Inspection and Testing of Welds –

Welded joints in a structure (e.g., a bridge) are expected to possess certain service-related capabilities.
Welded joints are generally required to carry loadings of various types in which the weld is subject to
stress of either a simple or complex character.
Moreover, a finished weld is not always as good or as bad as it may appear to be on its surface. It is
therefore necessary to find out how satisfactory or sound the weld. For this purpose certain weld
inspection and testing procedures have been discovered and standardized to estimate the expected
performance of the welded structures.

Weld Inspection and Weld Testing are two different terms with their functions somewhat overlapping.
Inspection has to do with the observations of the processes and products of manufacture (e.g. weldments)
to ensure the presence of desired qualities or properties.

In certain cases, inspection may be entirely qualitative and involve only visual observation of
correctness of operation or dimensions, examination of surface defects of welded joints, etc., whereas in
other instances, inspection may involve the performance of complicated tests to determine whether
specifications required meet or not.

Testing, on the other hand, specifically refers to the physical performance of operations (tests) to
determine quantitative measure of certain properties such as mechanical which will be explained later.
Testing aims to determine quality, i.e., to discover facts regardless of the implications of the results,
whereas Inspection intends to control quality through the application of established criteria and involves
the idea of rejection of substandard products.

Stages of Weld Inspection and Testing - For fabricating a welded structure, inspection may be
carried out in three stages:
1. Before starting welding.
2. during fabrication by welding.
3. After the welding is over.

1 Inspection before Welding

(a) Check the drawings in respect of weld details, dimensional tolerances, process specifications,
etc.
(b) Examine the specifications given by the customer applicable to the class of work, quality
required, end use of the product, etc.
(c) Select a suitable welding process to obtain welds of the desired quality.
(d) Only the tested and defect free materials and as per the approved specifications or drawing
should be used for the structure to be welded.

(e) Consumables such as welding electrodes, flux, gases, etc., to be used shall be as per
standards. Deteriorated or spoilt consumables should not be used.
(f) Welding Procedure should be laid down. Preferably, it should conform to some standard, (e.g.
ISI). The procedure should give preparations and tolerances to be achieved during production
work.
The procedure should ensure required quality of welds.
(g) Welding equipment should be in satisfactory working condition and be able to produce right
quality welds.
(h) Welders and operators employed for the work shall be trained, tested and certified to the
appropriate standards.
(i) Weld Testing Equipment should be in good operating condition and be handled by the well
trained staff.
(j) Equipment for cutting, straightening, heat treatment, material handling, etc., should be in
good working condition.
Jigs, fixtures, manipulators etc., should be available depending upon the type of work. Adequate
storage facilities should exist for storage of consumable and materials.

2. Inspection during Welding

(a) The weld groove should be free from dirt, rust, oil, slag or any other foreign matter which
may affect the quality of the weld.
(b) Job edge preparation should be as per approved welding procedure.
(c) The fitup, gap, orientation, welding position, method and sequence of assembly all should be
as per approved welding procedure.
(d) Tack welds should be of adequate size, length and pitch.
(e) Fittings, clamps, fixtures, etc., should not interfere with welding.
(f) Methods should be adopted to minimize distortion.
(g) If during welding certain, consumables are found defective, they should be replaced by
another brand of identical type.
(h) Welding procedure may be modified if it is found during welding that welds of acceptable
quality are not being produced.

(i) Slag should be thoroughly removed from each pass in multipass arc welds and spot welding
electrodes should be dressed periodically.
(j) Welds which would become inaccessible or more difficult to inspect at a later stage shall be
inspected at this stage.
(k) Inspection if carried out during welding will help identify potential sources of defects and
thus eliminate them at the early stage.
(l) Inspection during welding will help finding any deviation from approved procedures,
consumables, etc. which if goes unnoticed may deteriorate weld quality.
(m) Visual inspection during welding will reduce the chances of rejecting the weldment at the
final stage.

Inspection after Welding

Testing and Inspection is carried out after the jobs have been welded, with a view to:
1. Assess the properties and quality of the welded joints.
2. Asses the suitability of the weldment* for the intended purpose.
All forms of testing and inspection of welds after fabrication can be grouped into two basic
categories, namely:
1. Destructive Testing.
2. Non destructive Testing.

Destructive Testing of Welds - Destructive tests are applied to samples representative of the
welded joint under review, often made especially for test purposes. In a destructive test, the test
piece or specimen is destroyed, in most cases by fracturing. After destructive testing the
specimen remains no longer useful for further use.

Destructive tests as applied to welds are:

(a), the Tensile Test,
(b) The Bend Test,
(c) The Impact Test,
(d) The Nick-break Test,
(e) The Hardness Test, and
(f) The Etch Test.

Non destructive tests are applied to welded components to determine their suitability for the
service conditions to which they will be subjected. These tests neither break nor alter the
structure or appearance of the welded component. Non destructive tests have the ability to detect
invisible sub surface defects.
Non-destructive tests make components more reliable and safe. Although non-destructive tests
do not provide direct measurement of mechanical properties, yet they are extremely useful in
revealing defects in components that could impair their performance when put in service.

Welded components if found satisfactory after being tested so, can be used for the purpose for which they
were made. A welded component found defective after non-destructive testing can be rectified and
subsequently used.
Non-destructive tests as applied to welds are:
Visual Inspection
Stethoscopic Test
X-Ray and y-Ray Radiography
Magnetic Particle Inspection

Tensile Test - It is one of the most widely used mechanical tests.

A tensile test helps determining
(a) Tensile properties such as tensile strength, yield point or yield strength and modulus of
elasticity.
(b) Ductility of a weld. Two standard measurements of ductility are the percent elongation and
the percent reduction of area.

