1

Seminar 4

1. Typological analysis of the notional parts of speech and their categories

a) the adjective
The adjective as a part of speech is characterised in English and Ukrainian by its
common implicit lexico-grammatical nature and common functions in the sentence.
It expresses the quality of things or substances (a nice flower, urgent measures) and
can serve as a predicative complement after the copula-verb (the child was small,
she grew nervous; дитя було маленьке, вона стала нервовою)
According to their typological characteristics, adjectives split into some
isomorphic and allomorphic classes
Qualitative adjectives in both contrasted languages undergo grading, whereas
relative adjectives express qualities characterising objects and phenomena through
their relation to other objects and phenomena (Cf. economic progress, private
property, urban population; економічний розвиток, приватна власність, міське
населення). Relative adjectives in the contrasted languages, as was shown above,
fall into two subgroups: a) possessive and relative (присвійновідносні), which are
formed in English from nouns denoting family names or names of countries by
adding the suffixes -ic, -ian (Aesopian, Shakespearian, Shevchenkinian, Tolstovian,
Lermontovian); b) genuinely relative adjectives which have some inherent
possessive meaning (Cuban, Brazilian, Portugese, western, eastern) or: Kyiv parks,
London docks, Taras Shevchenko Prise winners etc
Ukrainian possessive and relative adjectives are formed by adding the suffixes -
евк/-івськ-/-цьк-, -зьк- to the noun stem: батьківський, учнівський,
Шевченківський, Малишківський, вояцький
Pertaining only to Ukrainian (and to some other Slavonic languages), however,
are possessive adjectives, which are formed from common and proper nouns
denoting living beings by adding to their roots/stems the suffixes -ів/-їв, -ин/-їн, -
ов-а, -ов-е, -ев-а, -ач/-яч: батьків, Сергіїв, Миколин, сестрин, Маріїн, лікарів,
водіїв, командирів, лисячий, комарів
Their corresponding forms in English are genitive case forms of nouns: father's,
Nick's, lion's (hunger), her brother-in-laws (book), frog's (leg), (my) sister's dress,
fox's tail, etc
As to the structure of adjectives they fall in English and Ukrainian into three
far from equal by their number groups:
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1. Base (simple) adjectives, which are regular root words (cf. big, bold, clean,
high, old, red, thin, wet, young, small, tall, etc. Such base adjectives are few though
structurally regular stems in Ukrainian. Cf. винен, годен/згоден, давен, дивен,
зелен, певен, ладен. Regular base adjectives, like those in English, are rather rare a
few in Ukrainian. They are: варт, рад, жив (і здоров).
2. Derivative adjectives which are in English regular stems: boy ish, capable,
despotic, grammatical, tedious, rural, urban, English, Germanic, beautiful, etc. The
Ukrainian language has many derivative adjectives though almost all of them are
structurally non-stem adjectives. They are formed with the help of different suffixes,
the main of which are as follows: -н-, - езн-, -ськ-/-зьк, -цьк- (товариський,
паризький, бузький, козацький); -ан-/-ян-, -ов-/-ев, -ев (гречаний, кропив'яний,
березовий, грушевий, баєвий); -льн- (доїльний, поїльник); -ч-(виборчий,
вірчий), -езн-, -ач-,- яч-, -ущ-, -ющ-, -уват-, -еньк-, -есеньк-, etc. as: величезний,
добрячий, багатющий, синюватий, білястий, дрібнесенький, гарнесенький, etc.
Derivative adjectives are formed in English with the help of the following suffixes:
-al/-ial (annual, bacterial); -able/-ible (capable, sensible); -ary/-ory (contrary,
advisory); -an/-ian: (urban, Ukrainian); -ant/-ent (defiant, divergent); - ern (eastern,
western); -ful (tactful, useful); -ic/-ical (basic, political); -ish (bookish, womanish);
- ive (active, conclusive), -less (careless, hopeless); -ous (tedious, poisonous); -ow
(narrow, yellow); -ward (westward, backward)', -y (milky, tidy) and some others.
3. Compound adjectives unlike basic and derivative ones are characterised in
the contrasted languages by some structural or lexical allomorphisms. Thus, they
may sometimes not correlate in English and Ukranian semantically. For example,
the English compound adjective breast-high can have in Ukrainian only a phrase
equivalent занурений до грудей/що дістає до грудей; ice-cold is холодний як лід/
крига. The English compound adjective upright on the other hand corresponds to
the Ukrainian simple derivative adjective чесний or прямий, вертикальний, which
are structurally non-equivalent (they are not compound in Ukrainian).

Grading of Adjectives in English and Ukrainian

Most qualitative adjectives in English and Ukrainian are gradable. Gradibility
in both contrasted languages is achieved by means of the positive (звичайний), the
comparative (вищий), and the superlative (найвищий) degrees markers. The way
of grading in the contrasted languages may be synthetic or analytical. The
employment of the synthetic way of grading is restricted in English mostly to base
adjectives, eg: big, bigger, biggest; long, longer, longest; young, younger, youngest,
etc. This way of grading have also English adjectives in - able, -er, -ow, -y (narrow,
narrower, narrowest; happy, happier, happiest; clever and the two-syllable adjectives
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with the concluding stressed syllable (eg: concise, conciser, concisest; complete,
completer, completest; polite, politer, politest, etc.).
The analytical forms of grading are more often employed in English than in
Ukrainian, eg: important, more/less important, the most/the least important;
interesting, more/less interesting, the most/the least interesting, etc. But:
більш/менш, найбільш/найменш придатний, більш/менш економний;
більш/менш дозрілий.
In Ukrainian the synthetic way of grading is more often used. It is formed
by means of the suffixes -іш-/-ш - and the prefixes най-, щонай-or якнай-, eg:
добрий, добріший, найдобріший / якнайдобріший; сміливий, сміливіший,
найсміливіший; молодий, молодший, щонаймолодший; добрий, добріший,
щонайдобріший, etc.
Some groups of adjectives in the contrasted languages have no grading. They
are a) adjectives denoting a constant feature of the noun referent (blind — сліпий,
deaf — глухий, barefooted — босий, nude — голий); b) adjectives expressing the
similarity of colour (lilac — бузковий, lemon — лимонний, cream — кремовий,
ruby — яскравочервоний, chestnut — темно-коричневий; с) adjectives denoting
colour of hair or eyes (dun — буланий, raven-black — вороний, bay — карий); d)
adjectives expressing the intensive property with the help of suffixes or prefixes
(bluish, reddish, yellowish; синявий, синюватий, жовтуватий, жовтісінький,
здоровенний, злющий, прегарний, супермодний).

