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Electric Arc Furnace Steelmaking

By Jeremy A. T. Jones, Nupro Corporation

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Courtesy of Mannesmann Demag Corp.

FURNACE OPERATIONS

The electric arc furnace operates as a batch melting process producing batches of molten steel known "heats". The electric arc
furnace operating cycle is called the tap-to-tap cycle and is made up of the following operations:

Furnace charging
Melting
Refining
De-slagging
Tapping
Furnace turn-around

Modern operations aim for a tap-to-tap time of less than 60 minutes. Some twin shell furnace operations are achieving
tap-to-tap times of 35 to 40 minutes.

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Furnace Charging

The first step in the production of any heat is to select the grade of steel to be made. Usually a schedule is developed prior to
each production shift. Thus the melter will know in advance the schedule for his shift. The scrap yard operator will prepare
buckets of scrap according to the needs of the melter. Preparation of the charge bucket is an important operation, not only to
ensure proper melt-in chemistry but also to ensure good melting conditions. The scrap must be layered in the bucket
according to size and density to promote the rapid formation of a liquid pool of steel in the hearth while providing protection
for the sidewalls and roof from electric arc radiation. Other considerations include minimization of scrap cave-ins which can
break electrodes and ensuring that large heavy pieces of scrap do not lie directly in front of burner ports which would result in
blow-back of the flame onto the water cooled panels. The charge can include lime and carbon or these can be injected into the
furnace during the heat. Many operations add some lime and carbon in the scrap bucket and supplement this with injection.

The first step in any tap-to-tap cycle is "charging" into the scrap. The roof and electrodes are raised and are swung to the side
of the furnace to allow the scrap charging crane to move a full bucket of scrap into place over the furnace. The bucket bottom
is usually a clam shell design - i.e. the bucket opens up by retracting two segments on the bottom of the bucket. The scrap
falls into the furnace and the scrap crane removes the scrap bucket. The roof and electrodes swing back into place over the
furnace. The roof is lowered and then the electrodes are lowered to strike an arc on the scrap. This commences the melting
portion of the cycle. The number of charge buckets of scrap required to produce a heat of steel is dependent primarily on the
volume of the furnace and the scrap density. Most modern furnaces are designed to operate with a minimum of back-charges.
This is advantageous because charging is a dead-time where the furnace does not have power on and therefore is not melting.
Minimizing these dead-times helps to maximize the productivity of the furnace. In addition, energy is lost every time the
furnace roof is opened. This can amount to 10 - 20 kWh/ton for each occurrence. Most operations aim for 2 to 3 buckets of
scrap per heat and will attempt to blend their scrap to meet this requirement. Some operations achieve a single bucket
charge. Continuous charging operations such as CONSTEEL and the Fuchs Shaft Furnace eliminate the charging cycle.

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Melting

The melting period is the heart of EAF operations. The EAF has evolved into a highly efficient melting apparatus and modern
designs are focused on maximizing the melting capacity of the EAF. Melting is accomplished by supplying energy to the
furnace interior. This energy can be electrical or chemical. Electrical energy is supplied via the graphite electrodes and is
usually the largest contributor in melting operations. Initially, an intermediate voltage tap is selected until the electrodes bore
into the scrap. Usually, light scrap is placed on top of the charge to accelerate bore-in. Approximately 15 % of the scrap is
melted during the initial bore-in period. After a few minutes, the electrodes will have penetrated the scrap sufficiently so that
a long arc (high voltage) tap can be used without fear of radiation damage to the roof. The long arc maximizes the transfer of
power to the scrap and a liquid pool of metal will form in the furnace hearth At the start of melting the arc is erratic and
unstable. Wide swings in current are observed accompanied by rapid movement of the electrodes. As the furnace atmosphere
heats up the arc stabilizes and once the molten pool is formed, the arc becomes quite stable and the average power input
increases.

Chemical energy is be supplied via several sources including oxy-fuel burners and oxygen lances. Oxy-fuel burners burn
natural gas using oxygen or a blend of oxygen and air. Heat is transferred to the scrap by flame radiation and convection by
the hot products of combustion. Heat is transferred within the scrap by conduction. Large pieces of scrap take longer to melt
into the bath than smaller pieces. In some operations, oxygen is injected via a consumable pipe lance to "cut" the scrap. The
oxygen reacts with the hot scrap and burns iron to produce intense heat for cutting the scrap. Once a molten pool of steel is
generated in the furnace, oxygen can be lanced directly into the bath. This oxygen will react with several components in the
bath including, aluminum, silicon, manganese, phosphorus, carbon and iron. All of these reactions are exothermic (i.e. they
generate heat) and supply additional energy to aid in the melting of the scrap. The metallic oxides that are formed will end up
in the slag. The reaction of oxygen with carbon in the bath produces carbon monoxide, which either burns in the furnace if
there is sufficient oxygen, and/or is exhausted through the direct evacuation system where it is burned and conveyed to the
pollution control system. Auxiliary fuel operations are discussed in more detail in the section on EAF operations.