Preparation of Test Specimen

1. Transverse Tensile Test
Using Radius Reduced Specimen
Using Reduced Specimen

2. All weld Metal Tensile Test

A transverse Tensile Test specimen is cut from a welded butt joint (at right angle to the weld
direction and is used to determine its transverse tensile strength. Reduced transverse test
specimens are not intended to give the tensile strength of the weld metal, but Radius reduced
specimens do occasionally.
 Width Gauge Length* Minimum Parallel Minimum Radius at Total Length
Length Shoulder

b Lo Lp r L

Plate thickness but 50 60 25 200

not less than 25
mm 100 110 25 300

200 225 25 375

In an all weld metal tensile test, the specimen is prepared from all weld metal. This type of
specimen is prepared by machining a groove in a plate of steel and then completely filling the
groove with deposited weld metal. The surrounding steel is then machined away leaving a
specimen of weld metal.
The purpose of such a test is to test
(i) Electrodes for their suitability for the job concerned,
(ii) The quality of deposited metal in welded joint.

Cross-sectional Diameter Gauge Length, Minimum Parallel Minimum Radius,

Length

Area,Ao,mm2 do Lo Lc R

400 22.5 113 124 23.5

200 15.96 80 88 15.0

100 11.28 56 62 10

25 5.64 28 31 5.0

Test Procedure
Tensile test is carried out by gripping the end E, E of the specimen in a tensile testing machine
and applying and increasing pull on to the specimen till it fractures.

During, the test, the tensile load as well as the elongation of a previously marked gauge length in
the specimen is measured with the help of load dial of the machine and extensometer
respectively. These readings help plotting stress strain curve.

After fracture, the two pieces of the broken specimen are placed as if fixed together and the
distance Lf between two gauge marks and the area Af at the place o

Bend Test - A Bend Test may be carried out on a tensile testing machine with the help of certain
attachments as described later in this section.A bend test is an easy and inexpensive test to apply.
The method is fast and shows most weld faults quite accurately.
Bend tests may be used to find a number of weld properties such as
(i) Ductility of the welded zone
(ii) Weld penetration
(iii) Fusion
(iv) Crystalline structure (of the fractured surface)
(v) Strength.

The bend test assists in determining the soundness of the weld metal, the weld junction and the
heat affected zone. The test shows the quality of the welded joint. Any cracking of the metal will
indicate false fusion or defective penetration.
The stretching of the metal determines to some extent its ductility. Fractured surface shows the
crystalline structure. Large crystals usually indicate wrong welding procedure or poor heat
treatment after welding. A good weld has small crystals.
To conclude, the bend test is an easy and useful method of comparing one welded joint with
another of the same type and of revealing abnormalities and defects at or near the surface in
tension.

Types of Bend Tests

Bend tests may be categorized as

(a) Free Bend Test
(b) Guided Bend Test

Bend tests may be further classified as

(i) Transverse bend test
Root bend test
Face bend test
(ii) Longitudinal bend test
(iii) Side bend test.

Free Bend Test - Free bend test determines the ductility of weld metal. Free bend test may be
conducted on a tensile testing machine or a vise capable of exerting a sufficiently large
compressive force. For bend test, the test pieces are cut from the plate so as to include the weld.

T 10 20 28 40 50

W 15 30 38 60 75

L,Min 200 275 300 375 450

B,Min 30 50 50 50 50
The top of the weld is ground or machined so that it becomes flush with the base metal surface.
The specimen (after the gauge length has been scribed on the face of the weld) may be bent
initially by using a device.
After giving an initial bend on to the specimen, it is placed in another fixture. The bending is
continued until a crack or open defect exceeding 1.5 mm in any direction appears on the convex
surface of the specimen. If no crack appears, the specimen shall be bent double.

Transverse Bend Test - A transverse bend test is useful in qualifying welders because it quite
often reveals the presence of defects that are not detected in tension test. However, in this test,
non-uniform properties along the length of the specimen can cause non-uniform bending.
An over matching weld metal strength may prevent the weld zone from conforming exactly to
the bend die radius and may force the deformation out into the base metal, causing less than the
desired elongation of the weld. With under matching weld strength, the specimen may tend to
kink in the weld and there occurs more severe elongation in the weld. The specimen for
transverse bend test is of the full thickness of the material at the welded joint and the upper and
lower surfaces of the weld are dressed flush with the base metal surface.

The specimen is bent by the movement of a plunger or former. Suitable gauge marks if scribed at
the outside surface of the specimen help estimating % elongation. In a Face bend test the
specimen is placed with its face down . The former is depressed until the piece becomes D
shaped in the die (a guided bend test). If upon examination, cracks greater than 3 mm appear in
any direction, the weld is considered to have failed. Face bend tests are used to inspect the
degree of fusion, the absence or presence of inclusions and the weld porosity, if any.
In a Root bend test the specimen is placed in the jig with the root down or in just the reverse
position of the face bend test. The results must show no cracks to be acceptable.Root bend tests
are used primarily to determine the degree of weld penetration.

Longitudinal Bend Test - The problems of weld mismatch (as described in transverse bend test) can be
avoided by using longitudinal bend specimens in which the weld runs the full length of the bend
specimen; the bend axis being perpendicular to the weld axis.
In longitudinal bend test, all zones of the welded joint (i.e., weld, heataffected zone and the base metal)
are strained equally and simultaneously. This test is generally used for evaluations of joints in dissimilar
metals. Specimens for longitudinal bend test are prepared in the same manner as for transverse bend
tests.

Side Bend Test - Side bend specimens strain the entire weld cross section and are thus especially useful
for exposing defects near mid thickness that might not contribute to failure in face or root bend tests. A
side bend test determines the soundness of the welded joint in crosssection. This test is used for relatively
thick sections (over 19 mm), since in this test the entire weld thickness may be included in the test.
The width of the test specimen shall be the full thickness of the material at the welded joint and the upper
and lower surfaces of the weld shall normally be dressed flush with the surface of the base metal. The
specimen is placed over the supports and it is bent by the downward movement of the former. The
specimen is examined after the test and type and location of flaws, present, if any, are noted.