b) the adverb
The adverb in English and Ukrainian is an indeclinable notional word
expressing the quality or state of an action, the circumstances in which the action
proceeds, or a degree of some other quality. Adverbs in English and Ukrainian have
some common, as well as some divergent features in their morphological structure
and partly in their syntactic functions. Thus, English adverbs are mostly formed with
the help of the suffixes -ly (greatly, slowly), -ward/-wards (seaward, eastwards), -
ways (sideways), -fold (twofold) and partly with the help of the prefixes -a- (aback,
aside; astride) and be- (before, besides).
Adverbs in Ukrainian may be formed by means of suffixes, eg: -o (гарно,
надійно), -е (добре, зле), -а (дарма, лежма), -и (полюдськи, по-французьки), -
ому (по-їхньому), -ему (по-моєму, по-своєму) and by means of prefixes and
suffixes (combined), eg: no- (noлюдськи, по-свинськи), най- (найкраще,
найзручніше), щонай- (щонайбільше); якнай- (якнайшвидше).
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Equally common in both languages is the formation of adverbs by way of

reduplication, eg: so-so, willy-nilly, fifty-fifty; ось-ось, ледвеледве, скоро-скоро,
тихо-тихо, etc.
In accordance with their lexico-syntactic meaning, adverbs in the contrasted
languages fall under the following three main divisions: 1) qualifying adverbs
denoting the quality or state of an action; 2) adverbs expressing the manner in which
the action is performed, and 3) adverbs giving a quantitative characteristics of an
action/quality. These adverbs modify the verb, the adjective, or the adverb (cf. to
pronounce sounds distinctly вимовляти звуки виразно).
Qualifying adverbs in both languages may be qualitative (badly, fast, slowly,
well — погано, добре, швидко, повільно) or those denoting manner of action
(unawares, upside-down, topsy-turvy, by chance — нехотячи, догори дном,
випадково, несвідомо, спроквола).
Qualitative adverbs also include adverbs of degree (denoting the degree of a
quantity: almost, entirely, too, rather, enough, almost — майже, цілком, дуже,
досить, досить-таки). These adverbs in English and Ukrainian express the intensity
of an action, eg: "She scarcely knew her neighbours yet." (Lawrence) "1 was
completely happy". (Galsworthy) or quantity: almost nine, almost two-thirds. Вона
майже не знала ще своїх сусідів. Я був цілком щасливий. Десь було біля
десяти. Майже дві третіх.
Qualitative adverbs in both contrasted languages may be used in the comparative
and superlative degrees. They are formed with the help of synthetic or analytical
means. Synthetic means are suffixes -er, -est in English and -ше, -іше, -ній in
Ukrainian. Unlike English, however, in Ukrainian prefixes are also used to form the
superlative degree of qualitative adverbs (най-, щонай-, якнай-): найшвидше,
найцікавіше.
The analytical means include auxiliary words (adverbs, particles): more, most,
still more, less, least, still less in English and their equivalent adverbs and particles
in Ukrainian, eg: often, oftener/more often, of-tenest/most often, less often, still
more/less often, more slowly, less/ least slowly, ясно, ясніше, найясніше,
більш/менш ясно, найбільш/ найменш ясно; ясно — ще ясніше/трохи ясніше,
набагато ясніше.
The suffix -ій/-чій is used to form the comparative degree of the adverbs хутко
— хутчій, мерщій. Eg: А йди хутчій. (Л. Українка). Біжи мерщій додому.
A particular (allomorphic for English) feature of many Ukrainian qualitative
adverbs is their ability to take diminutive suffixes (-еньк-, -есеньк-, -юсіньк-, -очк-
, -ечк-) and become diminutive: гарно — гарненько — гарнесенько —
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гарнюсінько — гарнюньо; тоненько — тонюсінько; трохи — трішечки;