Once enough scrap has been melted to accommodate the second charge, the charging process is repeated. Once the final
scrap charge is melted, the furnace sidewalls are exposed to intense radiation from the arc. As a result, the voltage must be
reduced. Alternatively, creation of a foamy slag will allow the arc to be buried and will protect the furnace shell. In addition, a
greater amount of energy will be retained in the slag and is transferred to the bath resulting in greater energy efficiency.

Once the final scrap charge is fully melted, flat bath conditions are reached. At this point, a bath temperature and sample will
be taken. The analysis of the bath chemistry will allow the melter to determine the amount of oxygen to be blown during
refining. At this point, the melter can also start to arrange for the bulk tap alloy additions to be made. These quantities are
finalized after the refining period.

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Copyright 2008, American Iron and Steel Institute

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Home Steelworks Home

Electric Arc Furnace Steelmaking

By Jeremy A. T. Jones, Nupro Corporation
continued

Furnace charging
Melting
Refining
De-slagging
Tapping
Furnace turn-around

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Refining

Refining operations in the electric arc furnace have traditionally involved the removal of phosphorus, sulfur, aluminum, silicon,
manganese and carbon from the steel. In recent times, dissolved gases, especially hydrogen and nitrogen, been recognized as
a concern. Traditionally, refining operations were carried out following meltdown i.e. once a flat bath was achieved. These
refining reactions are all dependent on the availability of oxygen. Oxygen was lanced at the end of meltdown to lower the bath
carbon content to the desired level for tapping. Most of the compounds which are to be removed during refining have a higher
affinity for oxygen that the carbon. Thus the oxygen will preferentially react with these elements to form oxides which float out
of the steel and into the slag.

In modern EAF operations, especially those operating with a "hot heel" of molten steel and slag retained from the prior heat,
oxygen may be blown into the bath throughout most of the heat. As a result, some of the melting and refining operations
occur simultaneously.

Phosphorus and sulfur occur normally in the furnace charge in higher concentrations than are generally permitted in steel and
must be removed. Unfortunately the conditions favorable for removing phosphorus are the opposite of those promoting the
removal of sulfur. Therefore once these materials are pushed into the slag phase they may revert back into the steel.
Phosphorus retention in the slag is a function of the bath temperature, the slag basicity and FeO levels in the slag. At higher
SIGN UP to receive AISI's temperature or low FeO levels, the phosphorus will revert from the slag back into the bath. Phosphorus removal is usually
FREE e-news! Read the carried out as early as possible in the heat. Hot heel practice is very beneficial for phosphorus removal because oxygen can be
latest. lanced into the bath while its temperature is quite low. Early in the heat the slag will contain high FeO levels carried over from
Email: the previous heat thus aiding in phosphorus removal. High slag basicity (i.e. high lime content) is also beneficial for
phosphorus removal but care must be taken not to saturate the slag with lime. This will lead to an increase in slag viscosity,
Name:
which will make the slag less effective. Sometimes fluorspar is added to help fluidize the slag. Stirring the bath with inert gas
Join is also beneficial because it renews the slag/metal interface thus improving the reaction kinetics.

In general, if low phosphorus levels are a requirement for a particular steel grade, the scrap is selected to give a low level at
melt-in. The partition of phosphorus in the slag to phosphorus in the bath ranges from 5 to 15. Usually the phosphorus is
reduced by 20 to 50 % in the EAF.

Sulfur is removed mainly as a sulfide dissolved in the slag. The sulfur partition between the slag and metal is dependent on
slag chemistry and is favored at low steel oxidation levels. Removal of sulfur in the EAF is difficult especially given modern
practices where the oxidation level of the bath is quite high. Generally the partition ratio is between 3 and 5 for EAF
operations. Most operations find it more effective to carry out desulfurization during the reducing phase of steelmaking. This
means that desulfurization is performed during tapping (where a calcium aluminate slag is built) and during ladle furnace
operations. For reducing conditions where the bath has a much lower oxygen activity, distribution ratios for sulfur of between
20 and 100 can be achieved.