Impact Test - Impact testing becomes essential in order to study the behavior of welded objects under
dynamic loading. An impact test determines the behavior of welds when subjected to high rates of
loading, usually in bending.
An impact test gives an indication of the relative toughness of the material. Toughness is defined as the
resistance of a metal to fracture after plastic deformation has begun. The purpose of impact testing is to
determine the amount of impact a specimen will absorb before fracturing.
In an impact test, a specimen machined or surface ground and notched is struck and broken by a single
blow in a specially designed testing machine. The quantity measured is the energy absorbed in breaking
the specimen by a single blow. The ideal impact test would be one in which all the energy of a blow is
transmitted to the test specimen.

Types of Impact Test - The two basic types of Impact Tests are

(i) The Charpy (Beam) Test.

(ii) The Izod (Cantilever) Test.
The Charpy specimen is placed in the vise so that it is just a simple beam supported at the ends whereas
Izod specimen is placed in the vise such that it is in the form of a cantilever. The dimensions of Charpy
test specimen.

Test Procedure
1. The swinging pendulum weight is raised to standard height depending upon the type of specimen to be
tested.
2. With reference to the vise holding the specimen, the higher the pendulum, the more potential energy it
has got.
3. As the pendulum is released, its potential energy is converted into kinetic energy until it strikes the
specimen.
4. The Charpy specimen is hit behind the V notch while the Izod specimen, placed with the V notch facing
the pendulum, will be hit above the V notch.
5. A portion of the energy possessed by the pendulum is used to rupture the specimen and the pendulum
rises on the other side of the machine to a height lower than its initial height on the opposite side of the
impact testing machine.
6. The energy consumed in breaking the specimen is the weight of the pendulum times the difference in
two heights of pendulum on either side of the machine.
7. This energy in foot pounds or metre kg is the notched impact strength and can be read from the dial of
the impact testing machine.

Reporting of Results: The following results shall be reported after the test:

1. Nature of specimen, i.e. Charpy or Izod.

2. Testing Temperature.
3. The energy absorbed.
4. Appearance of fractured surface and defects, if any, present hereover.

Nick Break Test - A nick break test involves breaking the weld joint to examine the fractured
surfaces for internal defects such as:
(i) Gas pockets
(ii) Slag inclusions
(iii) Porosity.
The test also determines weld ductility and the degree of fusion.

Procedure
The test specimen shall be cut transversely to the welded joint and shall have the full thickness of
the plate at the joint. The excess weld metal and penetration bead shall be left intact. Slots are
sawed at each end of the specimen to be tested.

The specimen is then placed upright on two supports and the force on the weld is applied either
by a press or by the sharp blows of a hammer until a fracture occurs between the two slots.
A visual inspection of the fractured surfaces is carried out in order to find defects (as mentioned
earlier), if any. If any defect exceeds 1.5 mm in size or the number of gas pockets exceeds one
per square cm, the piece has failed the test.

Hardness Test - The hardness test gives an idea of the resistance to wear of the weld metal. This
is important with respect to the components which have been built up and have to withstand
abrasive wear. Hardness values can give in formation about the metallurgical changes caused by
welding.

In the case of premium and high carbon steels and cast iron, the heat affected zone or weld
junction may become hard and brittle because of the formation of marten site. Hardness values in
a welded joint are usually sensitive to such conditions of welding, as
(i) The process used.
(ii) Heat input.
(iii) Preheat or interpass temperature.
(iv) Electrode composition
(v) Plate thickness.

Hardness values indicate whether the correct welding technique and pre and post heat treatments
have been carried out. The hardness of welds is particularly important if the welds must be
machined.

Methods of

Various commonly used test methods for finding hardness are:

(a) The Brinell Test
(b) The Rockwell Test.
Vickers pyramid and Shore Scleroscope* methods may also be used to find hardness. The
welded specimen in whose case hardness is to be tested is ground, polished or polished and
etched to show clearly the weld metal area. Hardness is determined on specific areas of interest,
including the weld center line, face or root regions of the weld deposit, the heat affected zone and
the base metal.

Brinell Hardness Test - It consists of pressing a hardened steel ball into a test specimen.
According to ASTM specifications, a 10 mm diameter ball is used for the purpose. Lower loads
are applied for measuring hardness of soft materials and vice versa.

Procedure of Hardness Testing

Specimen is placed on the anvil; the hand wheel is rotated so that the specimen along with the
anvil moves up and contacts with the ball. The desired load is applied mechanically (by a gear
driven screw) or hydraulically (by oil pressure) and the ball presses into the specimen.

The diameter of the indentation made in the specimen by the pressed ball is measured by the use
of a micrometer microscope, having a transparent engraved scale in the field of view.
The indentation diameter is measured at two places at right angles to each other, and the average
of the two readings is taken. The Brinell hardness number (BHN) which is the pressure per unit
surface area of the indentation in kg per square metre, is calculated as follows:
BHN = W / (π D / 2) (D – root of D 2 – d 2)
W is load on indenter, kg
D is diameter of steel ball, mm
D is average measured diameter of indentation, mm

Rockwell Hardness Testing - Rockwell hardness testing differs from Brinell testing in that the
indenters and the loads are smaller and therefore the resulting indentation on the specimen is
smaller and shallower. Rockwell testing is suitable for materials having hardness beyond the
scope of Brinell testing.
Rockwell testing is faster as compared to Brinell testing because diameter of indentation need
not be measured; the rockwell machine gives arbitrary direct reading. Unlike Brinell testing,
rockwell testing needs no surface preparation (polishing, etc.) of the specimen whose hardness is
to be measured.

Procedure for Measuring Hardness

(a) Test piece is placed upon the machine. The machine dial is showing any reading.
(b) Hand wheel is turned, thereby raising the test piece up against the steel ball indenter till the
needle on the dial reads zero. This applies minor load.
(c) Major load is applied by pressing the crank provided on the righthand side of the machine
(not shown).
(d) Crank is turned in the reverse direction thereby withdrawing major load but leaving minor
load applied.
(e) Hand wheel is rotated and the test piece is lowered.