рядочком, шнурочком, etc
The second large common group present adverbs denoting circumstances.
They are : 1) adverbs of time: now, always, then, today, tomorrow, just, so far,
sooner or later - зараз, тоді, завжди, сьогодні, взавтра, щойно, рано чи пізно.
Here also belongs the negative adverb never that has other similar negative
derivatives within adverbs of place (nowhere ніде) and adverbs of direction
(nowhence нізвідки, nowhere/ nowhither нікуди); 2) adverbs of
frequency/repetition of an action: always, daily, frequently, twice, usually - завжди,
щоденно, часто, двічі, звичайно; 3) adverbs and adverbial phrases of place or
direction of an action: here, there, inside, inwards, outside, somewhere, nowhere, to
and fro, etc. тут, там, надворі, десь, ніде, туди й сюди, etc.; 4) a small group of
adverbs in both contrasted languages is presented by those expressing cause and
purpose. Eg.: rashly згарячу (Марків партнер палахнув ізгарячу в його з обріза.
С. Васильченко); headlong спрожогу/прожогом: Петро спрожогу вибіг. (П.
Мирний) Very few adverbs express also purpose, as for instance:
purposely/intentionally, deliberately навмисне. Дерева, здавалось, навмисно
заступають дорогу. (О. Донченко); ostentationally напоказ: Дами охали та
пищали, кривлячи вуста та виставляючи напоказ які-то вони чулі та м'якого
серця. (І. Франко).
An isomorphic feature is the existence in both languages of a large group of
pronominal adverbs some of which are not available in English. Among these are:
1) interrogative and relative adverbs: where, when, why, how - де, куди, коли,
звідки, чому, як, поки, доки; 2) demonstrative adverbs: there, here, then, so — там,
тут, сюди, туди, тоді, так; 3) complementing adverbs: always, everywhere,
sometimes, otherwise — завжди, всюди, інколи, по-всякому, по-іншому; 4)
negative adverbs (more numerous in Ukrainian): nowhere, never - ніде, нізвідки,
нікуди, ніяк, нізащо; 5) indefinite adverbs which are more numerous in Ukrainian
as well: ever, somehow, somewhere, erewhile - десь, де-небудь, колись, коли-
небудь, кудись, чомусь, казна-звідки, казна-коли, хтозна-де, казна-куди, etc.
Also not available in English are some adverbs of comparison and likening
(означально-уподіблювальні) as соколом, стрілою, зозулею, по-батьківському,
no-новому, no-осінньому, etc. These and other adverbs of the kind have in English
for their equivalents adverbial phrases like in a fatherly way (по-батьковськи), like
a falcon (соколом), in a new fashion (по-новому), etc.
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c) the pronoun
The Pronoun as a part of speech correlates in English and Ukrainian with the
following parts of speech as their deictic substitutes: a) with nouns: he/Pete,
she/Ann, etc.; b) Some classes of pronouns may also correlate (attributive function)
with adjectives (his, her, your, etc. book); the first/ second, etc. look; c) Several
pronouns also correlate in English and Ukrainian with numerals when they denote
generalising quantity: кілька, декілька (some, much, few/a few). Their Ukrainian
equivalents кілька, декілька, кільканадцять, however, belong to indefinite cardinal
numerals. Hence, these words correlate lexically and functionally, performing in
both languages the attributive function. Eg: some/few friends, much snow/water,
кілька/декілька друзів. Багато снігу/води, etc
Most Ukrainian pronouns have the following morphological categories: 1) that
of number (мій — мої, наш — наші); 2) case (мого, моєму, моїм) and 3) gender
(мій брат, моя сестра, моє завдання). English pronouns have nominative case
(somebody), genitive case (somebody's, my, his, her, your, their), and objective case
(me, him, her, us, them, whom).
Each of the eight classes of pronouns in the contrasted languages is endowed
with some isomorphic and allomorphic features of its own. This can be seen from
their short characteristics that follows.
1. Personal Pronouns (seven in English: /, he, she, it, we, you, they) and eight
in Ukrainian (because of the existence of mu — thou which was substituted in
English by you). All personal pronouns in Ukrai nian are declinable: я, мене, мені,
мною, на мені. They have person and gender distinctions (мій олівець, моя ручка,
моє завдання). All English personal pronouns, except it and you take their explicit
objective case forms (me, him, her, us, them).
The pronouns we, you, they may form in English indefinite personal sentences,
eg: We must not allow children do what they like (не треба дозволяти дітям
робити, що їм заманеться). You don't say so. He може бути! Невже? They say.
Кажуть.
There is an absolute identity, however, in both languages in the use of the
pronoun "we" by speakers or authors instead of the personal pronoun "I" (cf. We
hold the view that... Ми вважаємо, що...).
2. English possessive pronouns, unlike their counterparts in Ukrainian, may
be of two types: a) possessive conjoint (my, his, her, etc.) and b) possessive absolute
(mine, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs.). The latter are used as attributes (the friend of
mine) or as predicatives (that book is mine). English possessive conjoint pronouns
very often function as determiners, eg: He has his hands in his pockets.
Allomorphism is ob served in Ukrainian possessive pronouns which have gender
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(мій, моя, моє), case (мого, моєму,моїм, etc.) and number categories (мої, твої,
наш - наші) lacking in English. Besides, they are often substantivised in colloquial
speech (cf. Твоя прийшла). Вона (сестра, дружина) вдома? Чий (хлопець,
чоловік) то приходив? Наша взяла.
3. Reflexive pronouns (self-pronouns) in English have singular and plural
forms (myself, himself, ourselves, themselves, etc.). They correspond to the
Ukrainian себе pronoun which has no nominative case form but only genitive and
other case-forms (ceбe, собі, себе, собою на собі) and no number distinctions (я
питаю себе, ти вигороджуєш себе, вони знають себе).
4. English demonstrative pronouns have virtually the same equivalents in
Ukrainian with their common (attributive) function in speech. These pronouns are
this/that, these/those, this same/that same, such a, such; цей/той, ці/ті, такий/такі,
цей самий/той самий, стільки. These English demonstrative pronouns agree in
number with the head noun: this day — these days, such a book — such books, this
same book — these same books/those same books. They form in English the only
synthetic by structure substantival word-groups.
Apart from the category of number Ukrainian demonstrative pronouns, which are
more numerous than in English, have also case and gender distinctions, eg: цей
самий студент — ця сама студентка -це саме число. Declinable are also other
demonstrative pronouns: цього/цієї, цьому/цій, цим/цією.
5. Interrogative pronouns in the contrasted languages are used as noun-pronouns
(who, what, how many/how much; хто, що, скільки) and as adjective pronouns
(which, whose; який, котрий, чий). They may correlate with numerals (how
much/how many? — скільки?). In contrast to Ukrainian, English interrogative
pronouns have no number, case or gender distinctions (except "whom" and "whose")
expressing respectively the objective and genitive case form as most of their Ukraini
an equivalents do, eg: чий, чия, чиє, чиї/чийому, чиїй, чиїх, etc. The pronoun
стільки, as has been illustrated already, does not express gender or number category
but only quantity (cf. скільки снігу, скільки людей) as its English equivalents (how
many books? how much sugar?)
6. Relative pronouns in English and Ukrainian coincide in their form (structure)
with the interrogative pronouns. They perform the function of connectors (cf. I know
what to do. He asked who did it. Я знаю, що робити. Він запитував, хто це зробив/
скільки це коштуватиме).
Ukrainian relative pronouns, however, are declinable (cf. Він знав, кому
завдячувати це. Він запитував, кого запросити на збори. Вона не цікавилася,
скількох це стосувалося, бо знала, чого це все коштувало). The only exception
makes, of course, the pronoun скільки (referring to uncountables). Eg. Вони не
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знали, скільки часу це ще триватиме. But: Ми знали, скільком (countable)

мільйонам українців національна ідея коштувала життя.
7. Reciprocal pronouns (взаємні займенники) are two in English (each other and
one another) and one in Ukrainian, where it exists in three gender forms used in
singular and plural as noun pronouns: один одного, одна одну, одне одного, одні
одних.. Very often, however, the neuter gender form may be used in Ukrainian for
any gender and number (singular or plural) nouns. Eg: The two younger people
looked at one another. (Huxley) — Обоє молодят поглядали одне на одного. They
looked into each other's eyes for a silent moment. (M. Wilson) - Вони якусь мить
мовчки дивились у вічі одне одному. Or: Хлопці й дівчата були варті одні
одних.
8. Indefinite pronouns (неозначені займенники) constitute, as was already
pointed out, a rather controversial class. Some grammarians (R. Quirk, S.
Greenbaum, G. Leech, J. Svartvik) speak of "universal pronouns" (each, all, every,
the very) and of 'partitive pronouns' (some thing, anything, nothing, either, neither,
any, no, none, etc.). Hence, as indefinite in both languages can be identified such
pronouns as some, any, somebody, anybody/ anybody's, someone/someone's,
something, anything. They have for their Ukrainian equivalents дехто, дещо, хтось,
щось, хто-небудь, що-небудь, який-небудь, будь-хто, будь-що, казна-хто,
казна-що. Equivalents of some English pronouns (cf. much, little, few) are allotted
in Ukrainian to indefinite numerals (небагато/кілька). В. S. Khaimovich and B. I.
Rohovska, as has been mentioned already, subdivided the English indefinite
pronouns into three subclasses: 1) "genuine indefinite pronouns" (some, any and
their com pounds); 2) "generalising pronouns" (all, both, each, and their com
pounds); 3) "quantitative pronouns" (many, much, few, little), and 4) "con trasting
pronouns" (another, other, one)
Many grammarians treat negative pronouns (заперечні займенники) as a
separate class of pronouns. The latter are generally common in English and
Ukrainian, cf.: no, nobody, none, nothing, neither — ніхто, ніщо, ніякий/нікотрий,
нічий, ніскільки. Ukrainian negative pronouns are naturally declinable and are used
as noun pronouns. Isomorphic in the contrasted languages are the structural forms
of negative pronouns, which may be simple (no), compound, or composite, eg: none
(no one), nobody, nothing, nothing else, nothing more - ніхто, ніщо, ніякий,
нікотрий, ніхто інший, жоден інший, ні один (із них), більш нічого
 9