Control of the metallic constituents in the bath is important as it determines the properties of the final product. Usually, the
melter will aim at lower levels in the bath than are specified for the final product. Oxygen reacts with aluminum, silicon and
manganese to form metallic oxides, which are slag components. These metallics tend to react with oxygen before the carbon.
They will also react with FeO resulting in a recovery of iron units to the bath. For example:
Mn + FeO = MnO + Fe

Manganese will typically be lowered to about 0.06 % in the bath.

The reaction of carbon with oxygen in the bath to produce CO is important as it supplies a less expensive form of energy to the
bath, and performs several important refining reactions. In modern EAF operations, the combination of oxygen with carbon can
supply between 30 and 40 % of the net heat input to the furnace. Evolution of carbon monoxide is very important for slag
foaming. Coupled with a basic slag, CO bubbles are tapped in the slag causing it to "foam" and helping to bury the arc. This
gives greatly improved thermal efficiency and allows the furnace to operate at high arc voltages even after a flat bath has been
achieved. Burying the arc also helps to prevent nitrogen from being exposed to the arc where it can dissociate and enter into
the steel.

If the CO is evolved within the steel bath, it helps to strip nitrogen and hydrogen from the steel. Nitrogen levels in steel as low
as 50 ppm can be achieved in the furnace prior to tap. Bottom tapping is beneficial for maintaining low nitrogen levels because
tapping is fast and a tight tap stream is maintained. A high oxygen potential in the steel is beneficial for low nitrogen levels
and the heat should be tapped open as opposed to blocking the heat.

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At 1600 C, the maximum solubility of nitrogen in pure iron is 450 ppm. Typically, the nitrogen levels in the steel following
tapping are 80 - 100 ppm.

Decarburization is also beneficial for the removal of hydrogen. It has been demonstarted that decarburizing at a rate of 1 %
per hour can lower hydrogen levels in the steel from 8 ppm down to 2 ppm in 10 minutes.

At the end of refining, a bath temperature measurement and a bath sample are taken. If the temperature is too low, power
may be applied to the bath. This is not a big concern in modern meltshops where temperature adjustment is carried out in the
ladle furnace.

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De-Slagging

De-slagging operations are carried out to remove impurities from the furnace. During melting and refining operations, some of
the undesirable materials within the bath are oxidized and enter the slag phase.

It is advantageous to remove as much phosphorus into the slag as early in the heat as possible (i.e. while the bath
temperature is still low). The furnace is tilted backwards and slag is poured out of the furnace through the slag door. Removal
of the slag eliminates the possibility of phosphorus reversion.

During slag foaming operations, carbon may be injected into the slag where it will reduce FeO to metallic iron and in the
process produce carbon monoxide which helps foam the slag. If the high phosphorus slag has not been removed prior to this
operation, phosphorus reversion will occur. During slag foaming, slag may overflow the sill level in the EAF and flow out of the
slag door.

The following table shows the typical constituents of an EAF slag :

Component Source Composition Range

CaO Charged 40 - 60 %

SiO2 Oxidation product 5 - 15 %

FeO Oxidation product 10 - 30 %

MgO Charged as dolomite 3-8%

CaF2 Charged - slag fluidizer

MnO Oxidation product 2 - 5%

S Absorbed from steel

P Oxidation product

Tapping

Once the desired steel composition and temperature are achieved in the furnace, the tap-hole is opened, the furnace is tilted,
and the steel pours into a ladle for transfer to the next batch operation (usually a ladle furnace or ladle station). During the
tapping process bulk alloy additions are made based on the bath analysis and the desired steel grade. De-oxidizers may be
added to the steel to lower the oxygen content prior to further processing. This is commonly referred to as "blocking the heat"
or "killing the steel". Common de-oxidizers are aluminum or silicon in the form of ferrosilicon or silicomanganese. Most carbon
steel operations aim for minimal slag carry-over. A new slag cover is "built" during tapping. For ladle furnace operations, a
calcium aluminate slag is a good choice for sulfur control. Slag forming compounds are added in the ladle at tap so that a slag
cover is formed prior to transfer to the ladle furnace. Additional slag materials may be added at the ladle furnace if the slag
cover is insufficient.

