Chapter-1 Printed Circuit Board
Chapter-1 Printed Circuit Board
Chapter-1 Printed Circuit Board
1.1 INTRODUCTION
A printed circuit board, or PCB, is used to mechanically support and electrically connect
electronic components using conductive pathways, tracks or signal traces etched from copper
sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate. PCBs can be (one copper layer), double
sided (two copper layers) or multi-layer (outer and inner layers). Multi-layer PCBs allow for
much higher component density. Conductors on different layers are connected with plated-
through holes called vias. Advanced PCBs may contain components - capacitors, resistors or
active devices - embedded in the substrate. FR-4 glass epoxy is the primary insulating
substrate upon which the vast majority of rigid PCBs are produced. A thin layer of copper foil
is laminated to one or both sides of an FR-4 panel. Circuitry interconnections is etched into
copper layers to produce printed circuit boards. Complex circuits are produced in multiple
layers.
Printed circuit boards are used in all but the simplest electronic products. Alternatives to
PCBs include wire wrap and point-to-point construction. PCBs require the additional design
effort to lay out the circuit, but manufacturing and assembly can be automated.
Manufacturing circuits with PCBs is cheaper and faster than with other wiring methods as
components are mounted and wired with one single part. Furthermore, operator wiring errors
are eliminated. When the board has only copper tracks and features, and no circuit elements
such as capacitors, resistors or active devices have been manufactured into the actual
substrate of the board, it is more correctly referred to as printed wiring board (PWB) or
etched wiring board. Use of the term PWB or printed wiring board although more accurate
and distinct from what would be known as a true printed circuit board, has generally fallen by
the wayside for many people as the distinction between circuit and wiring has become
blurred. Today printed wiring (circuit) boards are used in virtually all but the simplest
commercially produced electronic devices, and allow fully automated assembly processes
that were not possible or practical in earlier era tag type circuit assembly processes. A PCB
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populated with electronic components is called a printed circuit assembly (PCA), printed
circuit board assembly or PCB Assembly (PCBA). In informal use the term "PCB" is used
both for bare and assembled boards, the context clarifying the meaning. The IPC preferred
term for populated boards is CCA, circuit card assembly. This does not apply to backplanes;
assembled backplanes are called backplane assemblies by the IPC.
Alternatives to PCBs include wire wrap and point-to-point construction. PCBs must initially
be designed and laid out, but become cheaper, faster to make, and potentially more reliable
for high-volume production since production and soldering of PCBs can be automated. Much
of the electronics industry's PCB design, assembly, and quality control needs are set by
standards published by the IPC organization
1.2 HISTORY
Development of the methods used in modern printed circuit boards started early in the 20th
century. In 1903, a German inventor, Albert Hanson, described flat foil conductors laminated
to an insulating board, in multiple layers. Thomas Edison experimented with chemical
methods of plating conductors onto linen paper in 1904. Arthur Berry in 1913 patented a
print-and-etch method in Britain, and in the United States Max Schoop obtained a patent to
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flame-spray metal onto a board through a patterned mask. Charles Durcase in 1927 patented
a method of electroplating circuit patterns.
The Austrian engineer Paul Eisler invented the printed circuit while working in England
around 1936 as part of a radio set. Around 1943 the USA began to use the technology on a
large scale to make proximity fuses for use in World War II. After the war, in 1948, the USA
released the invention for commercial use. Printed circuits did not become commonplace in
consumer electronics until the mid-1950s, after the Auto-Sembly process was developed by
the United States Army. Before printed circuits (and for a while after their invention), point-
to-point construction was used. For prototypes, or small production runs, wire wrap or turret
board can be more efficient. Predating the printed circuit invention, and similar in spirit, was
John Sargrove's 1936–1947 Electronic Circuit Making Equipment (ECME) which sprayed
metal onto a Bakelite plastic board. The ECME could produce 3 radios per minute.
During World War II, the development of the anti-aircraft proximity fuse required an
electronic circuit that could withstand being fired from a gun, and could be produced in
quantity. The Central lab Division of Globe Union submitted a proposal which met the
requirements: a ceramic plate would be screen printed with metallic paint for conductors and
carbon material for resistors, with ceramic disc capacitors and subminiature vacuum tubes
soldered in place. The technique proved viable, and the resulting patent on the process, which
was classified by the U.S. Army, was assigned to Globe Union. It was not until 1984 that the
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) awarded Mr. Harry W. Rubinstein,
the former head of Globe Union's Centralab Division, its coveted Cledo Brunetti Award for
early key contributions to the development of printed components and conductors on a
common insulating substrate. As well, Mr. Rubinstein was honored in 1984 by his alma
mater, the University of Wisconsin-Madison, for his innovations in the technology of printed
electronic circuits and the fabrication of capacitors.
Originally, every electronic component had wire leads, and the PCB had holes drilled for
each wire of each component. The components' leads were then passed through the holes and
soldered to the PCB trace. This method of assembly is called through-hole construction. In
1949, Moe Abramson and Stanislaus F. Danko of the United States Army Signal Corps
developed the AutoSembly process in which component leads were inserted into a copper foil
interconnection pattern and dip soldered. The patent they obtained in 1956 was assigned to
the U.S. Army. With the development of board lamination and etching techniques, this
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concept evolved into the standard printed circuit board fabrication process in use today.
Soldering could be done automatically by passing the board over a ripple, or wave, of molten
solder in a wave-soldering machine. However, the wires and holes are wasteful since drilling
holes is expensive and the protruding wires are merely cut off. From the 1980s small surface
mount parts have been used increasingly instead of through-hole components; this has led to
smaller boards for a given functionality and lower production costs, but with some additional
difficulty in servicing faulty boards.
2 2. PCB MANUFACTURING
In manufacturing process, the manufacturing steps are different for different printed circuit
board .like single side, double side, multisided PCB but the most common manufacturing
process is given below.