d) numeral
The Numeral in the contrasted languages has a common implicit lexico-
grammatical meaning expressing quantity (two, ten, twentyone, два, десять,
двадцять один). It may denote a part of an object (one-third, two-fifths, одна третя,
дві п'ятих) or order of some objects (the first, the tenth - перший, десятий). The
syntagmatic properties of numerals are characterised in the contrasted languages by
the identical combinability of numerals a) with nouns (four days, the first step;
чотири дні, перший крок); b) with pronouns (all three, some five or so; всі три,
якихось п'ятеро з них); с) with numerals (two from ten, one of the first, the second
of the ten; два від п'яти, один із перших, другий з-поміж п'яти); d) with adverbs
(the two below/ahead, двоє спереду); е) with the infinitive (the first to соте/to read;
перша співати, другий відповідати), etc.
In the sentence the numeral performs the same function as the noun (cardinal
numerals) and adjective (the ordinal numerals), i.e. it can be subject (Four are
present), object (I like the second), attribute (It is my second trip), a simple nominal
predicate (cf. the two there; їх десять там) and the adverbial modifier (they marched
three and three; вони йшли по три).
All numerals in the contrasted languages fall into some common and divergent
subclasses. Common are 1) cardinal; 2) ordinal and 3) fractionals (common fractions
and decimal fractions). Cardinal numerals in both languages denote number: three,
five, ten, twenty-one, etc. три, п'ять, десять, двадцять один. Ordinal numerals
denote order of persons or objects and are used in English speech with the definite
article: the third, the fifth, the tenth, the twenty-first, the one hundred and twenty-
third, etc. Ukrainian ordinal numerals are semantically of isomorphic nature:
перший, третій, п'ятий, двадцять п'ятий, сто двадцять п'ятий. The main
allomorphic feature of numerals (like other nominals) find their expression in the
existence of morphological/categorial endings pertained to most numerals that are
declinable in Ukrainian. They have number, case and partly gender distinctions. For
example, the category of case: десять, десяти, десятьом, десятьма; другий,
другого, другому, другим; дві треті, двох третіх, двом третім; дві цілих і три
десятих, двом цілим і трьом десятим, etc
An exception makes the category of gender of the cardinal numerals один and
два which have three gender distinctions (один, одна, одне; два, дві, двоє). All
other cardinal numerals have a common form for masculine and feminine genders
and a separate form for the neuter gender, eg: три жінки, три чоловіки, but троє
дітей; п'ять дубів/ лип and п'ятеро курчат, even п'ятеро хлопців/дівчат (not only
when they are small. Cf.: Там було з п'ятеро хлопців). The category of number
have only ordinal numerals in Ukrainian. Cf. перші (вони були першими), другі
(прийшли другими); Ніхто не хотів бути тринадцятим, etc.
 10

Common and decimal fractionals have an identical expression in both

languages: 1 3/4 one and three fourths, 3 1/5 three and one fifths; or 0.5 zero point
five (or naught point five); 14.33 fourteen point thirty-three, etc. Ukrainian
fractionals are, naturally, declinable. They have case forms. Eg: 0,1 нуль цілих і
одна десята, нуль цілих і однієї десятої, нуль цілих і одній десятій/однією
десятою; 3'/2 три цілих і одна друга (однієї другої, одній другій, однією
другою), etc
Apart from the above-given subclasses, the Ukrainian language has two more
subclasses of numerals unknown in English. Namely: 1) The indefinite cardinal
numerals which express a) common homogeneous objects (декілька/кілька
голубів/риб, квіток); кільканадцять книжок (гривень/риб);
кількадесят/кількасот чоловіків, жінок) or b) an indefinite quantity of objects:
багато/небагато книжок (цукру, добра, користі). 2) Ukrainian has also collective
numerals which denote a quantity of objects in their totality (сукупність) or
indivisible unity, eg: двоє, троє, семеро, п'ятнадцятеро, тридцятеро (дітей, вікон,
чоловіків). Collective numerals have parallel diminutive forms: двоє -
двійко/двієчко, п'ятеро/п'ятірко, п'ятірочко (діток, хлопчиків,
каченят/каченяток). Collective numerals are also used in dual number (обоє,
обидва, обидві: обоє дітей, обидва чоловіки, обидві руки/руці). These numerals
may often be used, as was already illustrated, with nouns irrespective of their gender
(n'ятеро чоловіків, п'ятеро жінок, п'ятеро дітей, семеро немовлят, десятеро
поросят). Consequently, the classes of numerals in the contrasted languages are
partly different. This can be seen from the given table below.
 11

Numerals in English and Ukrainian may be of isomorphic and allomorphic

structure. Namely: 1) Simple (one, two, ten, eleven; один, п'ять, десять, десятеро,
двійко, мало, багато, etc). 2) Derivative numerals, pertaining to English only (cf.
thirteen, fourteen... nineteen, twenty, thirty, fifty... ninety). 3) Compound numerals
in English are all from twenty-one (twenty-two, etc.) to ninety-nine. In Ukrainian
compound are numerals in -надцять (from одинадцять to дев'ятнадцять), and in
tens (from двадцять to дев'яносто), except сто. Compound are also fractionals
півтора, півтораста; the indefinite cardinals кількадесят, кільканадцять,
кількасот, стонадцять, and all ordinals derived from compound cardinals
(одинадцятий, дванадцятий, дев'яностий, двохсотий). 4) Composite in the
contrasted languages are numerals consisting of compound/composite + simple
numerals or vice versa, eg: one hundred and twenty, twenty-two thousand, five
hundred and thirty-one; сто два, триста один, дві тисячі п'ятсот тридцять два,
сімдесят тисяч сімсот дев'ятнадцять, etc. Composite are also fractional numerals,
such as one-fifth, three-ninths, one and twofourths; одна третя, п'ять шостих, три
цілих і одна четверта, etc. All classes of numerals are declinable in Ukrainian,
which makes this morphological feature allomorphic for the English language. Cf.
десять, десятьох, десятьма; перший (перша, перше, перші); першого, першому,
першим, першими, etc. Similarly with fractional numerals: дві третіх, двом
третім, двома третіми; одній цілій і двом п'ятим, двох цілих і однієї п'ятої;
двома цілими і трьома п'ятими, etc

2. Typological analysis of functional parts of speech and their categories:

a) the preposition
Prepositions in English and Ukrainian are characterised by both isomorphic and
allomorphic features. Isomorphism is clearly observed in the morphological
structure of prepositions which can be in the contrasted languages as follows:
 12