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Furnace Turn-around

Furnace turn-around is the period following completion of tapping until the furnace is recharged for the next heat. During this
period, the electrodes and roof are raised and the furnace lining is inspected for refractory damage. If necessary, repairs are
made to the hearth, slag-line, tap-hole and spout. In the case of a bottom-tapping furnace, the taphole is filled with sand.
Repairs to the furnace are made using gunned refractories or mud slingers. In most modern furnaces, the increased use of
water-cooled panels has reduced the amount of patching or "fettling" required between heats. Many operations now switch out
the furnace bottom on a regular basis (2 to 6 weeks) and perform the hearth maintenance off-line. This reduces the power-off
time for the EAF and maximizes furnace productivity. Furnace turn-around time is generally the largest dead time (i.e. power
off) period in the tap-to-tap cycle. With advances in furnace practices this has been reduced from 20 minutes to less than 5
minutes in some newer operations.

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Furnace Heat Balance

To melt steel scrap, it takes a theoretical minimum of 300 kWh/ton. To provide superheat above the melting point of 2768 F
requires additional energy and for typical tap temperature requirements, the total theoretical energy required usually lies in
the range of 350 to 370 kWh/ton. However, EAF steelmaking is only 55 to 65 % efficient and as a result the total equivalent
energy input is usually in the range of 560 to 680 kWh/ton for most modern operations. This energy can be supplied from a
variety of sources as shown in the table below. The energy distribution is highly dependent on local material and consumable
costs and is unique to the specific meltshop operation. A typical balance for both older and more modern EAFs is given in the
following Table:

Low to Medium
UHP FURNACE
Power Furnace

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Electrical Energy 50 - 60 % 75 - 85 %

INPUTS Burners 5 - 10 %

Chemical Reactions 30 - 40 % 15 - 25 %

TOTAL INPUT 100% 100%

Steel 55 - 60 % 50 - 55 %

Slag 8 - 10 % 8 - 12 %

OUTPUTS Cooling Water 8 - 10 % 5-6%

Miscellaneous 1-3% 17 - 30 %

Offgas 17 - 28 % 7 - 10 %

Of course the above figures are highly dependent on the individual operation and vary considerably from one facility to
another. Factors such as raw material composition, power input rates and operating practices (e.g. post-combustion, scrap
preheating) can greatly alter the above balance. In operations utilizing a large amount of charge carbon or high carbon feed
materials, up to 60 % of the energy contained in the offgas may be calorific due to large quantities of un-combusted carbon
monoxide. Recovery of this energy in the EAF could increase energy input by 8 to 10 %. Thus it is important to consider such
factors when evaluating the energy balance for a given furnace operation.

The International Iron and Steel Institue (IISI), classifies EAFs based on the power supplied per ton of furnace capacity. For
most modern operations, the design would allow for at least 500 kVA per ton of capacity. The IISI report " The Electic Furnace
- 1990" indicates that most new installations allow 900 - 1000 kVA per ton of furnace capacity. Most furnaces operate at a
maximum power factor of about 0.85. Thus the above transformer ratings would correspond to a maximum power input of
about 0.75 to 0.85 MW per ton of furnace capacity.

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MECHANICAL SYSTEMS
Mechanical systems are integral to the operation of the EAF and many are inter-related. To gain a better perspective of the
importance of various systems in the furnace operation, it is good to step back and evaluate the function of the electric arc
furnace itself. The EAF has several primary functions:

1. Containment of steel scrap

2. Heating and melting of steel scrap
3. Transfer of molten steel to the next processing stage

It is easy to see that the first function, scrap containment can only be properly carried out if the furnace shell is properly
maintained. The furnace shell consists of a refractory lined bottom that helps contain the liquid steel and typically, a
water-cooled upper section that only comes into contact with scrap and slag. Heating and melting of the scrap are
accomplished by supplying electrical energy through the electrodes and chemical energy through the use of burners and
oxygen lances. Transfer of the liquid steel to the ladle is accomplished by tilting the furnace and opening either a tapping spout
or a bottom tap-hole to allow the steel to flow from the furnace. It is apparent that many sub-systems come into play
throughout the tap-to-tap cycle. Many of these systems are dependent of the following systems in order to be able to function
properly:

Hydraulic system
Cooling water system
Lubrication System

Hydraulic system
The hydraulic system provides motive power for almost all EAF movements including roof lower/raise, roof swing, electrode
arms up/down/regulation/swing, furnace tilt forward/backward, slag door raise/lower and movement of any auxiliary systems
such as the burner lance. The hydraulic system consists of a central reservoir, filters, an accumulator, hydraulic valves and
hydraulic piping. As hydraulic fluid passes through valves in one of two directions within a given circuit, hydraulic cylinders are
extended or contracted to provide movement of various mechanical components. Without sufficient fluid flow and pressure
within a circuit, movement is impossible. Thus issues such as low fluid level, low accumulator pressure, system leaks, fluid
degradation due to over-heating, solids build-up in valves or in hydraulic lines and wear in mechanical components can lead to
poor system performance and in some cases, system failure.