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Tab. 2.1.1 PCB Manufacturing Process Steps
STACKING&DRILLING
WET PROCESSING DPS
D/F LAMINATION
ACTIVITIES
MANITENANCE PLANT MAINTENCE
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Tab. 2.1.2 Process Sequences for Single, Double and Multi-layer PCB
FQC Etching
HASL
Legend Printing
V-grooving / routing
BBT
FQC
Stores
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CHAPTER-2
PCB MANUFACTURING
2.1 MATERIALS
Excluding exotic products using special materials or processes, all printed circuit boards
manufactured today can be built using the following four items which are usually purchased
from manufacturers:
1. Laminates
2. Copper-clad laminates
3. Resin impregnated B-stage cloth (Pre-preg)
4. Copper foil
2.2 LAMINATES
Laminates are manufactured by curing under pressure and temperature layers of cloth or
paper with thermoset resin to form an integral final piece of uniform thickness. The size can
be up to 4 by 8 feet (1.2 by 2.4 m) in width and length. Varying cloth weaves (threads per
inch or cm), cloth thickness, and resin percentage are used to achieve the desired final
thickness and dielectric characteristics.
Tab .2.1.3 Standard laminate thickness per ANSI/IPC-D-275
The purpose of Penalization is to secure PCB boards during manufacturing, shipping and
assembly processes while making their separation as painless as possible. A number of
identical circuits are printed on to a larger board (the panel) which can then be handled in the
normal way. The panel is broken apart into individual PCBs when all other processing is
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complete. Separating the individual PCBs is frequently aided by drilling or routing
perforations along the boundaries of the individual circuits, much like a sheet of postage
stamps. Another method, which takes less space, is to cut V-shaped grooves across the full
dimension of the panel. The individual PCBs can then be broken apart along this line of
weakness.
Panelization can be as simple as a rectangular board tab routed with a 100mil (0.100”) space
between PCB boards and a 500mil (0.50”) border on four edges. Or, it can be as complex as a
panel filled with combination jump v-score / routed rounded polygons.
Some guidelines for panelization are simple for example with routed panels:
1. If the PCB is rectangular and all sides have a length greater than 1.00”, add 100 mil
between PCBs and a 400 mil border along the outside.
2. If all sides do not have a length greater than 1.00”, add 300 mil between PCBs and a
400 mil border along the outside.
But:
1. If the PCB is not rectangular provide a 300 mil space between PCBs
For V-Scoring, use a 20mil space between the PCB board edge and copper pads or traces.
Additionally, provide a 300 mil wide frame on at least two opposing sides.
1. If a mounted component extends beyond the boundaries of the PCB board, the
border between PCBs needs to include the overhang distance. This ensures the
component is not damaged during de-panelization and doesn’t interfere with
neighbouring components on adjacent PCBs.
2. If a particularly heavy component is to be installed, extra material will be required
between PCB boards to ensure the mechanical strength of the panel.
It’s important the clearance between any metal and the edge of the PCB board is a minimum
of 5mil for routing and 20mil for v-scoring. Having the metal exposed during routing or v-
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scoring could lead to shorts after assembly and the jagged edges are unattractive. The size
and shape of the board will determine how many breakout tabs to use. Too few and the PCB
may not be mechanically stable enough for assembly. Too many and the de-penalization
process becomes onerous.
It is not uncommon to order a pair of boards as a set. So panelizing them together makes
sense. This is possible with some restrictions:
For those on a tight budget, we have seen designs panelized by the customer which use
drilled holes to separate the boards. To save on routing charges, they are willing to saw their
boards apart by hand as they need them. It comes down to how you value your own time and
how attractive you need your final product to look.
When panelizing for production quantities, we are often requested to provide panelization or
paste files. These outputs from the CAM process enable our customers to purchase solder
paste stencils secure in the knowledge they will have a perfect match.
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2.4 ETCHING
The majority of printed circuit boards today are made from purchased laminate material with
copper already applied to both sides. The unwanted copper is removed by various methods
leaving only the desired copper traces, this is called subtractive. In an additive method, traces
are electroplated onto a bare substrate using a complex process with many steps. The
advantage of the additive method is that less material is needed, and less waste is produced.
Double-sided boards or multi-layer boards use plated-through holes, called vias, to connect
traces on different layers of the PWB. The method chosen for PCB manufacture depends on
the desired number of boards to be produced.
Fig 2.2 the two processing methods used to produce a double-sided PCB with plated through
holes.
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2.5 CHEMICAL ETCHING
Chemical etching is usually done with ammonium persulfate or ferric chloride. For PTH
(platedthrough holes), additional steps of electroless deposition are done after the holes are
drilled, then copper is electroplated to build up the thickness, the boards are screened, and
plated with tin/lead. The tin/lead becomes the resist leaving the bare copper to be etched
away.
The simplest method, used for small-scale production and often by hobbyists, is immersion
etching, in which the board is submerged in etching solution such as ferric chloride.
Compared with methods used for mass production, the etching time is long. Heat and
agitation can be applied to the bath to speed the etching rate. In bubble etching, air is passed
through the etchant bath to agitate the solution and speed up etching. Splash etching uses a
motor-driven paddle to splash boards with etchant; the process has become commercially
obsolete since it is not as fast as spray etching. In spray etching, the etchant solution is
distributed over the boards by nozzles, and recirculated by pumps. Adjustment of the nozzle
pattern, flow rate, temperature, and etchant composition gives predictable control of etching
rates and high production rates. As more copper is consumed from the boards, the etchant
becomes saturated and less effective; different etchants have different capacities for copper,
with some as high as 150 grams of copper per litre of solution. In commercial use, etchants
can be regenerated to restore their activity, and the dissolved copper recovered and sold.
Small-scale etching requires attention to disposal of used etchant, which is corrosive and
toxic due to its metal content.
Fig 2.3 PCBs in process of having copper pattern plated, notice the blue dry film resist.
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The etchant removes copper on all surfaces exposed by the resist. "Undercut" occurs when
etchant attacks the thin edge of copper under the resist; this can reduce conductor widths and
cause open-circuits.
2.6 LAMINATION
"Multi-layer" printed circuit boards have trace layers inside the board. One way to make a 4-
layer PCB is to use a two-sided copper-clad laminate, etch the circuitry on both sides, then
laminate to the top and bottom pre preg and copper foil. Lamination is done by placing the
stack of materials in a press and applying pressure and heat for a period of time. This results
in an inseparable one piece product. It is then drilled, plated, and etched again to get traces on
top and bottom layers. Finally the PCB is covered with solder mask, marking legend, and a
surface finish may be applied. Multi-layer PCBs allow for much higher component density.