The only structural difference, therefore, is in the group of simple prepositions,

among which there are some Ukrainian prepositions consisting of a single consonant
or vowel (в, у, о, з). Cf. в очі, у возі, о п'ятій годині, з гір
The lexico-grammatical meaning of prepositions as semi-notional words is
isomorphic in both languages as well. Prepositions may be temporal (before noon
до обіду, after that після того, during the war під час війни, since Monday від
понеділка, until he came доки він не прийде, etc.); local (along the road вздовж
дороги, across the street через шлях, among the books серед книжок, in front of
me переді мною), behind/over the house за/над хатою; causal (because of that
через те що, in view of all this з погляду на це, or pervasive (he poured water all
over me з голови до ніг); concessive (despite his expectations всупереч його
очікуванням).
Prepositions are characterised by an almost exclusive bilateral combinability
with any left-hand notional and a right-hand nominal part of speech/its equivalent
A preposition expressing a relation between two entities forms a prepositional
complement with the right-hand component. The latter is almost always
morphologically amorphous, except when it is a personal or interrogative/relative
w/h-pronoun having in English an objective case form, eg: ask about me, done by
him/them, promised by whom, etc. Ukrainian prepositional complements are almost
entirely marked by case inflexions, i. e. governed analytico-synthetically (cf.
книжка для неї/Марії, лист від товариша, троє з товаришів, засмаглий на сонці,
легко на душі).
In titles, however, prepositions may have only a right-hand combinability, eg:
"To a skylark" (Shelley). "Of Human Bondage" (Maugham), "Under the
Greenwood Tree" (T. Hardy), "До Основ'яненка" (Шевченко), До мого
фортеп'яно" (Л. Українка), "Під мінаретами" (Коцюбинський), "На майдані"
(Тичина), etc
A peculiar feature of English is the postposed use of prepositions in some
interrogative sentences (What paper have you subscribed to?); in exclamations
(What an accident he's got in!), or in the subjective with the infinitive constructions
(She's impossible to work with).
According to their meaning prepositions in the contrasted languages may
express various syntactic relations, the main of which are as follows:
1. Agentive relations: the play written by Shakespeare бути /під чиєюсь високою
рукою/під орудою. 2. Objective relations: to be angry/ satisfied with somebody
сердитись на когось, помиритися з кимсь. 3. Attributive relations: birds of a
feather, the man in question товариші по школі, друзі з Канади. 4. Various
adverbial relations: a) temporal: to depart on Monday, to arrive in spring
 13

від'їжджати в понеділок, приїхати в березні/через півроку; b) local: in the

cottage, behind the fence, in front of the house у хаті, за тином, під лісом; с) of
direction: into the room, go out of the room, he went to the door у кімнату/з
кімнати, зайдіть до хати; d) of manner or comparison: to look in astonishment, the
air came in a warm wave глянути з подивом; радощів у серці через край
(Тичина); е) of attendant circumstances: Winter set in early and unexpectedly with
a heavy fall of snow. (Cronin) зима прийшла зі снігопадами; f) of cause: My dog
pants, with the heat собака задихається від спеки. Троє діток на віспу вмерли.
(Федькович); g) of concession: they continued their way despite the rain, he would
do it in spite of the obstacles. Чорнявому зрадливому на лютеє горе...
(Шевченко). Він приїде незважаючи на хворобу; h) of possession: books of his
brother, the windows of the cottage. Стояв генерал... при всіх орденах
(Яновський). Отже, будемо й ми при розумі. (Головко). 5. Various other
relations as: a) Relations of resemblance: she is like her mother (він схожий на
батька), b) Relations of subordination: to be secretary to the firm manager бути
секретарем у посла, с) Relations of dissociation: to be devoid of suspicion бути
вільним від підозри/бути поза підозрою, etc
These are the main but far from all the relations expressed by prerepositions in
English and Ukrainian word-groups and utterances. Allomorphism is observed only
in the nature of the syntactic functions of prepositions. These are mainly linking in
English, where prepositions generally do not require any case form from the right-
hand nominal component (cf. a book of my brother, toys/or the child, four of the
boys). An exception present the so-called grammaticalised preposition of, to, for, by
and with which explicitly express the corresponding case relations, namely: of the
genitive case relation (books of hers, theirs), to the dative case relation (sent to them,
books for him/us), by and with the instrumental (орудний) case relation (written by
him/them, us, went with her, us, them), etc.
In Ukrainian, on the other hand, prepositions govern nouns, pronouns, numerals,
substantivised adjectives and nominal word-groups, eg: праця в садку/на полі,
лежати під грушею (під дубом), лист від нього/від першого, захист від
польових гризунів, книжка для двох, переляк від червоного, etc.
Ukrainian prepositions may be used with nominals in a certain case form only, as
for instance, in the genitive case (без, біля, від, для, до, and others) or with two
cases, for example, with the accusative and instrumental case (над, під, перед), and
sometimes with three cases (з, за, між, у): у житті, у відповідь, з горя/горем.
Therefore, Ukrainian prepositions, unlike the English ones, help to express different
syntactic relations through case forms of the subordinated nominal parts of speech
in word-groups and utterances/sentences. Each of the more than 130 Ukrainian
prepositions is used to express one or more case relations as can party be observed
from the following table:
 14

Even a passing look at the table proves the existence of a quantitative

disproportionality concerning the allocation of Ukrainian prepositions among
separate case forms. Thus, no derivative prepositions are used with the accusative,
instrumental and locative case forms. Besides, the dative case lacks derivative and
composite prepositions, whereas the locative case has only some 5 simple
prepositions to govern nominal parts of speech. The overwhelming number of
prepositions, however, are used in Ukrainian with the genitive case. Their number
more than two times exceeds the number of prepositions used with all other case
forms.
 15

b) conjunction
Conjunctions in the contrasted languages are functional words realising the
connection of homogeneous parts in co-ordinate wordgroups and sentences or
linking subordinate clauses in composite sentences. As to their structure,
conjunctions in English and Ukrainian are generally characterised by isomorphism.
The various types are as follows: 1) Simple (and, but, or, if, that, till і /й, а, бо, ні,
та/. 2) Derivative/compound: all + though --» although, un + less -» unless, be +
cause — » because, un + till -» until, where + as -» whereas, a + бо -» або, за + те -
» зате, про + те — проте, як + що -» якщо, як + би -» якби, etc. 3) Composite
(складені): as if, as soon as, in order that; так що; через те, що; для того, щоб; з
того час, як; відтоді, як, etc.
As to their syntactic functions, conjunctions in the contrasted languages fall
into two common-isomorphic groups: a) co-ordinating conjunctions and b)
subordinating conjunctions.
Co-ordinating conjunctions in the contrasted languages fall into the following
subclasses:
1)Copulative (єднальні): and, nor, neither... nor, as well as, both... and, not
only... but also; і/й, та, також, і... і, ні... ні, як... так і, не тільки... але й/і.
Copulative conjunctions in the contrasted languages have a bilateral combinability.
They connect separate components, com ponental parts of word-groups or clauses
in compound sentences which are of equal rank, eg: In the afternoon he and Jolly
took picks and spades and went to the field. (Galsworthy), "It was a cold fall and the
wind came from the mountains". (Hemingway). По обіді він і Джоллі взяли кайла
і лопати й пішли на поле. Була холодна осінь, і вітер віяв з гір. І пить будем, і
гулять будем. (Ukr. Folk-song)
2)Disjunctive (розділові) conjunctions denote in both languages sepa ration.
They are: or, either... or або, ато, чи, або... або, чи... чи, то... то, чи то...чи то, eg:
"I must weep, or else this heavy heart will burst". (Byron) "I have nothing of the
artist in me, either in faculty or character". (B. Shaw). Я мушу плакати, ато від
горя серце розірветься. "Все пішло то на податі, то на борги, то на оренди".
(Гончар)
3) Adversative (протиставні): but, still, yet але, проте, зате, однак, все ж and
others. Eg: Andrew turned towards her distressed, yet still determined to carry out
his intention. (Cronin) Ендрю повернувся до неї занепокоєний, але готовий
здійснити свій намір.
4) Resultative (пояснювальні): so, hence так, що, тож/отож, тобто, а саме,
як от, eg: The grass was drenching wet, so he descended to the road. (Galsworthy)
 16