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Cooling water system

Another system that is integral to EAF operation is the cooling water system. Typically, there are several cooling systems.
Some operations require extremely clean, high quality cooling water. Transformer cooling, delta closure cooling, bus tube
cooling and electrode holder cooling are all such applications. Typically, these systems will consist of a closed loop circuit,
which conducts water through these sensitive pieces of equipment. The water in the closed loop circuit passes through a heat
exchanger to remove heat. The circuit on the open loop side of the heat exchanger typically flows to a cooling tower for energy
dissipation. Other water cooled elements such as furnace side panels, roof panels, offgas system ducting, furnace cage etc. will
typically receive cooling water from a cooling tower.

The cooling circuit typically consists of supply pumps, return pumps, filters, a cooling tower cell or cells and flow monitoring
instrumentation. Sensitive pieces of equipment normally have instrumentation installed to monitor the cooling water flow rate
and temperature. For most water-cooled equipment, interruption of the flow or inadequate water quantities can lead to severe
thermal over loading and in some cases catastrophic failure.

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Lubrication System
Many modern furnaces have an automatic system that provides lubrication to various moving parts based on various "events"
occurring during the tap-to-tap cycle. For example, some parts are lubricated every three roof swings, following tapping, etc.

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Some components such as roller bearings are critical to furnace operation and are lubricated periodically by hand. Some hard
to reach locations are serviced using tubing and remote blocks.

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AUXILIARY SYSTEMS

In addition to the major mechanical systems associated with the EAF, there are also many auxiliary systems that are integral
to furnace operation and performance.

Oxygen lance system

Over the past 20 years, the use of oxygen in EAF steelmaking has grown considerably. In the past when oxygen consumption
of less than 300 cubic feet per ton of steel were common, lancing operations were carried out manually using a consumable
pipe lance. Most modern operations now use automatic lances and most facilities now use a non-consumable, water-cooled
lance for injecting oxygen into the steel. Many of these lances also have the capability to inject carbon as well.

Top

Carbon injection system

Carbon injection is critical to slag foaming operations, which are necessary for high power furnace operations. Carbon reacts
with FeO to form CO and "foam" the slag.

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Oxy-fuel burner system

Oxy-fuel burners are now almost standard equipment on large high-powered furnaces. In operations with short tap-to-tap
times, they provide an important function by ensuring rapid melting of the scrap in the cold spots. This ensures that scrap
cave-ins are kept to a minimum and as a result, electrode breakage is minimized. In large diameter furnaces, burners are
essential to ensure a uniform meltdown. Non-uniform scrap meltdowns may result in operating delays and lost productivity.
The biggest maintenance issue for burners is to ensure that they do not get plugged with metal or slag. The closer burners are
mounted to the bath, the greater the risk of them becoming plugged while in a low-fire mode. Some burners are mounted
directly in the water-cooled panel while others are mounted in a copper block. If burners are fired at high rates against large
pieces of scrap, the flame can blow back on the furnace shell damaging the water-cooled panel. Thus the panel area should be
inspected for wear around the burner port. If a copper block is used, it will be more resistant to flame blow back but should
still be inspected regularly for wear and cracks.

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Electrode spray cooling system

It is common for electrodes to have a spray cooling system in order to reduce electrode oxidation. Spray rings direct water
sprays at the electrode below the electrode clamp and the water runs down the electrode thus cooling it. Sprays rings can
reduce overall electrode consumption by as much as 10-20%. In addition, spray cooling usually results in improved electrode
holder life and surrounding insulation. Due to the reduction in radiation from the electrode, power cable, air hose and hydraulic
hose life is also greatly improved.

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Temperature Sampling System

The modern disposable thermocouple was introduced to steelmaking almost 40 years ago and temperature measurement had
become an integral part of tracking progress throughout the tap-to-tap cycle in steelmaking. Expendable probes are also used
for tracking bath carbon content and dissolved oxygen levels in the steel. These tools have enabled the tap-to-tap cycle to be
accelerated by eliminating long waiting periods for lab results, thus increasing productivity. Disposable probes are typically
mounted in cardboard sleeves that slide on to a steel probe(pole) which has internal electrical contacts. The disposable probe
transmits an electrical signal to the steel pole, which in turn transmits the signal to an electronic unit for interpretation. Almost
all probes rely on an accurate temperature measurement to precisely calculate carbon or oxygen levels. Most facilities keep
several spare poles on hand so that they can be quickly replaced if they have reading problems.