At this stage, the hardness of the test piece material can be directly read from the dial scale.
There are two scales on a rockwell testing machine, i.e. 'B' scale and 'C' scale.
B scale uses a steel ball indenter whereas a diamond cone penetrator is employed for measuring
hardness on C scale. B scale is for testing materials of medium hardness such as low and medium
carbon steels in the annealed condition. The working range of this scale is from 0 to 100. C scale
is used for testing materials harder than B 100.
C scale is commonly used for testing the hardness of alloy cast irons. In rockwell hardness
testing, the minor load for all cases is 10 kg whereas major loads for scales C and Bare 150 and
100 kg respectively (including minor load).

Vickers Hardness Test In Vickers hardness test, a known load (P) (from 1 to 120 kg) is applied
for a specified time to the surface of the material through a square base pyramid diamond having
136° between opposite faces. The two diagonals of the resulting square indentation on the test
piece are measured with a micrometer microscope and averaged, (D, mm). The Vickers hardness
number is calculated as follows VHN = 1.854 P / D2 Before conducting Vickers hardness test,
the surface of the specimen should be flat and of sufficient polish so that any remaining scratches
do not cause difficulty in locating the corners of the indentation when diagonals are measured.
The impression of Vickers indenter on the specimen being very small, peak (and not average)
values of hardness can be determined on the weld from root to face. In the same length of the
specimen, more hardness readings can be taken with Vickers hardness test than with Brinell or
Rockwell hardness tests.
Etch Test - An etch test involves inspecting the welded test specimen after polishing and etching
the same with a chemical reagent e.g., a dilute acid.

Types of
There are two types of etch tests, namely
(i) Macro etch examination,
(ii) Micro etch examination.

Concept and Purpose

(i) Macro etch examination:
After preparing the specimen by polishing and etching, it is examined either by the naked eye or
by low power magnification up to X15. Macro examination gives a broad picture of the
specimen by studying relatively large sectioned areas.

Macro examination reveals in welded specimen

(i) Cracks,
(ii) Slag inclusion,
(iii) Blowholes,
(iv) Shrinkage porosity,
(v) Penetration of the weld,
(vi)The boundary between the weld metal and the base metal, etc

(ii) Micro etch examination: After preparing the specimen by polishing and etching, it is
examined under a microscope at magnifications from X20 to X2000.
Micro etch examination involves areas much smaller than those considered in macro etch
examination and brings out information that can never be revealed by macro examination.

Micro examination determines in a welded specimen

(i) Cracks and inclusions of microscopic size.
(ii) Grain boundaries and solidification structures of weld metal, heat affected zone and the base
metal.
(iii) Distribution of micro constituents in the weld metal.
(iv) The quality of heat treatment, etc.
Preparation of Test Specimen
(i) The specimen shall be the full thickness of the material at the welded joint and the weld
reinforcement and penetration bead shall be left intact. The specimen shall contain a length of the
joint of at least 10 mm and shall extend on each side of the weld for a distance that includes the
heat affected zone and some base metal portion.

(ii) Specimen after being cut from the plate is filed or ground to obtain flat surface on the
specimen.
(iii) Intermediate and fine grinding is carried out using emery papers of progressively finer
grades, i.e., of grades, 200 grit, 320 grit, 400 grit and 600 grit (from coarse to fine).
(iv) Rough and fine polishing of the specimen* is carried out on a rotating polishing wheel. Fine
polishing removes the scratches and very thin distorted layer remaining on the specimen from the
rough polishing stage. (v) Etching. The specimen is then etched in order to make visible the grain
boundaries, heat affected zone, the boundary between the weld metal and parent metal, etc.
Etching imparts unlike appearances to the metal constituents and thus makes metal structure
apparent under the microscope.
Etching is done either by
(a) immersing the polished surface (of the specimen) in the etching reagent or by
(b) rubbing the polished surface gently with a cotton swab wetted with the etching reagent.

Given below are a few etching reagents:

1. Hydrochloric Acid. The reagent contains equal parts by volume of concentrated HCI and
water. Specimen is immersed in this reagent at or near the boiling point. This will usually
enlarge gas pockets and dissolve slag inclusions, enlarging the resulting cavities.
2. Nitric Acid. One part of concentrated nitric acid is added to three parts of water by volume.
The reagent may be applied to the surface of the weld either with a glass stirring rod at room
temperature or the weld be immersed in boiling reagent provided the room is well ventilated.
This reagent is used on polished surfaces only to show the weld metal zone as well as the
refined zone. Nital contains 2CC HNO3 Conc. + 98CC absolute methyl alcohol.

3. Ammonium persulphate. Mix one part of ammonium persulphate (solid) to nine parts of water
by weight. The reagent thus prepared is rubbed vigorously on the surface of the weld with cotton
saturated with this reagent.
4. Iodine and potassium iodide. One part of powdered iodine (solid) is mixed with twelve parts
of a solution of potassium iodide by weight. The latter solution should consist of one part of
potassium iodide to five parts of water by weight. The reagent is brushed at room temperature on
the surface of the weld.

Non Destructive Visual Inspection Testing of Welds -Visual inspection is the simplest, fastest,
economical and most commonly used test for detecting defects on the surfaces of the welded
objects. The weld surface and joint is examined visually, preferably with the help of a
magnifying lens.

Careful examination of what can be seen on the surface of a welded joint can assist in
determining the ultimate acceptability of the weldments. Visual examination can help detecting
the following flaws on the surface of the welded structure:

(i) Porosity, blowholes, pipes, exposed inclusions, unfused welds, unfilled craters etc.
(ii) Surface cracks in the weld metal, heat affected zone or the parent metal.
(iii) Undercutting, burning or overheating of the base metal adjoining weld metal.
(iv) Improper profile and dimensional inaccuracy of welds.
There may exist excessive convexity or concavity, overlap, excessive reinforcement, unequal leg
length, excessive penetration bead, shrinkage grooves, incompletely filled grooves etc.Door weld
appearance, i.e., irregular ripple marks, weaving faults, chipping and peening marks, spatter,
surface roughness etc.

Leak OR Tightness Test on Welds - Leak refers to an actual discontinuity or passage through
which a fluid flows or permeates. Leak testing is the determination of the rate at which a liquid
or gas will penetrate from inside a tight component or assembly to the outside as a result of
pressure differential between the two regions.