У траві стояла вода, тож він вийшов на шлях. І він катапультується, тобто
вистрілює себе з літака разом з сидінням. (Гончар).
5) The causal conjunction (for) is pertaining only to English, eg: The
windows were open, for it was hot. (Galsworthy). The corre sponding semantic
equivalent of this conjunction in Ukrainian are, бо, тому що, оскільки - all of
subordinating nature which testifies its allomorphism in the system of co-ordinate
conjunctions in the contrasted languages. Consequently, it is sometimes far from
easy for Ukrainian students to differentiate Ukrainian causal clauses in a complex
sentence. It is not so with the subordinating conjunctions introducing subordi nate
clauses. These conjunctions also include in both languages the group of the so-called
connectives standing separate from regular subordinating conjunctions. Regular
conjunctions of this group are: that, whether, if, що, чи, якщо/якби which are used
to introduce in both languages subject, object, predicative and attributive clauses.
Eg. Whether/if he is going to come or not is still unknown. The question is whether
he is going to come or not. He asked if was going to come. I know that he is going
to come. This is the flower that was bought there, etc. Similarly in Ukrainian: Чи
він прийде ще - не відомо. Питання полягає в тому, що/ чи він ще прийде. Я
вірю/знаю, що він прийде. Common functions in both contrasted languages are
also performed by connective or conjunctive/relative (as they are often referred to)
pronouns: who, what, which, how many, хто, що, який, котрий, чий, скільки; and
by connective/ conjunctive adverbs: where, when, how, why, де, коли, куди, як,
чому.
Subordinate conjunctions introducing adverbial clauses are of isomorphic
nature, i. e. common in both contrasted languages, too. They express different sense
relations and fall into the following groups:
1. Conjunctions of time: since, until, till, as long as, after, before, while, as soon as,
коли, відколи, поки, аж поки, доки, аж доки, як, після того як, в міру того як,
як тільки, тільки що, щойно, ледве.
2. Conjunctions/connectives of place and direction: where, wherev er, whence, де,
де б, куди, звідки.
3. Conjunctions of cause or reason: as, because, since, seeing, бо, через те що, тому
що, затим що, оскільки.
4. Conjunctions of condition: if, unless, provided, supposing якби, якщо, якщо б,
коли б, аби, скоро.
5. Conjunctions of purpose: lest, that, in order that, so that, щоб, для того щоб, з
тим щоб.
6. Conjunctions of result: so that, that, так що, отож:, тож.
 17

7. Conjunctions of concession: though, although, as, even if, even though, however,
wherever, whatever, whichever, хоч, хай, нехай, дарма що, незважаючи (на).
8. Conjunctions of comparison: as, as...as, not so... as, than, as if, as though, як, що,
мов, мовби, немов, немовби, наче, неначе, начебто, ніби, нібито.

c) the particle
Particles in English and Ukrainian are unchangeable words specifying some
component in a phrase or the whole phrase (a sentence/clause). Unlike conjunctions
or prepositions, particles do not express any syntactic relations. Their function is in
both languages to emphasise, restrict or make negative the meaning of the units they
specify by giving some additional shade (emotional, evaluative, etc.) to their
meaning/sense. Therefore some particles may perform a formbuilding function (cf.
To be or not to be. бути чи не бути.) Besides, particles in both contrasted languages
express an attitudinal relation to action, state or the whole message/or to reality, as
well as to expressing the attitude of the speaker to the content of some message.
Hence, the categorial meaning of a particle in both contrasted languages comes to
influencing the content/sense expressed in the utterance.
As to their morphological structure, particles in the contrasted languages
may be: 1) Simple: all, else, even, just, too, yet, not, а, і/й, так, ну, не, ж...;
2) Derivative: alone, merely, scarcely, simply, нум, нумо, було, просто, все,
воно, собі, та, те, це, оце, а, чи; 3) Compound: almost, also (невже, якраз).
Isomorphic is the homonymy of many particles in English and Ukrainian with
the following parts of speech:
a) with adverbs: exactly, precisely, never, simply, still, просто, лиш, там, ще,
вже; b) with adjectives (in English): even, right, just; c) with pronouns: all, either,
все, воно, собі, те, то; d) with conjunctions (very few in English): but they are in
Ukrainian (а, і, та, чи); е) with articles (in English only): the more, the better; the
longer.
Quite common, although not always equally represented, are the semantic
groups of particles in both contrasted languages. Namely:
1. Particles of emphatic precision (емфатичного уточнення): absolutely,
exactly, precisely, right, точно, справді, просто, прямо and others.
2. Demonstrative particles/вказівні: here, there, ось, от, це, оце, онде, воно:
"Here is the man". "There's no little thing you want..." Ось цей чоловік. / Ось де
цей чоловік. «Ото ж бо й є».
3. Affirmative particles/стверджувальні: well, now, yes, так, гаразд, еге, еге
ж, атож: "Well, now, tell me if I'm wrong". "Yes, said her host. Yes, indeed".
"Отож. Так, ви може й маєте рацію." "Так, — сказав господар. -Авжеж, так.
" (Таки так.)
4. Intensifying particles / підсилювальні/ are rather numerous in English and
Ukrainian: all, but, just, even, simply, yet, still, etc. і, й, та, таки, аж, навіть, вже,
ж, бо, же, (a) and others: "Не simply could not bear joking "He was late too ". Він
просто не сприймав жартів. Він запізнився також.
 18