2.7 DRILLING
Holes through a PCB are typically drilled with small-diameter drill bits made of solid coated
tungsten carbide. Coated tungsten carbide is recommended since many board materials are
very abrasive and drilling must be high RPM and high feed to be cost effective. Drill bits
must also remain sharp so as not to mar or tear the traces. Drilling with high-speed-steel is
simply not copper.
The drill file describes the location and size of each drilled hole. These holes are often filled
with annular rings (hollow rivets) to create vias. Vias allow the electrical and thermal
connection of conductors on opposite sides of the PCB.When very small vias are required,
drilling with mechanical bits is costly because of high rates of wear and breakage. In this
case, the vias may be evaporated by lasers. Laser-drilled vias typically have an inferior
surface finish inside the hole. These holes are called micro vias.
The hole walls for boards with 2 or more layers can be made conductive and then
electroplated with copper to form plated-through holes. These holes electrically connect the
conducting layers of the PCB. Before the holes can be plated through, this smear must be
removed by a chemical de-smear process, or by plasma-etch. The de-smear process ensures
that a good connection is made to the copper layers when the hole is plated through. On high
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reliability boards a process called etchback is performed chemically with a potassium
permanganate based etchant or plasma.
CHAPTER-3
PCBs are plated with solder, tin, or gold over nickel as a resist for etching away the unneeded
underlying copper. After PCBs are etched and then rinsed with water, the soldermask is
applied, and then any exposed copper is coated with solder, nickel/gold, or some other anti-
corrosion coating.
Matte solder is usually fused to provide a better bonding surface or stripped to bare copper.
Treatments, such as benzimidazolethiol, prevent surface oxidation of bare copper. The places
to which components will be mounted are typically plated, because untreated bare copper
oxidizes quickly, and therefore is not readily solderable. Traditionally, any exposed copper
was coated with solder by hot air solder levelling (HASL). The HASL finish prevents
oxidation from the underlying copper, thereby guaranteeing a solderable surface. This solder
was a tin-lead alloy, however new solder compounds are now used to achieve compliance
with the RoHS directive in the EU and US, which restricts the use of lead. One of these lead-
free compounds is SN100CL, made up of 99.3% tin, 0.7% copper, 0.05% nickel, and a
nominal of 60ppm germanium.
It is important to use solder compatible with both the PCB and the parts used. An example is
Ball Grid Array (BGA) using tin-lead solder balls for connections losing their balls on bare
copper traces or using lead-free solder paste.
Other platings used are OSP (organic surface protectant), immersion silver (IAg), immersion
tin, electro less nickel with immersion gold coating (ENIG), and direct gold plating (over
nickel). Edge connectors, placed along one edge of some boards, are often nickel plated then
gold plated. Another coating consideration is rapid diffusion of coating metal into Tin solder.
Tin forms intermetallics such as Cu5Sn6 and Ag3Cu that dissolve into the Tin liquidus or
solidus (@50C), stripping surface coating or leaving voids.
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Electrochemical migration (ECM) is the growth of conductive metal filaments on or in a
printed circuit board (PCB) under the influence of a DC voltage bias. Silver, zinc, and
aluminum are known to grow whiskers under the influence of an electric field. Silver also
grows conducting surface paths in the presence of halide and other ions, making it a poor
choice for electronics use. Tin will grow "whiskers" due to tension in the plated surface. Tin-
Lead or Solder plating also grows whiskers, only reduced by the percentage Tin replaced.
Reflow to melt solder or tin plate to relieve surface stress lowers whisker incidence. Another
coating issue is tin pest, the transformation of tin to a powdery allotrope at low temperature.
After the printed circuit board (PCB) is completed, electronic components must be attached
to form a functional printed circuit assembly or PCA (sometimes called a "printed circuit
board assembly" PCBA). In through hole construction, component leads are inserted in holes.
In surface mount construction, the components are placed on pads or lands on the outer
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surfaces of the PCB. In both kinds of construction, component leads are electrically and
mechanically fixed to the board with a molten metal solder.
There are a variety of soldering techniques used to attach components to a PCB. High volume
production is usually done with SMT placement and bulk wave soldering or reflow ovens,
but skilled technicians are able to solder very tiny parts (for instance 0201 packages which
are 0.02 in. by 0.01 in. by hand under a microscope, using tweezers and a fine tip soldering
iron for small volume prototypes. Some parts may be extremely difficult to solder by hand,
such as BGA packages.
Another reason to use both methods is that through-hole mounting can provide needed
strength for components likely to endure physical stress, while components that are expected
to go untouched will take up less space using surface-mount techniques.
After the board has been populated it may be tested in a variety of ways:
1. While the power is off, visual inspection, automated optical inspection. JEDEC guidelines
for PCB component placement, soldering, and inspection are commonly used to maintain
quality control in this stage of PCB manufacturing.
3. While the power is on, in-circuit test, where physical measurements (for example, voltage)
can be done.
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4. While the power is on, functional test, just checking if the PCB does what it had been
designed to do.
To facilitate these tests, PCBs may be designed with extra pads to make temporary
connections. Sometimes these pads must be isolated with resistors. The in-circuit test may
also exercise boundary scan test features of some components. In-circuit test systems may
also be used to program nonvolatile memory components on the board.
PCBs intended for extreme environments often have a conformal coating, which is applied
by dipping or spraying after the components have been soldered. The coat prevents corrosion
and leakage currents or shorting due to condensation. The earliest conformal coats were wax;
modern conformal coats are usually dips of dilute solutions of silicone rubber, polyurethane,
acrylic, or epoxy. Another technique for applying a conformal coating is for plastic to be
sputtered onto the PCB in a vacuum chamber. The chief disadvantage of conformal coatings
is that servicing of the board is rendered extremely difficult.