Purpose
To test welded pressure vessels, tanks and pipelines to determine if leaks are present. Absolute
tightness of all the welded joints can be tested this way.

Procedure
The welded vessel, after closing all its outlets, is subjected to internal pressure using water, oil,
air or gas (e.g. CO2). Hydraulic pressure, using water as the fluid, is the usual medium employed
in this test.
Oil if it is thin/hot will penetrate leaks that do not show up with water under an equal pressure.
Air will leak out more readily than water and gas (e.g. Hydrogen) will escape where air will not.
Where feasible, it is better to use water or oil because there will be very less tendency for the
parts to be violently thrown out in case of a sudden release of pressure. When using air/gas,
failure of vessel can cause injuries to persons around.

The internal pressure may be raised to two times the working pressure.When under pressure, the
weld may be tested as follows for detecting the leak:

(i) Pressure on the gauge may be noted immediately after applying the internal pressure and
after, say, 12 to 24 hours. Any drop in pressure reading indicates a leak.
(ii) After generating air pressure in the vessel, soap solution may be painted on the weld seam
and carefully inspected for bubbles which would indicate leak.
(iii) The welded surface is coated with a lime solution. After the lime has dried, pressure is built
up in the vessel. Where the lime flakes from the metal, a flaw is indicated as being present.
(iv)In another method an aluminium foil is laid over a wider strip of water soluble paper and
both are stuck with a tape over the welded seam of a water filled pressure vessel. If a leak exists,
the water soluble strip will dissolve, indicating the leak location and the aluminium foil strip will
be in electrical contact with the vessel. A corresponding change in resistance indicates the
pressure of leak.

Stethoscope Sound Test - The principle of this test is that, defect free weld metal gives a good
ringing note when struck with a hammer whereas weld metal containing defects (such a cracks,
lack of fusion, slag inclusion, etc.) gives a flat note. An ordinary physician's stethoscope may be
used to magnify and identify the sound. Structural welds and welds in pressure vessels have been
successfully tested using this method.

Radiography Using X-Ray and Gamma γ Ray on Welds - Radiography is one of the most
useful of the non-destructive tests which can be applied for assessing the quality of the welded
joints. Radiograph has been used for the inspection of welds of all types and thicknesses ranging
from minute welds in electronic components to welds upto half metre thick employed in heavy
fabrications.

Radiography can detect flaws or discontinuities in welds such as:

(i) Cracks.
(ii) Porosity and blow holes.
(iii) Slag, flux or oxide inclusions.
(iv)Lack of fusion between the weld metal and the parent metal
(v) Incomplete penetration.

Principle
Radiography technique is based upon exposing the components to short wavelength radiations in
the form of X-rays (wavelength less than 0.001 x 10-8 cm to about 40 x 10-8 cm) or gamma (y)
rays (wave length about 0.005 X 10-8 to 3 X 10-8 cm) from a suitable source such as an X-ray
tube or cobalt-60.
The characteristic feature of X-ray and y-ray which makes them to work is their power to
penetrate matters opaque to light. X-rays operating at 400,000 volts can inspect steel objects
having thickness up to 62 mm.
γ -rays given off by radium and radioactive isotopes such as cobalt-60, lridium-192 and caesium-
167 can penetrate and thus inspect joints of bigger thickness than examined by X-rays.

X-Ray Radiography Procedure - X-rays are produced in an X-ray tube where a (cathode)
filament provides electrons which proceed towards the target (anode); strike and are suddenly
stopped; a part of their kinetic energy is converted to energy of radiation or X-rays.
The portion of the weldment where defects are suspected is exposed to X-rays emitted from the
X-ray tube. A cassette containing X-ray film is placed behind and in contact with the weldment,
perpendicular to the rays.
During exposure, X-rays penetrate the welded object and thus affect the X-ray mm.

Since most defects (such as blow holes, porosity, cracks, etc.) possess lesser density than the
sound parent metal, they transmit X-rays better than the sound metal does; therefore the film
appears to be more dark where defects are in line of the X-ray beam. The exposed and developed
X-ray film showing light and dark areas is termed as RADIOGRAPH (or precisely known as an
EXOGRAPH). The radiographs of sound metal and metals containing blow holes and porosity
respectively.

Gamma γ-Ray Radiography Procedure -

(a) Gamma-ray radiography differs from X-ray radiography in following respects:
1. Gamma-rays are used for detecting defects in welded plates thicker than those inspected by X-
rays.
2. Owing to less scatter, gamma rays are more satisfactory than X-rays for examining objects of
varying thickness, where as X-rays provide better results for welded plates of uniform thickness.
3. X-rays are better than gamma-rays for detecting small defects in weldment sections less than
about 50 mm.
4. X-ray method is much more rapid than gamma-ray method, because unlike gamma-ray
method, it requires seconds or minutes instead of hours.

5. Unlike X-ray method, gamma-ray technique can inspect a number of welded objects at one
time.
6. Gamma-ray equipment being small possesses better portability and convenience of use for
certain field inspections.
(b) Gamma radiations, a product of radioactive decay, are extensively used in the testing of
welded objects.
Radium and its salts decompose at a constant rate, giving out gamma rays which are of much
shorter wavelength and more penetrating (than ordinary X-rays).
Radium and Radon were originally employed as gamma-ray sources but more convenient
sources are available at present in the form of isotopes, for example cobalt 60. It is an isotope
produced by neutron irradiation and can be used in place of radium; it is much cheaper as well.

The apparatus necessary for gamma-ray radiography is very simple. Most cobalt-60 sources are
cylindrical, with dimensions of 3 by 3 to 6 mm and sealed in an appropriate container or capsule.
Unlike X-rays, gamma-rays from its source are emitted in all directions; therefore a number of
separate welded objects having cassette containing film, fastened to the back of each object, are
disposed in a circle around the source placed in a central position.
This way many welded objects can be radiographed simultaneously and overnight exposures
may be taken without continuous supervision.

Advantages, Disadvantages and Applications of X-Ray Radiography -

Advantages
1. A permanent record of defects in a welded object is obtained.
2. Reference standards for defects are available.