5. Negative or form-building (заперечні й формотворні) particles:

not, never, no, не, ні, ані. These particles are used for the following purposes:
a) to make a predicate verb in both languages negative, eg: "Six weeks isn't
really long.." "Don't you forget!" Ой не ходи, Грицю... Не називаю її раєм. .. Ні,
я буду співати пісні!
b) to make a part of the sentence/a component of a word-group negative, eg:
Not everyman's money. He кожному по кишені. "He is neither fish nor fowl." "Ні
риба, ні м'ясо. (Ні Богу свічка, ні чорту шпичка).
c) to negate the preceding suggestion, eg: "What'd he cop, malaria?" "No". "У
нього що - малярія?" - Hi. "I am careful". "No, you are not." "Я ж уважний."
"Hi, ти не уважний. "
6. Interrogative particles/запитальні частки: well, really, no, why, why not, ну,
невже, хіба, та ну, що за, eg: "...This isn't the man". "No?" — Це не той чоловік
— Ні? "However, I don't believe it". — Однак я не вірю цьому.
"Why not?" "This is Slogle speaking..." — Чому б ні? Це справді говорить Слоґл.
"Yes?". "It's not so very terrible "Well?" - Так? Це не так уже й страшно."
— Справді?/ Так?
7. Connecting or linking particles/приєднувальні частки: also, too (тож,
також/теж, до того ж, ще й), eg: "Не also takes off his hat and over coat - Він
також скидає капелюха й пальто. " Soames, too, was silent. Сомз теж
мовчав./Сомз також промовчав.
The large number of particles in both languages and the diversity of their
specifying capacity make it possible to single out some more discrete groups of these
words. Among these the following are most represented in English and Ukrainian:
a) quantitative (кількісні) particles: almost (almost everything), approximately
(approximately the size) майже, приблизно, близько, мало не, трохи не, чи не,
ледве не;
b) emphasising or singling out particles (видільні частки): even that, only
look/say, more intense, more than necessary. And in Ukrainian: навіть, тільки,
лише, лиш, хоч, хоча б, аж, же/ж, все, собі, таки, eg: ...тільки в цьому
котловані буяють рясні сади. Хоча б цієї столиці не минути... Сині, аж сизі.
А серце... таки рветься до кращого життя...
A distinguishing feature of present-day Ukrainian is a more extensive use of
particles in speech (especially of emphasising and modal particles). The latter
constitute a large group including such particles as б, би, мов, мовби, бодай, хай,
нехай, може, нум, нумо, etc. Cf.: A бодай вам весело було. Пройти б на старе
бойовище. Хай тільки-но зачеплять... ...зморшки на чолі все глибшають у
мене...Це далеко? А це як міряти
Ukrainian has also a wide use of interrogative particles. Cf. Невже не можна
ради дати серцю?... Те дерево, що я садив, чи діждеться весни? Хіба є хто на
світі крилатіший за людину? Це ти Шовкун?
As was already mentioned particles in both contrasted languages can perform
not only form-building but also word-forming functions. Word-forming are the
following English particles: else-, not-, no more-, -most (elsewhere,
 19

notwithstanding, forget-me-not, nothingness, moreover, almost, altogether,

although, nothing, nowhere).
Ukrainian has a considerably larger number of word-forming particles, eg: -
будь, -небудь, казна-, хтозна-, -сь, аби-, де-, не-, ні-, би-, б-, -же-, -ж and others:
хто-небудь, декуди, де-небудь, якийсь, мовби, ніби, начеб, щоб, ніколи,
недбальство, ніде, ніщо, казна що, немов, адже, отже, також, теж, ніж, etc.
Form-building particles are used in English in the following functions:
a) as an infinitival identifier: to ask, to be reading; b) as a representation
specifier (he'll come if asked to); c) as a specifier of degree (the larger part, he's the
quickest, more quickly); d) as a negator of a word (eg: cannot) or a phrase (not he,
certainly not, no reading practice).
Ukrainian form-building particles have a wider range of use. They may be part
of a morphological paradigm (as in case of the particles хай, нехай, най-, що-, як-,
-сь, би/б): Хай він жде біля криниці... ...нехай їдуть під шум. Якби були батько,
мати, Та були б багаті, Було б кому взяти.

d) the interjection
Unlike notionals, interjections in English and Ukrainian do not correlate with
notions, they do not express any relations or point to any connection with words in
an utterance. Interjections are unchangeable words or phrases expressing emotional
and volitional reaction of the speaker on some event. Hence, there are to be
distinguished communicative, emotive, and signalising interjections, which express
respectively joy or pleasure, sadness, warning or repugnance, etc. Cf.:
"O-o, grand!" "O-o, пречудово!", "Fine!" - Прекрасно!, "Oh, keeno!" -
Прекрасно! О, просто чудо!, "My, how you've changed!" — Боже мій, як ти
змінився!, "Oh, it hurts me. Oh!" - Ой, як болить. Ой!
As can be noticed, interjections in English and Ukrainian utterances mostly
occupy a front position, rarely a midposition or a closing position. Cf.: А ми! хе! хе!
а ми жонаті. І одного часу, як гукне, так, ой-ой-ой!
Interjections may be primary (первинні) and derivative (похідні). According
to their structure, interjections may be simple, compound and composite, or phrasal.
I. Simple interjections fall into some subgroups, namely: a) interjections
consisting of one or two sounds: ah, a-ah, oh, oo, ooh, oof, coo, gee. Or in Ukrainian:
а! е! о! е-е! ай! ах! ox! xa! xe!yx! am! em! etc. b) Interjections may consist of
consonant sounds only: brr, mm, sh (sh-sh) гм! хм! цсс! шш! брр!; с) interjections
often consist of more than two different sounds which form one syllable: gosh, tut,
umph, whoop гай! гей! гов! гоп! пхе! пхи! etc; d) interjections can consist of two
syllables: alas, ahem, boffo, hello/hullo, okey ага! агей! ату! агусь! ану! люлі!
нумо! овва! ого! мугу!); е) reduplicating (повторні) interjections are pertained to
both languages as well: ah-ah, ay-ay, ee-ee, goe-goe, how-how, ho-ho, hubba-
hubba, chockchock, ta-ta, tut-tut. Similarly in Ukrainian: a-a, ану-ану, гай-гай, еге-
ге, о-го-го, ну-ну, ха-ха.
 20

Compound interjections are more characteristic of English than of Ukrainian,

eg: heigh-ho, holla-ho, fiddlesticks, whoo-whoop, wo-ho, yo-ho, etc. Cf.: Господи-
Боже! Добридень! Спасибі! Боже мій!
Derivative interjections constitute a common group in the contrasted languages
too. They are mostly of common origin and sometimes even of identical lexical
meaning. There are distinguished six types of emotional interjections in the
contrasted languages: a) of substantival origin: beans! bully! fiddle! hell! Lord! nuts!
raspberry! rabbit! rats! taps! Господи! матінко! пене! Боже! леле! жах! страх!
ґвалт! слава! хвала! біда! горе!; b) of verbal origin: come! look! see! cut! bother!
shoot! диви! гляди! бач! рятуйте! пробачте! даруйте! прощайте! побачимо!
цур! (from цуратися); с) of adjectival origin (mostly in English): fine! grand! right!
dear! swell! divine! gracious!; d) of adverbial origin: here! there! now! well! why?
so! добре! зараз! тут! там! так! геть! прекрасно!; e) of pronominal origin: "ay
me! oh me!" отаке! стільки ж! отакої! "Куди ж писати?" "Отакої! Не знає
куди!.."; f) of phrasal origin (contracted), which are rather numerous in English:
howdy (from how do you do), alright (from all right), my! (from my God/my Lord),
dammit (from damn it), attaboy (from that's a boy), добридень (from добрий день),
спасибі (from спаси біг), тсь! цсс! (from тихіше), etc.
Derived are also numerous idiomatic interjections of various componental
nature and expressing different emotions, eg: my eye! Holy Moses! the cat's
pyjamas! gee whiskers! well I never! їй же бо! Хай йому цур! кат їх бери! Боже
ж мій! біда та й годі! де там! ой лелечко! де ж так! etc.
Emotive interjections express various feelings, one interjection being often
used in English and Ukrainian to express different meanings. These classes of
meanings are as follows:
1. Positive feelings (joy, satisfaction, sympathy), eg:
"Great!" Michael said". Чудово!» — вигукнув Майкл.
"Ooh! ooh!" the crowd was moaning in a kind of amorous agony" «Гу-у! Г-уу»
— стогнав, переповнений ніби якимось замилуванням, збуджений натовп.
2. Incentive orders (спонукальні накази), eg:
"Hey, now! Wait a minute". «Гей там! Зачекайте».
"Here, Buck", the Boss called. «Сюди, Баку!» — гукнув Бос.
"Quiet!" I yelled to them. «Вгамуйтесь/Замовкніть!» — гримнув я на них.
Here also belong interjectional orders given to domestic animals. For example:
gee-up! or giddap! hait! hi-up! (to horses) но! гайда! вйо! whoa, hoa, whoa! mnpy!
sookl sook! цоб-цабе! puss, puss, puss! киці, киці-киці; киць-киць-киць; dilly,
dilly! тась, тась! chookchook! chuck-chuck! ціп-ціп-ціп! etc.
3. Negative feelings (grief, sorrow, horror, alarm, disgust, etc.):
"Oops! It's after midnight" . "Ух-ти! Вже за північ".
"Pshav! said the other twin". "Тьху!" – сказав другий близнюк.
"Nuts!" the Boss said. "Дурниці!" — сказав Бос..
4. Orders to stop an action: hist! hush! shh! shush! In Ukrainian: тихо! тихо!
тсс! тс! шш! cave! — обережно! nuf! nuff! — годі! scat! shoo! — геть! eg:
"Hush ", my mother said, "hush, son". "Ша, синку", — сказала мама. — Ша».
 21