Even bare boards are sometimes static sensitive. Traces have become so fine that it's quite
possible to blow an etch off the board (or change its characteristics) with a static charge. This
is especially true on non-traditional PCBs such as MCMs and microwave
PCB
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Fig 3.2 Antistatic bags for PCB
CHAPTER-4
DESIGN
Printed circuit board artwork generation was initially a fully manual process done on clear
mylar sheets at a scale of usually 2 or 4 times the desired size. The schematic diagram was
first converted into a layout of components pin pads, then traces were routed to provide the
required interconnections. Pre-printed non-reproducing mylar grids assisted in layout, and
rub-on dry transfers of common arrangements of circuit elements (pads, contact fingers,
integrated circuit profiles, and so on) helped standardize the layout. Traces between devices
were made with selfadhesive tape. The finished layout "artwork" was then photographically
reproduced on the resist layers of the blank coated copper-clad boards.
Fig 4.1 A board designed in 1967; the sweeping Curves in the traces are evidence of freehand
design using self-adhesive tape
Modern practice is less labor intensive since computers can automatically perform many of
the layout steps. The general progression for a commercial printed circuit board design would
include:-
1. Schematic capture through an Electronic design automation tool.
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2. Card dimensions and template are decided based on required circuitry and case of the
PCB. Determine the fixed components and heat sinks if required.
3. Deciding stack layers of the PCB. 1 to 12 layers or more depending on design complexity.
Ground plane and power plane are decided. Signal planes where signals are routed are in
top layer as well as internal layers.[31]
4. Line impedance determination using dielectric layer thickness, routing copper thickness
and trace-width. Trace separation also taken into account in case of differential signals.
Microstrip, stripline or dual stripline can be used to route signals.
5. Placement of the components. Thermal considerations and geometry are taken into
account. Vias and lands are marked.
6. 6.Routing the signal traces. For optimal EMI performance high frequency signals are
routed in internal layers between power or ground planes as power planes behave as
ground for AC.
7. Gerber file generation for manufacturing.
In the design of the PCB artwork, a power plane is the counterpart to the ground plane and
behaves as an AC signal ground, while providing DC voltage for powering circuits mounted
on the PCB. In electronic design automation (EDA) design tools, power planes (and ground
planes) are usually drawn automatically as a negative layer, with clearances or connections to
the plane created automatically.
4.1COPPERTHICKNESS
Copper thickness of PCBs can be specified in units of length, but is often specified as weight
of copper per square foot, in ounces, which is easier to measure. Each ounce of copper is
approximately 1.4 mils (0.0014 inch) or 35 μm of thickness.
The printed circuit board industry defines heavy copper as layers exceeding 3 ounces of
copper, or approximately 0.0042 inches (4.2 mils, 105 μm) thick. PCB designers and
fabricators often use heavy copper when design and manufacturing circuit boards in order to
increase currentcarrying capacity as well as resistance to thermal strains. Heavy copper
plated vias transfer heat to external heat sinks. IPC 2152 is a standard for determining
current-carrying capacity of printed circuit board traces
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4.2 CORDWOOD CONSTRUCTION
Cordwood construction can save significant space and was often used with wire-ended
components in applications where space was at a premium (such as missile guidance and
telemetry systems) and in high-speed computers, where short traces were important. In
"cordwood" construction, axial-leaded components were mounted between two parallel
planes. The components were either soldered together with jumper wire, or they were
connected to other components by thin nickel ribbon welded at right angles onto the
component leads. To avoid shorting together different interconnection layers, thin insulating
cards were placed between them. Perforations or holes in the cards allowed component leads
to project through to the next interconnection layer. One disadvantage of this system was that
special nickel-leaded components had to be used to allow the interconnecting welds to be
made. Additionally, components located in the interior are difficult to replace. Some versions
of cordwood construction used soldered single-sided PCBs as the interconnection method (as
pictured), allowing the use of normal-leaded components.
Before the advent of integrated circuits, this method allowed the highest possible component
packing density; because of this, it was used by a number of computer vendors including
Control Data Corporation. The cordwood method of construction was used only rarely once
semiconductor electronics and PCBs became widespread.
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4.3 MULTIWIRE BOARDS
Multiwire is a patented technique of interconnection which uses machine-routed insulated
wires embedded in a non-conducting matrix (often plastic resin). It was used during the
1980s and 1990s. (Kollmorgen Technologies Corp, U.S. Patent 4,175,816 filed 1978)
Multiwire is still available in 2010 through Hitachi. There are other competitive discrete
wiring technologies that have been developed (Jumatech, layered sheets).
Since it was quite easy to stack interconnections (wires) inside the embedding matrix, the
approach allowed designers to forget completely about the routing of wires (usually a
timeconsuming operation of PCB design): Anywhere the designer needs a connection; the
machine will draw a wire in straight line from one location/pin to another. This led to very
short design times (no complex algorithms to use even for high density designs) as well as
reduced crosstalk, though the cost is too high to compete with cheaper PCB technologies
when large quantities are needed.
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CHAPTER-5
5.1.1 HISTORY
Through-hole technology almost completely replaced earlier electronics assembly techniques
such as point-to-point construction. From the second generation of computers in the 1950s
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until surface-mount technology (SMT) became popular in the late 1980s, every component
on a typical PCB was a through-hole component. PCBs initially had tracks printed on one
side only, later both sides, then multi-layer boards were in use.
Through holes became plated-through holes (PTH) in order for the components to make
contact with the required conductive layers. Plated-through holes are no longer required with
SMT boards for making the component connections, but are still used for making
interconnections between the layers and in this role are more usually called vias.
5.1.2 CHARACTERISTICS
While through-hole mounting provides strong mechanical bonds when compared to SMT
techniques, the additional drilling required makes the boards more expensive to produce.
They also limit the available routing area for signal traces on layers immediately below the
top layer on multilayer boards since the holes must pass through all layers to the opposite
side. To that end, through-hole mounting techniques are now usually reserved for bulkier or
heavier components such as electrolytic capacitors or semiconductors in larger packages such
as the TO220that require the additional mounting strength, or for components such as plug
connectors or electromechanical relays that require great strength in support.
Design engineers often prefer the larger through-hole rather than surface mount parts when
prototyping, because they can be easily used with breadboard sockets. However, high-speed
or high-frequency designs may require SMT technology to minimize stray inductance and
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capacitance in wire leads, which would impair circuit function. Ultra-compact designs may
also dictate SMT construction, even in the prototype phase of design.