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Offgas Direct Evacuation System

Early offgas evacuation systems were installed so that the furnace operators could better see what was happening in and
around the furnace. Since the early days of EAF steelmaking, the offgas system has evolved considerably and most modern
EAF shops now use a "fourth hole" direct furnace shell evacuation system (DES). The term fourth hole refers to an additional
hole other than those for the electrodes, which is provided for offgas extraction. On DC furnaces with only one electrode, the
fume extraction port is sometimes referred to as the "second hole". It is important to maintain sufficient draft on the furnace
for the following reasons:

1. To provide adequate pollution control.

2. Excessive shop emissions make it difficult for the crane operator to charge the furnace.
3. Excessive emissions around the electrode ports can result in damage of hoses, cables, the electrode holder, the
furnace delta, roof refractory, accelerated electrode wear, damage to the electrode spray cooler etc.
4. Emissions at the roof ring can result in warping of the roof ring structure.
5. Excessive emissions of carbon monoxide to the secondary canopy system may result in explosions in the
ductwork downstream.
6. Excessive dust build-up may cause arcing between electrode phases.

Most DES systems consist of water-cooled duct, spray cooling, dry duct and may or may not have a dedicated DES booster
fan.

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ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
Electrical systems in an EAF meltshop usually consist of a primary system which supplies power from the electrical utility; and
the secondary electrical system which steps down the voltage from the utility and supplies the power to the EAF. The primary
system may include a yard step-down transformer as part of the steelmaker's facility and this transformer will feed several
other transformers with-in the facility including the EAF transformer. Regardless, there will be a main breaker which isolates all
of the steelmaking facility's electrical systems from the power utility. On the secondary side of the primary electrical system, a
vacuum switch and motorized disconnect are used to isolate the secondary furnace transformer from the primary power
supply.

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Vacuum Switch
The vacuum switch is a long life switch that is generally used in all electric furnace applications. The traditional vacuum switch
allows for the secondary electrical circuit to be broken either under load or without load. Most vacuum switches are rated for
40,000 operations or four years. In practice, it is not unusual for such switches to achieve 200,000 operations without
maintenance. The primary cause of failure in these units is a metallic bellows, which is used to provide a seal for the moving
contact, which is enclosed in a vacuum. Once this seal begins to wear (typically after 100,000 operations), a vacuum leak will
occur thus making it difficult to adequately isolate the primary power from the secondary.

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Motorized Disconnect Switch

The motorized disconnect switch (MDS) is typically a motorized knife gate switch which is capable of physically isolating the
EAF from the primary power supply. The knife switches are retracted when the furnace is not under load (vacuum switch open,
electrodes raised) so that arcing does not occur between the blades on either side of the switch. Top

EAF Transformer
The power flow from the utility's generators, through their network, arrives at the steel plant at very high voltage and must
therefore be converted to low voltage suitable for the furnacearcs. Transformers perform this task. The EAF transformer
receives the primary low current, high voltage power and transforms this to a high current, low voltage power for use in the
EAF. Reliable operation of the EAF is totally dependent on reliable operation of the EAF transformer. Many large furnace
transformers are rated 100MVA or greater.

Transforming the power from the kV level at the incoming utility line to the voltage level needed in the EAF is usually done in
two stages. A first transformer (occasionally two transformers in parallel) steps the voltage down from the high-voltage line to
a medium voltage level which is generally standardized for each country. In the USA this medium voltage is usually 34.5 kV,
while in Europe, Japan and other areas the voltages are not very different, often 30 to 33 kV. From the 34.5 kV busbar, the arc
furnace is powered by a special, heavy-duty furnace transformer. The secondary voltage of this furnace transformer is
designed to allow operation of the arcs in the desired range of arc voltages and currents. Since there are varying requirements
of arc voltage/current combinations through the heat it is necessary to have a choice of secondary voltages. The furnace
transformer is equipped with a tap-changer for this purpose.

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Tap changer
The purpose of a tap changer is to allow a choice of different combinations of volts and amps for different stages of a heat.
This is achieved by changing the number of turns of primary coil. ( The primary takes lower current so it is simpler to change
the number of turns on this coil rather than the high current secondary coil). Basically the tap changer takes the form of a
motorized box of contacts which switch the primary current to different parts of the coil around the iron core. Most tap
changers are designed to operate "on-load" meaning switching the primary current, usually in 2 kA steps, at 34.5 kV. A
'make-before-break' contact movement is used to avoid current interruption. These contacts are subject to heavy erosion due
to arcing and therefore require preventative maintenance.