"Ша! Мовчок, хлопці."

5. Greetings and partings which may sometimes be rather emotional as well.
Cf.:
"Oh, hello!" she called..." «О, привіт!» — вигукнула вона...
"Howdy," said Isabel..." «Здоров!» — сказала Ізабель...
"Bye!" said Romona. «Бувай!» — відповіла Ромона
Note. Imitations of sounds produced by birds and animals like dabdab, mew,
cock-a-dooble-doo, moo, how-wow, etc. and their Ukrainian equivalents кря-кря,
няв, кукуріку, му-у, гав-гав, can not be treated as interjections or as emotives unless
used on some occasions for the sake of stylisation. Cf. "Bow-wow!" Repeated the
boy jokingly. "Гав-гав!" повторив, граючись, хлопчина.

e) the article
The noun in English and Ukrainian, as in other languages, possesses the
semantic category of definiteness and indefiniteness. In other words, when a noun
(even a proper name) or family/geographical name is taken out of its context to
which it belonged, its meaning may not be definitely understood, i.e. identified.
Thus, the proper names Mykola, Petro or Anatoliy when used for the first time (eg.
I met Petro/Mykola yesterday evening) may not be definite enough for the listener
or collocutor who may inquire: which Petro/Mykola? Your friend/cousin
Petro/Mykolal You mean your costudent Petro/Mykola? etc. Even when one uses
the geographical name like Beskyd the real meaning of this proper noun may not be
clear to the listener who has not enough preliminary information about the used
name. This is because "Beskyd" may be the name of a mountain in the Carpathians
as well as a tourist camp or a hotel there. Similarly identified must also be many
other nouns in Ukrainian despite its being a predominantly synthetic by structure
language. Thus, it may be sometimes far from easy to unanimously identify the real
meaning, for example, of such a seemingly transparent for every Ukrainian listener
name as Київ. Even in the sentence as Він мешкав деякий час у Києві (when used
in oral speech) and when the listener does not see this noun written, it may mean the
city named Київ or the "Київ" hotel (then it is in inverted commas in Ukrainian).
Similarly when one hears the English king's name Charles, one would naturally
inquire which king Charles? The first, the third or the fifth? Only when the
substantivised numeral is added (Charles the First or Charles the Third, etc.), will
the King's name become definite (clearly and finally identified).
The category of definiteness and indenfiniteness may be identified in English
and Ukrainian both at language level (when the noun is out of a concrete context)
and at speech level, i.e. in oral presentation or in a written microtext. The main
means of making the noun definite in English is to use the definite or indefinite
(zero) article or any other determining or identifying adjunct. For example: Bristol
(zero article) means the town of Bristol, whereas the Bristol is the name of a hotel
or an inn, ship, etc. Similarly even with such a proper noun as Україна which, when
used without the definite article, means the country of Ukraine, but when presented
in inverted commas it will mean anything: готель "Україна", концертний зал
 22

"Україна" or an agricultural enterprise/joint venture "Україна". The definite article

may also determine, i.e. make definite some other groups (or single) nouns as, for
example, those denoting generic nouns or unique objects on the globe, or even in the
universe as in the following sentences: The lion is a wild animal. The sun is a bright
celestial body. The Bible is a holy book of all Christians.
The category of definiteness may be also indicated by syntactic, i.e. lexico-
syntactic means. Namely, by an appositive noun or a substantivised numeral, an
adjective or any other adjunct: Cf.: the Tory government, King Henry V, the first
Summit meeting, уряд торі, король Генріх П'ятий, готель "Колос", дівчина-
парашутистка, перша зустріч у верхах etc. Hence, the categories of definiteness
and indefiniteness may be expressed both by preposed and postposed identifiers
simultaneously. The noun congress or its Ukrainian variant з'їзд when used out of a
context remains absolutely non-related to any concretely identified event. Even
when preceded by a numeral (the first or the second congress) it remains far from
semantically identified. Only when explicated by one more identifier - the first
congress of ecologists, the noun congress becomes more or less exhaustively
identified. Similarly in Ukrainian where the noun з'їзд becomes definite (or
indefinite) when it is explicitly identified: з'їзд екологів, з'їзд екологів України,
черговий/ позачерговий з'їзд екологів України, etc
The category of indefiniteness apart from being indicated in English by the
indefinite article a/an, may also be made explicit by the indefinite pronouns any,
some, etc., and by the numeral one as well as by the indefinite article plus an
adjectival, participial or any other adjunct. Eg: There is some boy wants to see you.
"Was there a Mr Palgrave?"— "there's a marvellously good restaurant called
L'Ocean about six or seven miles down the coast". Cf. in Ukrainian: Там ніякого
містера Палґрейва не було?
The expression of indefiniteness in Ukrainian is likewise realised with the help
of the indefinite pronouns якийсь (якась, якесь), through the indefinite numeral
один (одна, одне) or via the indefinite pronouns якийсь/ якась, якесь plus the
adjuncts expressing the characteristic features of the person or object. Eg: Якийсь
Петренко там чекає на вас. Був собі один чоловік і мав він два сини. Навіть
один страшний день війни запам'ятався кожному навіки.
Unlike English where indefiniteness is expressed via the corresponding
markers, in Ukrainian it may sometimes be expressed also through grammatical
shifting of the indefinite noun into the final position of the sentence. For example
The door opened and the teacher entered the classroom - Двері відчинилися і
вчитель увійшов до класу.
То express indefiniteness, the noun will be shifted to the final position:
The door opened and a teacher entered the classroom. - Двері відчинилися і
до класу ввійшов учитель.

3. Typological analysis of morphological systems of English, Ukrainian and

Russian, and Methods of Teaching English as a foreign language