5.2.1 INTRODUCTION
Surface-mount technology emerged in the 1960s, gained momentum in the early 1980s and
became widely used by the mid-1990s. Components were mechanically redesigned to have
small metal tabs or end caps that could be soldered directly on to the PCB surface, instead of
wire leads to pass through holes. Components became much smaller and component
placement on both sides of the board became more common than with through-hole
mounting, allowing much smaller PCB assemblies with much higher circuit densities.
Surface mounting lends itself well to a high degree of automation, reducing labour costs and
greatly increasing production rates. Components can be supplied mounted on carrier tapes.
Surface mount components can be about one-quarter to one-tenth of the size and weight of
through-hole components, and passive components much cheaper; prices of semiconductor
surface mount devices (SMDs) are determined more by the chip itself than the package, with
little price advantage over larger packages. Some wire-ended components, such as 1N4148
small-signal switch diodes, are actually significantly cheaper than SMD equivalents.
5.2.2 HISTORY
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Surface mounting was originally called "planar mounting". Surface-mount technology was
developed in the 1960s and became widely used in the late 1980s. Much of the pioneering
work in this technology was by IBM. The design approach first demonstrated by IBM in
1960 in a small-scale computer was later applied in the Launch Vehicle Digital Computer
used in the Instrument Unit that guided all Saturn IB and Saturn V vehicles. Components
were mechanically redesigned to have small metal tabs or end caps that could be directly
soldered to the surface of the PCB. Components became much smaller and component
placement on both sides of a board became far more common with surface mounting than
through-hole mounting, allowing much higher circuit densities. Often only the solder joints
hold the parts to the board, in rare cases parts on the bottom or "second" side of the board
may be secured with a dot of adhesive to keep components from dropping off inside reflow
ovens if the part has a large size or weight.
5.2.3 TERMS
The boards are then conveyed into the reflow soldering oven. They first enter a pre-heat zone,
where the temperature of the board and all the components is gradually, uniformly raised.
The boards then enter a zone where the temperature is high enough to melt the solder
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particles in the solder paste, bonding the component leads to the pads on the circuit board.
The surface tension of the molten solder helps keep the components in place, and if the solder
pad geometries are correctly designed, surface tension automatically aligns the components
on their pads. There are a number of techniques for reflowing solder. One is to use infrared
lamps; this is called infrared reflow. Another is to use a hot gas convection. Another
technology which is becoming popular again is special fluorocarbon liquids with high boiling
points which use a method called vapor phase reflow. Due to environmental concerns, this
method was falling out of favor until lead-free legislation was introduced which requires
tighter controls on soldering. Currently, at the end of 2008, convection soldering is the most
popular reflow technology using either standard air or nitrogen gas. Each method has its
advantages and disadvantages. With infrared reflow, the board designer must lay the board
out so that short components don't fall into the shadows of tall components. Component
location is less restricted if the designer knows that vapor phase reflow or convection
soldering will be used in production. Following reflow soldering, certain irregular or heat-
sensitive components may be installed and soldered by hand, or in large-scale automation, by
focused infrared beam (FIB) or localized convection equipment.
If the circuit board is double-sided then this printing, placement, reflow process may be
repeated using either solder paste or glue to hold the components in place. If a wave
soldering process is used, then the parts must be glued to the board prior to processing to
prevent them from floating off when the solder paste holding them in place is melted.
After soldering, the boards may be washed to remove flux residues and any stray solder balls
that could short out closely spaced component leads. Rosin flux is removed with
fluorocarbon solvents, high flash point hydrocarbon solvents, or low flash solvents e.g.
limonene (derived from orange peels) which require extra rinsing or drying cycles. Water-
soluble fluxes are removed with deionized water and detergent, followed by an air blast to
quickly remove residual water. However, most electronic assemblies are made using a "No-
Clean" process where the flux residues are designed to be left on the circuit board [benign].
This saves the cost of cleaning, speeds up the manufacturing process, and reduces waste.
Certain manufacturing standards, such as those written by the IPC - Association Connecting
Electronics Industries require cleaning regardless of the solder flux type used to ensure a
thoroughly clean board. Even no-clean flux leaves a residue which, under IPC standards,
must be removed. Proper cleaning removes all traces of solder flux, as well as dirt and other
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contaminants that may be invisible to the naked eye. However, while shops conforming to
IPC standard are expected to adhere to the Association's rules on board condition, not all
manufacturing facilities apply IPC standard, nor are they required to do so. Additionally, in
some applications, such as low-end electronics, such stringent manufacturing methods are
excessive both in expense and time required.
Finally, the boards are visually inspected for missing or misaligned components and solder
bridging. If needed, they are sent to a rework station where a human operator repairs any
errors. They are then usually sent to the testing stations (in-circuit testing and/or functional
testing) to verify that they operate correctly.
5.2.5 ADVANTAGES
The main advantages of SMT over the older through-hole technique are:
1. Smaller components. As of 2012 smallest was 0.4 × 0.2 mm (0.016 × 0.008 in:
01005). Expected to sample in 2013 are 0.25 × 0.125 mm (0.010 × 0.005 in, size
not yet standardized)
2. Much higher component density (components per unit area) and many more
connections per component.
3. Lower initial cost and time of setting up for production.
5. Simpler and faster automated assembly. Some placement machines are capable of
placing more than 136,000 components per hour.
6. Small errors in component placement are corrected automatically as the surface
tension of molten solder pulls components into alignment with solder pads.
7. Components can be placed on both sides of the circuit board.
11. Better EMC performance (lower radiated emissions) due to the smaller radiation loop
area (because of the smaller package) and the smaller lead inductance.
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5.2.6 DISADVANTAGES
5.2.7 REWORK
Defective surface-mount components can be repaired by using soldering irons (for some
connections), or using a non-contact rework system. In most cases a rework system is the
better choice because SMD work with a soldering iron requires considerable skill and is not
always feasible. There are essentially two non-contact soldering/desoldering methods:
infrared soldering and soldering with hot gas.
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CHAPTER-6
SOLDERING
INTRODUCTION
Soldering is a process in which two or more metal items are joined together by melting and
flowing a filler metal (solder) into the joint, the filler metal having a lower melting point than
the work piece. Soldering differs from welding in that soldering does not involve melting the
work pieces. In brazing, the filler metal melts at a higher temperature, but the work piece
metal does not melt. Formerly nearly all solders contained lead, but environmental concerns
have increasingly dictated use of lead-free alloys for electronics and plumbing purposes.