Some steelmakers choose an 'off-load' tap changer in order to avoid the heavy duty of on-load switching. However, such a tap
changer requires that the steelmaker break the arc by lifting the furnace electrodes and this procedure may take as long as
one minute. Today such a delay each time a tap is changed is intolerable and such designs are becoming rare.

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SECONDARY ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT

The secondary circuit of the EAF electrical system consists of five major components: delta closure, power cable, bus
tube/conducting arm, electrode clamp/holder and the electrode.

Delta Closure
The secondary circuit of the EAF transformer terminates at low voltage bushings, which are attached to the delta closure,
which consists of a series of copper plates, tubes or both. These are arranged do that the secondary windings of the
transformer are joined to form a closed circuit. Most of this equipment is located within the transformer vault to assure a
secure, clean environment. The delta closure protrudes through the wall of the vault adjacent to the EAF and connectors are
provided to attach to one end of the furnace power cables; the other end being attached to either the current conducting arms
of the furnace or the busbar.

In the case of the direct current EAF, the thyristor will have two copper terminations; one of which is attached to the EAF
power cable, and other is attached to the bottom furnace electrode. The bottom furnace electrode is usually rigid, as no
movement is required during operation of the furnace. In principle, the termination on the thyristor is analogous to the delta
closure, though physically, it differs considerably. With respect to the maintenance issues for the delta closure, however, the

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same concepts can be applied to the DC operation.

Bus systems are typically supported at the transformer vault wall and may also be supported from stainless steel hangers
suspended from the vault ceiling. Suspension systems for secondary bus or delta closures are frequently supported at the vault
wall with kiln dried timbers.

Secondary bus systems and delta closures are insulated in order to prevent arcing from phase to phase and from phase to
ground especially at the support members.

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Furnace Power Cables

The water-cooled furnace power cables provide the only flexible connection in the secondary circuit. These cables must be
flexible to permit movement of the electrode arms up and down and to allow swinging the electrode arms and roof when
charging of the furnace. The connections from the delta closure, which are on the outside of the transformer vault, are silver
plated to provide a clean contact for the power cables. The power cables consist of copper wire strandings forming a cylindrical
construction, which is soldered to copper terminals at either end of the cable. A rubber jacket around the outside of the cable
permits cooling water for the cable. The rubber hose is attached at either end of the cable using stainless steel clamps,
vulcanized bumpers or an anti-chaffing hose. The cooling water hose is covered with a protective sleeve which may be
fabricated of fiberglass, vulcanized material, and silicon or aluminum glass fiber sleeves. As cable design advanced, it was
noted that due to the "skin effect" typical of AC operations, the current was carried predominantly by the outer portion of the
copper strands. Therefore the center strands were replaced with a hollow rubber tube which reduced the cable weight, the
reactance and the cost of the cable. At a later date, some operations used this inner channel for water cooling as well.

In DC furnace operations, the inner rubber tube in the cable is used for cooling because DC operations do not experience the
"skin effect" and the whole cross section of the copper cable carries the current uniformly. However, DC cables are cooled
more effectively from the center and cooling from the outside is not always used.

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Bus Bar / Current Conducting Arm

Several designs now exist for the electrode arm and bus-bar assembly. Many older furnaces utilize an arm structure that
supports an electrically insulated bus-bar. The bus-bar provides the electrical connection between the power cables and the
electrode holder. Bus-bars consist of a rigid, round, copper pipe. Typically the bus tube is supported by one or two bolted
connections. Good insulation must be installed between the bus tube and its' supporting members to ensure that arcing which
could destroy the bust tube does not take place. Bus tubes are usually attached to the power cables using removable, cast
copper terminals or in some cases, permanent fabricated copper terminal plates and pads.

Several configurations are available for the bus tube termination at the electrode holder and contact pad. These include
flanged connection to the contact pad, flat blade joined to the tube for parallel connection with the holder and a round copper
tube contact point with the connector. The bus tubes may be bolted to the holder or contact pad or a fused permanent joint
may be used.

Many modern furnaces utilize current conducting arms in which the arm itself transmits electricity to the electrode holder and
contact pad. Current conducting arms are usually fabricated from copper clad steel or aluminum alloys. Due to the reduced
weight of conducting arms as opposed to conventional arm and bus tube assemblies there is somewhat less mechanical wear.
However, many of the same maintenance issues apply both to bus tube assemblies and current conducting arms.