Disadvantages
1. The equipment is costly.
2. Trained operator is required.
3. The method involves radiation hazards.

Applications
1. Pressure vessels and boilers.
2. Penstocks.
3. Aircraft and ship structures.

Advantages, Disadvantages and Applications of Gamma γ-Ray Radiography -

Advantages
1. A permanent record of defects, in a welded object is obtained.
2. Reference standards for defects are available.
3. Low initial cost.
4. This is a very good method for testing at the site.

Disadvantages
1. Trained operator is required.
2. The method involves radiation hazards.
3. γ-ray source loses strength continuously.
4. γ-ray radiography possesses lower sensitivity and definition than X-ray radiography.

Applications
1. Pressure vessels and boilers.
2. Penstocks and pipe-work.
3. Ship building.
4. Structural steel work.

Magnetic Particle Inspection -

Introduction
This method of non-destructive testing tends to supplement rather than displace radiography. For
example, radiography ordinarily cannot detect small cracks, especially when they are too small
to be seen with human eye.

This method of inspection is used on magnetic ferrous weldments for detecting invisible surface
or slightly subsurface defects*. Deeper subsurface defects are not satisfactorily detected because
the influence of the distorted lines of magnetic flux (owing to a discontinuity) on the magnetic
particles spread over the job surface becomes weaker with the distance, so that sensitivity falls
away rapidly with the depth.
The defects commonly revealed by magnetic particle inspection are quenching cracks, thermal
cracks, seams, laps, grinding cracks, overlaps, non-metallic inclusions, fatigue cracks, hot tears,
etc.

Magnetic particle inspection is a relatively simple and easy technique. It is almost free from any
restriction as to size, shape, composition and heat-treatment of a ferromagnetic specimen.

Principle of the method

When a piece of metal is Placed in magnetic field and the lines of magnetic flux get intersected
by a discontinuity such as a crack or slag inclusions in a job, magnetic poles are induced on
either side of the discontinuity.
The discontinuity causes an abrupt change in the path of magnetic flux flowing through the job
normal to the discontinuity, resulting a local flux leakage field and interference with the
magnetic lines of force. This local flux disturbance can be detected by its effect upon magnetic
particles which are attracted to the region of discontinuity and pile up and bridge over the
discontinuity.

A surface crack is indicated (under favourable conditions) by a line of fine particles following
the crack outline and a subsurface defect by a fuzzy collection of the magnetic particles on the
surface near the discontinuity.
Maximum sensitivity of indication is obtained when the discontinuity lies in a direction normal
to the applied magnetic field and when the strength of magnetic field is just enough to saturate
the section being inspected.

Technique or Procedure:
Procedural steps involved are,
(a) Magnetising the component part,*(e.g., a welded plate).
(b) Applying magnetic particles on the Component part.
(c) Locating the defects.
(a) Magnetising the Welded Plate Different methods employed for magnetisation may be classed
as follows: 1. Continuous method. 2. Residual method. 1. Circular magnetisation. 2.
Longitudinal magnetisation. 1. A.C. magnetisation. 2. D.C. magnetisation. In continuous method,
the current inducing the magnetic flux in the workpiece to be inspected is allowed to flow while
the powder is applied. The job is placed between two contacts (in the form) of solid copper
clamps. The induced magnetic field runs in the transverse direction; producing conditions
favourable to the detection of longitudinally disposed cracks.
Residual method relies upon the residual magnetism in the welded job. The job may be
magnetised by any method but the magnetising source is removed first and then the magnetic
particles are applied over the job.
Continuous method is much mare sensitive than the residual method and especially far steels
having law magnetic retentivity, only continuous method is used.
Circular magnetisation is produced by circular fields. A can duct or carrying an electric current
is surrounded by a magnetic field which farms closed circles in plane at right angles to the
direction .of current flaw Circular magnetisation may be produced:
(i) By passing current through the part itself.
(ii) By passing current through a conductor placed axially inside the hollow abject.
(iii) with the help of prods or cant acts.

Prods are used to inspect small areas .of large weldments. By changing the position of prods
systematically, the entire surface .of the large weldment can be surveyed.
Longitudinal magnetisation is produced by passing current through a solenoid coil .or several
turns of conductor surrounding the jab, the jab serving as the core of the solenoid. Cable
wrappings are commonly used an large objects such as tanks, bailers, large crankshafts, etc.
The cracks running in the transverse direction are best revealed in longitudinal fields.
A.C. magnetization is preferred far maximum surface sensitivity and offers special operating
advantages, including straight forward demagnetisation after testing, whereas D.C. appears to
permit the detection of defects lying mare deeply in the objects.

(b) Applying Magnetic (particles or) Powder

Magnetic particles may be applied during the passage of magnetising current or following the
same when the residual magnetism is made use of in detecting cracks in welded objects; this
method avoids the danger of oversaturatian.
The magnetic powder of iron or black magnetic iron oxide base and having elongated individual
particles is used far the purpose Metallic iron particles are coated to prevent oxidation and
sticking. The powder is available in two colours red and black; a colour which shows up to best
advantage an the part to be inspected is selected.
Magnetic particles prepared with a fluorescent coating and inspected under ultraviolet light are
also used. In this case the cracks are marked by glowing indication. Ordinary magnetic powder is
applied the job in Dry or Wet farm.
Dry powder is applied in form of a cloud or spray. The dry powder is better far locating near
surface defects; moreover all the powder can be recovered after the test. Dry powder is not so
messy to work with as is the powder wet in oil.
In wet method, the powder is suspended in law viscosity non-corrosive fluid such as kerosene
and is sprayed aver the job; alternatively jab may be immersed in the liquid far the purpose. Wet
method is better far locating minute surface defects; moreover wetted powder can be applied
bath an vertical and underside of horizontal surfaces far detecting cracks.

(c) Locating the Defects

In the magnetized bar if a crack or avoid interrupts a magnetic field, the magnetic field gets
distorted. The magnetic permeability of air being too law in comparison with iron, the magnetic
flux spreads out to get around the avid. Same of the magnetic flux lines extend outside of the
metal in the air over the discontinuity and the discontinuity is noticed or located distinctly
because the magnetic particles collect and pile at any discontinuity or crack.