6.1 HISTORY
There is evidence that soldering was employed as early as 5000 years ago in Mesopotamia.
Soldering and brazing are thought to have arisen very early in the history of metal-working,
probably before 4000 BC. Sumerian swords from ~3000 BC were assembled using hard
soldering.
6.2 APPLICATIONS
Soldering provides reasonably permanent but reversible connections between copper pipes in
plumbing systems as well as joints in sheet metal objects such as food cans, roof flashing,
rain gutters and automobile radiators.
Jewelry components, machine tools and some refrigeration and plumbing components are
often assembled and repaired by the higher temperature silver soldering process. Small
mechanical parts are often soldered or brazed as well. Soldering is also used to join lead
came and copper foil in stained glass work. It can also be used as a semi-permanent patch for
a leak in a container or cooking vessel.
Electronic soldering connects electrical wiring and electronic components to printed circuit
boards (PCBs).
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6.3 SOLDERING IRON
INTRODUCTION
A soldering iron is a hand tool used in soldering. It supplies heat to melt the solder so that it
can flow into the joint between two work pieces.
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6.4.2 CORDLESS IRON
Small irons heated by a battery, or by combustion of a gas such as butane in a small self-
contained tank, can be used when electricity is unavailable or cordless operation is required.
The operating temperature of these irons is not regulated directly; gas irons may change
power by adjusting gas flow. Gas-powered irons may have interchangeable tips including
different size soldering tips, hot knife for cutting plastics, miniature blow-torch with a hot
flame, and small hot air blower for such applications as shrinking heat shrink tubing.
A variety of means are used to control temperature. The simplest of these is a variable power
control, much like a light dimmer, which changes the equilibrium temperature of the iron
without automatically measuring or regulating the temperature. Another type of system uses a
thermostat, often inside the iron's tip, which automatically switches power on and off to the
element. A thermal sensor such as a thermocouple may be used in conjunction with circuitry
to monitor the temperature of the tip and adjust power delivered to the heating element to
maintain a desired temperature. Another approach is to use magnetized soldering tips which
lose their magnetic properties at a specific temperature, the Curie point. As long as the tip is
magnetic, it closes a switch to supply power to the heating element. When it exceeds the
design temperature it opens the contacts, cooling until the temperature drops enough to
restore magnetization. More complex Curie-point irons circulate a high-frequency AC current
through the tip, using magnetic physics to direct heating only where the surface of the tip
drops below the Curie point.
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6.5 CLEANING
When the iron tip oxidizes and burnt flux accumulates on it, solder no longer wets the tip,
impeding heat transfer and making soldering difficult or impossible; tips must be periodically
cleaned in use. Such problems happen with all kinds of solder, but are much more severe
with the lead-free solders which have become widespread in electronics work, which require
higher temperatures than solders containing lead. Exposed iron plating oxidizes; if the tip is
kept tinned with molten solder oxidation is inhibited. A clean unoxidised tip is tinned by
applying a little solder and flux.
A wetted small sponge, often supplied with soldering equipment, can be used to wipe the tip.
For lead-free solder a slightly more aggressive cleaning, with brass shavings, can be used.
Soldering flux will help to remove oxide; the more active the flux the better the cleaning,
although acidic flux used on circuit boards and not carefully cleaned off will cause corrosion.
A tip which is cleaned but not retinned is susceptible to oxidation, particularly if wet.
Soldering iron tips are made of copper plated with iron. Copper is very easily corroded,
eating away the tip, particularly in lead-free work; iron is not. Cleaning tips requires the
removal of oxide without damaging the iron plating and exposing the copper to rapid
corrosion. The use of solder already containing a small amount of copper can slow corrosion
of copper tips.
In cases of severe oxidation not removable by gentler methods, abrasion with something hard
enough to remove oxide but not so hard as to scratch the coating can be used. A brass wire
scourer, brush, or wheel on a bench grinder, can be used with care. Sandpaper and other tools
may be used but are likely to damage the plating.
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CHAPTER-7
SOLDER
INTRODUCTION
Soldering filler materials are available in many different alloys for differing applications. In
electronics assembly, the eutectic alloy of 63% tin and 37% lead (or 60/40, which is almost
identical in melting point) has been the alloy of choice. Other alloys are used for plumbing,
mechanical assembly, and other applications. Some examples of soft-solder are tin-lead for
general purposes, tin-zinc for joining aluminum, lead-silver for strength at higher than room
temperature, cadmium-silver for strength at high temperatures, zinc-aluminum for aluminum
and corrosion resistance, and tin-silver and tin-bismuth for electronics.
A eutectic formulation has advantages when applied to soldering: the liquidus and solidus
temperatures are the same, so there is no plastic phase, and it has the lowest possible melting
point. Having the lowest possible melting point minimizes heat stress on electronic
components during soldering. And, having no plastic phase allows for quicker wetting as the
solder heats up, and quicker setup as the solder cools. A non-eutectic formulation must
remain still as the temperature drops through the liquidus and solidus temperatures. Any
movement during the plastic phase may result in cracks, resulting in an unreliable joint.
Common solder formulations based on tin and lead are listed below. The fraction represents
percentage of tin first, then lead, totaling 100%:
1. 63/37: melts at 183 °C (361 °F) (eutectic: the only mixture that melts at a point, instead of
over a range)
For environmental reasons (and the introduction of regulations such as the European ROHS
(Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive)), lead-free solders are becoming more
34
widely used. They are also suggested anywhere young children may come into contact with
(since young children are likely to place things into their mouths), or for outdoor use where
rain and other precipitation may wash the lead into the groundwater. Unfortunately, most
lead-free solders are not eutectic formulations, melting at around 250 °C (482 °F), making it
more difficult to create reliable joints with them.