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Electrode Heads/Contact pads

The Electrode heads and contact pads provide the final connection between the power supply and the graphite electrode. They
are exposed to extreme mechanical conditions (vibration, torsion etc.) and thermal cycling and as a result are the weakest link
in the secondary circuit. Traditional electrode holders are either cast or fabricated from copper plates. Contact pads are smaller
and incorporate only the electrode contact area. In traditional electrode holders, the electrode is pushed forward into the
contact area. In the case of contact pads, the electrode is pulled back with steel housing equipment to make contact with the
pad. The current transfer between the contact pad and the electrode occurs in the lower 3 or 4 inches. Proper clamping for is a
necessity in order to prevent arcing between the electrode and the contact area. Any dirt build-up in this area will result in
resistance to current flow and will cause over-heating and damage to the electrode holder/contact pad.

Typically cooling water requirements will vary from 2 to 40 gallons per minute depending on the electrode size, water quality,
clamping force and maintenance of a clean contact area. The contact area should be cleaned regularly to remove oxidation,
carbon build-up and other material build-up in this area.

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Electrode Regulation
Typically, the electrode/arm/mast/cable assembly weighs in the range of 20 tons. This is moved vertically for control purposes
by a hydraulic cylinder incorporated in the mast. (In some older furnaces the movement is effected by an electric motor/cable
winch arrangement). Since the arc length is dependent, amongst other things, on the ever changing level of scrap or liquid
under the electrode it is necessary to have an automatic control over electrode position -- the regulation system.

The regulation system influences many important aspects of furnace performance, such as energy input, mean current, arc
stability, scrap melting pattern, energy losses to water-cooled panels, energy, electrode and refractory consumption. All these
parameters are interrelated in a complex manner and there are many differences of opinion on 'optimum' control strategies.

The accepted "standard" handling of the electrical signals is to form an "impedance control". This method attempts to hold the
ratio of voltage to electrical current constant, hence its description as 'impedance' control. A voltage signal taken from the
phase to ground and a current signal are each separately rectified and their dc values are compared "back-to back". If the
voltage and current are each at a desired level - the set point, chosen by the steelmaker - the output from this comparison of
signals is arranged to be zero. If however the current exceeds this level its signal increases and simultaneously the voltage
decreases. Then the two back-to back voltages do not balance and an output voltage is generated. This signal goes to the
regulating valve in such a way to command the electrode to raise, aimed at reducing current

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ELECTRODES
(By William A. Obenchain, AISI and Steve Casto, UCAR Corp)

One of the most important elements in the electric circuit and consumable cost in electric furnace steelmaking are the
electrodes The electrodes deliver the power to the furnace in the form of an electric arc between the electrode and the furnace

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charge. The arc itself is a plasma of hot, ionic gasses in excess of 6,000°F. Electrodes come in two forms: amorphous and
graphitic carbon, or graphite. Since only graphite electrodes are used in steelmaking only they will be discussed here.

Courtesy of UCAR Corp.

Graphite electrodes are composed of a mixture of finely divided, calcined petroleum coke mixed with about 30% coal tar pitch
as a binder, plus proprietary additives unique to each manufacturer. This mixture is extruded at approximately 220°F, the
softening temperature of pitch, to form a cylindrical rod known as a "green electrode". The green electrode is now given a
controlled bake in a reducing atmosphere at temperatures as high 1800°F and again impregnated with pitch to increase its
strength and density and lower the electrical resistivity. The electrodes are now ready to be graphitized, i.e. converting the
amorphous carbon into crystalline graphite. This is accomplished by passing an electric current through them and heating
them to as much as 5000°F. The graphitizing consumes as much as 3000-5000kWH/ton of electrode. The final product is
strong, dense, and has a low electrical resistivity. Lastly the electrode is machined to its final shape. Into each end of the
electrode is a recess in which threads are machined. These are used to accept a threaded nipple manufactured in the same
way so that the electrode column can be lengthened as it is consumed.

Historically, electrode consumption has been as high as 12-14 pounds per tons of steel, but through continuous improvement
in electrode manufacturing and steelmaking operations, this has been reduced to the neighborhood 3.5 to 4.5 pounds per ton.
Most electrode consumption is through oxidation and tip sublimation, with some small pieces lost around the connecting joint.
A considerable portion is also lost to mechanical breakage caused by scrap scrap cave-ins in the furnace or crushing the
electrode into the charge.

Electrodes are commonly available in sizes from 15 - 30 inches in diameter varying lengths to 10 feet. They come in three
grades: regular and premium and the newer DC grade.

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