Liquid Dye Penetrant Test - A liquid penetrant test is non-destructive type. It detects flaws that
are open to the surface e.g., cracks, seams, laps, lack of bond, porosity, cold shuts, etc. It can be
effectively used not only in the inspection of ferrous metals but is especially useful for non-
ferrous metal products and on non-porous, non-metallic materials such as ceramics, plastics and
glass.
The principle of liquid penetrant test is that the liquids used enter small openings such as cracks
or porosities by capillary action. The rate and extent of this action are dependent upon such
properties as surface tension, cohesion, adhesion and viscosity.

Fluorescent Penetrant Inspection -

(Zyglo Process)
Like magnetic particle inspection, fluorescent penetrant inspection is also carried out to detect
small surface cracks, * but it has the advantage that it (i.e., penetrant inspection technique) can
be used for testing both ferrous and nonferrous welded jobs.
Zyglo is the registered trade mark of the Magnaflux Corporation applied to its equipment and
material for fluorescent penetrant inspection.
This method is sensitive to small surface discontinuities such as cracks, shrinkage and porosity
open to the surface which tend to retain penetrant in spite of the rinse. Smooth or machined job
surfaces provide more satisfactory conditions for the test.

Operational Steps
(i) Clean the surfaces of the object to be inspected for cracks etc.
(ii) Apply the fluorescent penetrant on the surface by either dipping, spraying or brushing. Allow
a penetration time up to one hour. The fluorescent penetrant is drawn into crack by capillary
action.
(iii) Wash (the surface) with water spray to remove penetrant from surface but not from crack.
(iv)Apply the developer. The developer acts like a blotter to draw penetrant out of crack and
enlarges the size of the area of penetrant indication.
(v) The surface is viewed under black light [having a wavelength of 3650 Angstrom (A) units,
which is between the visible and ultraviolet in the spectrum. Black light causes penetrant to glow
in dark.

They are also influenced by factors such as the condition of the surface of material and the
interior of the discontinuity. For the liquid to penetrate effectively, the surface of the material
must be thoroughly cleaned of all foreign matter that would obstruct the entrance of the liquid
into the defect.
After cleaning, the liquid penetrant is applied evenly over the surface and allowed to remain long
enough to permit penetration into possible discontinuities. The liquid is then completely removed
from the surface of the component and either a wet or a dry developer is applied. The liquid that
has penetrated the defects will then bleed out onto the surface, and the developer will help
delineate them.
This will show the location and general nature and magnitude of any defect present. To hasten
this action, the part may be struck sharply to produce vibrations to force the liquid out of the
defect. The oil-whiting test is one of the older and cruder penetrant tests used for the detection of
cracks too small to be noticed in a visual inspection. In this method, the piece is covered with
penetrating oil, such as kerosene, then rubbed dry and coated with dry whiting.

In a short time the oil that has seeped into any cracks will be partially absorbed by the whiting,
producing plainly visible discolored streaks delineating the cracks.
The Dye penetrant test (DPT) based on liquid penetrant is a sensitive extremely versalite and a
very reliable method of test. It is quite inexpensive, does not require any special apparatus and is
quite simple in application. Only a moderate skill is required. In this test, the strongly coloured
red penetrant fluid (or dye) has a property of seeping into surface flaws when applied on an
impervious surface.
The steps involved in dye penetrant test are
(1) Clean the surface of the component free of dust and dirt with a piece of cloth.
(2) Brush the surface of the component to remove scale, rust, paint etc., by a soft wire brush.

(3) Spray the cleaner to remove oil, grease, etc. (4) Apply the dye penetrant (by spraying)
adequately to cover the area to be tested. Allow 3 to 5 minutes or more for dye to penetrate into
the cracks. (5) Wipe off the excess penetrant on the surface with a rag. (6) Again spray the
surface with the cleaner to remove the remnants of the red dye. (7) Spray the developer evenly
on the surface to give a thin even layer. This layer absorbs the penetrant from the cracks and red
spots or lines appear on t e stir ace to give a visible indication of the flaws. (8) The crack if any
will be indicated with the red dye absorbed by the white absorbent.

Applications
(i) Besides locating cracks and shrinkage in ferrous and especially non-ferrous castings,
fluorescent penetrant inspection is used to determine cracks in the fabrication and regrinding of
carbide tools, cracks and pits in welded structures, cracks in steam and gas turbine blading and
cracks in ceramic insulators for spark plugs and electronic applications.
(ii) Besides metals, penetrant inspection can also be carried out on parts made up of other
materials such as plastics, ceramics, glass, etc.

Ultrasonic Inspection -
Introduction
(i) Ultrasonic inspection is employed to detect and locate internal defects such as cracks,
porosity, inclusions, lack of fusion and incomplete penetration. Wall thickness can be measured
in close vessels or in cases where such measurement cannot otherwise be made.
(ii) Ultrasonic vibrations can be used to locate defects in ferrous and non-ferrous metallic objects
as well as in plastics and ceramics.
(iii) Ultrasonic inspection for flaw detection makes use of acoustic waves with frequencies in the
range between 20 kHz and 20 MHz, which can be transmitted through solids (even liquid and air
as well) and get reflected by the subsurface defects. Ultrasonic waves form a basis for detection,
location and size estimation of defects.

Principle of Operation
Ultrasonic waves are usually generated by the Piezoelectric effect which converts electrical
energy to mechanical energy. A quartz crystal is used for the purpose. When a high frequency
alternating electric current (of about 1 million cycles per second) is impressed across the faces of
the quartz crystal, the crystal will expand during the first half of the cycle and contract when the
electric field is reversed. In this manner the mechanical vibrations (sound waves) arc produced in
the crystal. The surface of job to be inspected by ultrasonic is made fairly smooth either by
machining or otherwise so that ultrasonic waves can be efficiently transmitted from the probe
into the job and even small defects can be detected properly. Ultrasonic inspection employs
separate probes (or search units), one for transmitting the waves and other to receive them after
passage through the welded jobs.

