind power

1.2.5 Impact of tower height

1.2.6 Wind turbine sitting

Table 1.1. Friction coefficient for various terrain characteristics.9

Terrain characteristics Friction coefficient α

Smooth hard ground, calm water 0.10

Wind Energy Resources: Theory, Design and Applications 9

1.2.7 Idealized wind turbine power curve

1.2.7.1 Cut-in wind speed

1.2.7.2 Rated wind speed

Rated power Shedding the wind

Cut in wind speed

Fig. 1.3. Idealized power curve.

In pitch-control system, an electronic system monitors the generator output

large wind turbines use this passive, stall-controlled approach.

1.2.7.3 Cut-out or furling wind speed

1.2.7.4 Optimizing rotor diameter and generator rated power

Wind Energy Resources: Theory, Design and Applications 11

1.2.8 Speed control for maximum power

1.2.8.1 Pole-changing induction generators

1.2.8.2 Variable slip induction generators

1.3 Wind Turbine Design Considerations

1.3.1 Basic design philosophies

1.3.2 Choice between two and three blade rotors

Wind Energy Resources: Theory, Design and Applications 13

1.3.3 Weight and size considerations

1.4 Grid Connected Wind Farms

1.4.1 Wind farms

1.4.2 Problems related with grid connections

Fig. 1.5. Optimum spacing of towers in wind farm.

1.4.2.1 Poor grid security and reliability

Wind Energy Resources: Theory, Design and Applications 15

Table 1.2. Offshore wind farms in Europe.21

Country Project name Capacity Number of Wind turbine

Denmark Horns Rev 1 160 80 Vestas

Sweden Lillgund 110.4 48 Siemens

1.4.2.2 Low frequency operation

1.4.2.3 Impact of low power factor

1.4.3 Latest trend of wind power generation

1.5 Hybrid Power Systems

wind-diesel-micro hydro, etc.

Control Dump loads