7.1 FLUX
The purpose of flux is to facilitate the soldering process. One of the obstacles to a successful
solder joint is an impurity at the site of the joint, for example, dirt, oil or oxidation. The
impurities can be removed by mechanical cleaning or by chemical means, but the elevated
temperatures required to melt the filler metal (the solder) encourages the work piece (and the
solder) to re-oxidize. This effect is accelerated as the soldering temperatures increase and can
completely prevent the solder from joining to the workpiece. One of the earliest forms of flux
was charcoal, which acts as a reducing agent and helps prevent oxidation during the soldering
process. Some fluxes go beyond the simple prevention of oxidation and also provide some
form of chemical cleaning (corrosion).
For many years, the most common type of flux used in electronics (soft soldering) was
rosinbased, using the rosin from selected pine trees. It was ideal in that it was non-corrosive
and nonconductive at normal temperatures but became mildly reactive (corrosive) at the
elevated soldering temperatures. Plumbing and automotive applications, among others,
typically use an acid-based (muriatic acid) flux which provides cleaning of the joint. These
fluxes cannot be used in electronics because they are conductive and because they will
eventually dissolve the small diameter wires. Many fluxes also act as a wetting agent in the
35
soldering process, reducing the surface tension of the molten solder and causing it to flow
and wet the workpieces more easily.
Fluxes for soft solder are currently available in three basic formulations:
1. Water-soluble fluxes - higher activity fluxes designed to be removed with water after
soldering (no VOCs required for removal).
2. No-clean fluxes - mild enough to not "require" removal due to their non-conductive and
noncorrosive residue. These fluxes are called "no-clean" because the residue left after the
solder operation is non-conductive and won't cause electrical shorts; nevertheless they leave a
plainly visible white residue that resembles diluted bird-droppings. No-clean flux residue is
acceptable on all 3 classes of PCBs as defined by IPC-610 provided it does not inhibit visual
inspection, access to test points, or have a wet, tacky or excessive residue that may spread
onto other areas. Connector mating surfaces must also be free of flux residue. Finger prints in
no clean residue is a class 3 defect.
3. Traditional rosin fluxes - available in non-activated (R), mildly activated (RMA) and
activated (RA) formulations. RA and RMA fluxes contain rosin combined with an activating
agent, typically an acid, which increases the wettability of metals to which it is applied by
removing existing oxides. The residue resulting from the use of RA flux is corrosive and
must be cleaned. RMA flux is formulated to result in a residue which is not significantly
corrosive, with cleaning being preferred but optional.
Flux performance needs to be carefully evaluated; a very mild 'no-clean' flux might be
perfectly acceptable for production equipment, but not give adequate performance for a
poorly controlled hand-soldering operation.
7.2 PROCESSES
There are three forms of soldering, each requiring progressively higher temperatures and
producing an increasingly stronger joint strength:
1. Soft soldering, which originally used a tin-lead alloy as the filler metal, 2. Silver
soldering, which uses an alloy containing silver,
3. Brazing which uses a brass alloy for the filler.
36
The alloy of the filler metal for each type of soldering can be adjusted to modify the melting
temperature of the filler. Soldering differs from gluing significantly in that the filler metals
alloy with the work piece at the junction to form a gas- and liquid-tight bond.
Soft soldering is characterized by having a melting point of the filler metal below
approximately 400 °C (752 °F), whereas silver soldering and brazing use higher
temperatures, typically requiring a flame or carbon arc torch to achieve the melting of the
filler. Soft solder filler metals are typically alloys (often containing lead) that have liquidus
temperatures below 350°C.
In this soldering process, heat is applied to the parts to be joined, causing the solder to melt
and to bond to the work pieces in an alloying process called wetting. In stranded wire, the
solder is drawn up into the wire by capillary action in a process called 'wicking'. Capillary
action also takes place when the work pieces are very close together or touching. The joint's
tensile strength is dependent on the filler metal used. Soldering produces electrically-
conductive, water- and gastight joints.
Each type of solder offers advantages and disadvantages. Soft solder is so called because of
the soft lead that is its primary ingredient. Soft soldering uses the lowest temperatures but
does not make a strong joint and is unsuitable for mechanical load-bearing applications. It is
also unsuitable for high-temperature applications as it softens and melts. Silver soldering, as
used by jewelers, machinists and in some plumbing applications, requires the use of a torch
or other hightemperature source, and is much stronger than soft soldering. Brazing provides
the strongest joint but also requires the hottest temperatures to melt the filler metal, requiring
a torch or other high temperature source and darkened goggles to protect the eyes from the
bright light produced by the white-hot work. It is often used to repair cast-iron objects,
wrought-iron furniture, etc.
Soldering operations can be performed with hand tools, one joint at a time, or en masse on a
production line. Hand soldering is typically performed with a soldering iron, soldering gun,
or a torch, or occasionally a hot-air pencil. Sheet metal work was traditionally done with
"soldering coppers" directly heated by a flame, with sufficient stored heat in the mass of the
soldering copper to complete a joint; torches or electrically-heated soldering irons are more
convenient. All soldered joints require the same elements of cleaning of the metal parts to be
joined, fitting up the joint, heating the parts, applying flux, applying the filler, removing heat
37
and holding the assembly still until the filler metal has completely solidified. Depending on
the nature of flux material used, cleaning of the joints may be required after they have
cooled.
Each alloy has characteristics that work best for certain applications, notably strength and
conductivity, and each type of solder and alloy has different melting temperatures. The term
silver solder likewise denotes the type of solder that is used. Some soft solders are
"silverbearing" alloys used to solder silver-plated items. Lead-based solders should not be
used on precious metals because the lead dissolves the metal and disfigures it
Different equipment is usually required since a soldering iron cannot achieve high enough
temperatures for hard soldering or brazing. Brazing filler metal is stronger than silver solder,
which is stronger than lead-based soft solder. Brazing solders are formulated primarily for
strength, silver solder is used by jewelers to protect the precious metal and by machinists and
refrigeration technicians for its tensile strength but lower melting temperature than brazing,
and the primary benefit of soft solder is the low temperature used (to prevent heat damage to
electronic components and insulation).
Since the joint is produced using a metal with a lower melting temperature than the work
piece, the joint will weaken as the ambient temperature approaches the melting point of the
38
filler metal. For that reason, the higher temperature processes produce joints which are
effective at higher temperatures. Brazed connections can be as strong or nearly as strong as
the parts they connect, even at elevated temperatures.