Alternatively, since the ultrasonic waves are transmitted as a series of intermittent pulses, the
same crystals may be employed both as the transmitter and receiver.
Before transmitting ultrasonic waves, an oil film is provided between the probe and the job
surface; this ensures proper contact between them and better transmission of waves from the
probe into the surface of the object to be tested. For operation, ultrasonic wave is introduced into
the metal and the time interval between transmission of the outgoing and reception of the
incoming signals is measured with a cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO). The time base of CRO is
so adjusted that the full width of the trace represents the section being examined. To start with, as
the wave is sent from the transmitter probe, it strikes the upper surface of the job and makes a
sharp (peak) or pips (echo) at the left hand side of the CRO screen.

If the job is sound, this wave will strike the bottom surface of the same, get reflected and
indicated by a pip towards the right-hand end of CRO screen. In case a defect exists in between
the top and bottom surfaces, most of the beam striking this defect will get reflected from the
defect, reach the receiver probe and indicate a pip (echo) on the CRO screen before the pip given
by the waves striking the far end of the job and returning. The distance of the defect from the
surface where transmitter probe is applied, can be determined with the help of a time distance
scale in the form of a square wave constantly shown on the oscilloscope. The distance scale may
be changed as per convenience and one cycle of square wave may indicate 1 cm or 25 cms, etc.
Quantitative assessment of defects can be made on the basis of the use of comparison standards
containing real or artificial defects such as drilled holes in metal blocks. The interpretation of
defect (echo) signal may be assisted by post-mortem sectioning of the job containing serious
flaws; correlation with radiography is also useful.

Advantages, Disadvantages and Applications of Ultrasonic Inspection -

Advantages
1. It is a fast and reliable method of non-destructive inspection.
2. This method of locating flaws with metal objects is more sensitive than radiography.
3. The minimum flaw size which can be detected is equal to about 0.1 % of the distance from the
probe to the defect.
4. Big weldments can be systematically scanned for initial detection of major defects.
5. Ultrasonic inspection involves low cost and high speed of operation.
6. The sensitivity of ultrasonic flaw detection is extremely high, being at a maximum when using
waves of highest frequency.

Limitations
1. Surface to be tested must be ground smooth and clean.
2. Skilled and trained operator is required.
3. It is not suited to the examination of weldments of complex shape or configurations.

Applications
1. Inspection of large weldments, castings and forging, for internal soundness, before carrying
out expensive machining operations.
2. Inspection of moving strip or plate (for laminations) as regards its thickness.
3. Routine inspection of locomotive axles and wheel pins for fatigue cracks.
4. Inspection of rails for bolt-hole breaks without dismantling rail-end assemblies.

Eddy Current Testing -

Principle of Operation
An AC. coil is brought up close to the weldment to be tested. The AC. coil induces eddy currents
in the welded object. These eddy currents produce their own magnetic field which opposes the
field of the AC. coil. The result is an increase in the impedance (resistance) of the AC. coil. Coil
impedance can be measured.
If there is a flaw in the weldment, as soon as the coil passes over the flow, there is a change in
the coil impedance which can be wired to give a warning light or sound and thus the flaw and its
location can be determined.
Flaws Indicated
Flaws at or close to the surface such as cracks, weld porosity, poor fusion or any linear
discontinuity can be detected.

Procedure
For generating eddy currents, the test piece is brought into the field of a coil carrying alternating
current.
The coil may encircle the part, may be in the form on probe, or in the case of tubular shapes, may
be wound to fit inside a tube or pipe. The eddy current in the metal test piece also sets up a
magnetic field, which opposes the original magnetic field. The impedance of the exciting coil or
of a second coil coupled to the first and in close proximity to the test piece is affected by the
presence of the induced eddy currents.
A second coil is often used is a convenience, and is called a sensing or pickup coil. In the case of
a crack or an unwelded seam, the discontinuity must be oriented nearly normal to the eddy
current flow to disturb it. The change in coil impedance caused by the presence of a discontinuity
can be measured, and is used to give an indication of the extent of defects. Subsurface
discontinuities may also be detected, but eddy currents decrease with depth

Advantages, Disadvantages and Applications of Eddy Current Testing -

Advantages
1. The coil or probe does not require contact with the surface to be tested.
2. The method can be used to test both ferrous and non-ferrous weldments.
Disadvantages
1. The method is limited to materials with good electrical conductivity.
2. The method is difficult to set and interpret.
Applications
EDDY CURRENT TESTING is primarily used for continuous inspection of seamless and
welded piping and tubing during production. Testing of ferromagnetic steel, austenitic stainless
steel, copper alloy, and nickel alloy tubular products are covered, by ASTM specifications.

Method Defects detected Advantages Limitations

Inaccuracies in size and Easy to apply at any stage Does not provide a permanent
Visual shape. Surface cracks and of fabrication and welding. record. Provides positive
porosity, under-cut, overlap, Low cost both in capital and information only for surface
crater faults labour. defects.

Surface cracks which may Easy to use. No equipment Only surface cracks detected
Dye- be missed by naked eye required. Low cost both in with certainty. No permanent
penetrate materials and labour. record.

Surface cracks Which may Relatively low cost. Only surface cracks detected
Magnetic- be missed by naked eye. Portable. Gives clear with certainty. Can be used only
particle May give indication of sub- indication. on ferromagnetic metals. Can
surface flaws. give spurious indications. No
permanent record.

Porosity, slag inclusions, Can be controlled to give Expensive equipment. Strict

Radiography cavities, and lack of reproducible results. Gives safety precautions required.
penetration. Cracks and permanent record. Better suited to butt joints -not
lack of fusion if correctly very satisfactory with fillet-welded
orientated with respect to joints. Requires high level of skill
beam. in choosing conditions and
interpreting results.

All sub-surface defects. Very sensitive can detect Permanent record is difficult to
Ultrasonic Laminations. defects too small to be obtain. Requires high level of skill
discovered by other in interpreting cathode-ray-tube
methods. Equipment is indications.
portable. Access required to
only one side.