Silver solder is absorbed by the surrounding metal, resulting in a joint that is actually stronger
than the metal being joined. The metal being joined must be perfectly flush, as silver solder
cannot normally be used as a filler and any gaps will remain.
Fig.7.2 Solder
Another difference between brazing and soldering is how the solder is applied. In brazing,
one generally uses rods that are touched to the joint while being heated. With silver soldering,
small pieces of solder wire are placed onto the metal prior to heating. A flux, often made of
boric acid and denatured alcohol, is used to keep the metal and solder clean and to prevent the
solder from moving before it melts.
When silver solder melts, it tends to flow towards the area of greatest heat. Jewelers can
somewhat control the direction the solder moves by leading it with a torch; it will even run
straight up along a seam.
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7.5 INDUCTION SOLDERING
Induction soldering uses induction heating by high-frequency AC current in a surrounding
copper coil. This induces currents in the part being soldered, which generates heat because of
the higher resistance of a joint versus its surrounding metal (resistive heating). These copper
coils can be shaped to fit the joint more precisely. A filler metal (solder) is placed between
the facing surfaces, and this solder melts at a fairly low temperature. Fluxes are commonly
used in induction soldering. This technique is particularly suited to continuously soldering, in
which case these coils wrap around a cylinder or a pipe that needs to be soldered.
Some metals are easier to solder than others. Copper, silver, and gold are easy. Iron, mild
steel and nickel are next in difficulty. Because of their thin, strong oxide films, stainless steel
and aluminum are even more difficult to solder. Titanium, magnesium, cast irons, some high-
carbon steels, ceramics, and graphite can be soldered but it involves a process similar to
joining carbides: they are first plated with a suitable metallic element that induces interfacial
bonding.
7.6 DESOLDERING
Used solder contains some of the dissolved base metals and is unsuitable for reuse in making
new joints. Once the solder's capacity for the base metal has been achieved it will no longer
properly bond with the base metal, usually resulting in a brittle cold solder joint with a
crystalline appearance.
The lower melting point of solder means it can be melted away from the base metal, leaving
it mostly intact, though the outer layer will be "tinned" with solder. Flux will remain which
can easily be removed by abrasive or chemical processes. This tinned layer will allow solder
to flow into a new joint, resulting in a new joint, as well as making the new solder flow very
quickly and easily.
40
In the joining of copper tube, failure to properly heat and fill a joint may lead to a 'void' being
formed. This is usually a result of improper placement of the flame. If the heat of the flame is
not directed at the back of the fitting cup, and the solder wire applied 180 degrees opposite
the flame, then solder will quickly fill the opening of the fitting, trapping some flux inside the
joint. This bubble of trapped flux is the void; an area inside a soldered joint where solder is
unable to completely fill the fittings' cup, because flux has become sealed inside the joint,
preventing solder from occupying that space.The most common defect when hand-soldering
results from the parts being joined not exceeding the solder's liquidus temperature, resulting
in a "cold solder" joint. This is usually the result of the soldering iron being used to heat the
solder directly, rather than the parts themselves. Properly done, the iron heats the parts to be
connected, which in turn melt the solder, guaranteeing adequate heat in the joined parts for
thorough wetting. In electronic hand soldering the flux is embedded in the solder. Therefore
heating the solder first may cause the flux to evaporate before it cleans the surfaces being
soldered. A cold-soldered joint may not conduct at all, or may conduct only intermittently.
Cold-soldered joints also happen in mass production, and are a common cause of equipment
which passes testing, but malfunctions after sometimes years of operation. A "dry joint"
occurs when the cooling solder is moved, and often occurs because the joint moves when the
soldering iron is removed from the joint.
An improperly selected or applied flux can cause joint failure. If not properly cleaned, a flux
may corrode the joint and cause eventual joint failure. Without flux the joint may not be
clean, or may be oxidized, resulting in an unsound joint.
In electronics non-corrosive fluxes are often used. Therefore cleaning flux off may merely be
a matter of aesthetics or to make visual inspection of joints easier in specialized 'mission
critical' applications such as medical devices, military and aerospace. For satellites also to
reduce weight slightly but usefully. In high humidity, even non-corrosive flux might remain
slightly active, therefore the flux may be removed to reduce corrosion over time. In some
applications, the PCB might also be coated in some form of protective material such as a
lacquer to protect it and exposed solder joints from the environment.
Movement of metals being soldered before the solder has cooled will cause a highly
unreliable cracked joint. In electronics' soldering terminology this is known as a 'dry' joint. It
has a characteristically dull or grainy appearance immediately after the joint is made, rather
41
than being smooth, bright and shiny. This appearance is caused by crystallization of the liquid
solder. A dry joint is weak mechanically and a poor conductor electrically.
In general a good looking soldered joint is a good joint. As mentioned it should be smooth,
bright and shiny. If the joint has lumps or balls of otherwise shiny solder the metal has not
'wetted' properly. Not being bright and shiny suggests a weak 'dry' joint. However,
technicians trying to apply this guideline when using lead-free solder formulations may
experience frustration, because these types of solders readily cool to a dull surface even if the
joint is good. The solder looks shiny while molten, and suddenly hazes over as it solidifies
even though it has not been disturbed during cooling.
In electronics a 'concave' fillet is ideal. This indicates good wetting and minimal use of solder
(therefore minimal heating of heat sensitive components). A joint may be good, but if a large
amount of unnecessary solder is used then more heating is obviously required. Excessive
heating of a PCB may result in 'delamination', the copper track may actually lift off the
board, particularly on single sided PCBs without through hole plating.
Project report
18w T8 non isolated buck led driver demo board based on SIC9753 (DIP-7)
Content:
1. Specification
2. Schematic
3. PCB layout
4. Performance
Specification
Schematic :
PCB Layout:
Top Layer
Bottom Layer
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https://www.bing.com/images/search?q=soldering+wiki&FORM=HDRSC2
http://www.scribd.com/doc/100005324/Report-on-Instrumentation-Limited
http://seminarprojects.com/Thread-instrumentation-limited-kota-raj
http://www.eiconnect.com/pcbprocessflow.aspx#top
http://www.technologystudent.com/pcb/pcbflow2.htm
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