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DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING STUDY MATERIALS

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DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING STUDY MATERIALS

EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS

UNIT – I

PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS
Concepts for describing aspects of nature by numbers are called physical quantities. Examples
may range from counting fruit to reading a thermometer gauge to determine temperature.
Acquiring such a number, a set of such numbers or related numbers directly from a natural
system is called measurement. Examples include counting fruit or using a ruler to measure length.
Often the concepts or ideas that define physical quantities offer themselves straightforward
(time, length). To directly assess the value or number of a physical quantity usually proves difficult
when very small or very large values are to be measured or when one intends to obtain a high
precision measurement. Again examples indicate actual proceedings: In practice, larger amounts of
fruit won't be counted but sold by weight.
Distances between villages may be measured by counting the rotations of a Surveyor's wheel.
Thus this instrument has to be gauged to yield the proper number indicating the distance with respect
to some reference.
Furthermore, there may exist innate properties of the natural phenomena that require special attention:
Within the thermodynamics-related view on nature, the measurement of entropy could produce
entropy itself. Measurements in domains of quantum theory are said to influence the measured
quantity significantly.
Skilled devising of measurement methods and measurement instruments allows circumventing
these problems and nevertheless acquiring useful data.
A measuring principle condenses the essentials of a method or an instrument for gaining the
desired numbers.

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DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING STUDY MATERIALS

Error, Accuracy, and Precision

1. THE IMPORTANCE OF ERROR, ACCURACY, AND PRECISION

Until quite recently, people involved in developing and using GIS paid little attention to the
problems caused by error, inaccuracy, and imprecision in spatial datasets. Certainly there was an
awareness that all data suffers from inaccuracy and imprecision, but the effects on GIS problems and
solutions was not considered in great detail. Major introductions to the field such as C. Dana
Tomlin's Geographic Information Systems and Cartographic Modeling (1990), Jeffrey Star and John
Estes's Geographic Information Systems: An Introduction (1990), and Keith Clarke's Analytical and
Computer Cartography (1990) barely mention the issue.
This situation has changed substantially in recent years. It is now generally recognized that
error, inaccuracy, and imprecision can "make or break" many types of GIS project. That is, errors left
unchecked can make the results of a GIS analysis almost worthless.
The irony is that the problem of error is devolves from one of greatest strengths of GIS. GIS
gain much of their power from being able to collate and cross-reference many types of data by
location. They are particularly useful because they can integrate many discrete datasets within a single
system. Unfortunately, every time a new dataset is imported, the GIS also inherits its errors. These
may combine and mix with the errors already in the database in unpredictable ways.
One of first thorough discussions of the problems and sources error appeared in P.A.
Burrough's Principles of Geographical Information Systems for Land Resources Assessment (1986).
Now the issue is addressed in many introductory texts on GIS.
The key point is that even though error can disrupt GIS analyses, there are ways to keep error
to a minimum through careful planning and methods for estimating its effects on GIS solutions.
Awareness of the problem of error has also had the useful benefit of making GIS practitioners more
sensitive to potential limitations of GIS to reach impossibly accurate and precise solutions.

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1) Accuracy is the degree to which information on a map or in a digital database matches true or
accepted values. Accuracy is an issue pertaining to the quality of data and the number of errors
contained in a dataset or map. In discussing a GIS database, it is possible to consider horizontal and
vertical accuracy with respect to geographic position, as well as attribute, conceptual, and logical
accuracy.

o The level of accuracy required for particular applications varies greatly.

o Highly accurate data can be very difficult and costly to produce and compile.

2) Precision refers to the level of measurement and exactness of description in a GIS database. Precise
locational data may measure position to a fraction of a unit. Precise attribute information may specify
the characteristics of features in great detail. It is important to realize, however, that precise data--no
matter how carefully measured--may be inaccurate. Surveyors may make mistakes or data may be
entered into the database incorrectly.

o The level of precision required for particular applications varies greatly. Engineering
projects such as road and utility construction require very precise information measured
to the millimeter or tenth of an inch. Demographic analyses of marketing or electoral
trends can often make do with less, say to the closest zip code or precinct boundary.

o Highly precise data can be very difficult and costly to collect. Carefully surveyed
locations needed by utility companies to record the locations of pumps, wires, pipes
and transformers cost $5-20 per point to collect.

High precision does not indicate high accuracy nor does high accuracy imply high precision.
But high accuracy and high precision are both expensive.

Be aware also that GIS practitioners are not always consistent in their use of these terms. Sometimes
the terms are used almost interchangeably and this should be guarded against.

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DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING STUDY MATERIALS

Two additional terms are used as well:

1. Data quality refers to the relative accuracy and precision of a particular GIS database. These
facts are often documented in data quality reports.

2. Error encompasses both the imprecision of data and its inaccuracies.

STRAIN GAUGE
A strain gauge is a device used to measure strain on an object. Invented by Edward E.
Simmons and Arthur C. Ruge in 1938, the most common type of strain gauge consists of an insulating
flexible backing which supports a metallic foil pattern. The gauge is attached to the object by a
suitable adhesive, such as cyanoacrylate.[1] As the object is deformed, the foil is deformed, causing its
electrical resistance to change. This resistance change, usually measured using a Wheatstone bridge, is
related to the strain by the quantity known as the gauge factor.
OPERATION
A strain gauge takes advantage of the physical property of electrical conductance and its
dependence on the conductor's geometry. When an electrical conductor is stretched within the limits of
its elasticity such that it does not break or permanently deform, it will become narrower and longer,
changes that increase its electrical resistance end-to-end. Conversely, when a conductor is compressed
such that it does not buckle, it will broaden and shorten, changes that decrease its electrical resistance
end-to-end. From the measured electrical resistance of the strain gauge, the amount of applied stress
may be inferred. A typical strain gauge arranges a long, thin conductive strip in a zig-zag pattern of
parallel lines such that a small amount of stress in the direction of the orientation of the parallel lines
results in a multiplicatively larger strain measurement over the effective length of the conductor
surfaces in the array of conductive lines—and hence a multiplicatively larger change in resistance—
than would be observed with a single straight-line conductive wire.

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DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING STUDY MATERIALS

Gauge Factor
The gauge factor is defined as:

where

is the change in resistance caused by strain,

is the resistance of the undeformed gauge, and

is strain.
For metallic foil gauges, the gauge factor is usually a little over 2.[2] For a single active gauge and
three dummy resistors, the output from the bridge is:

where

is the bridge excitation voltage.

Errors and Compensation

Foil gauges typically have active areas of about 2–10 mm2 in size. With careful installation, the
correct gauge, and the correct adhesive, strains up to at least 10% can be measured.
Zero Offset - If the impedance of the four gauge arms are not exactly the same after bonding the
gauge to the force collector, there will be a zero offset which can be compensated by introducing a
parallel resistor to one or more of the gauge arms.
Temperature coefficient of Gauge Factor (TCGF) - This is the change of sensitivity of the device to
strain with change in temperature. This is generally compensated for by the introduction of a fixed
resistance in the input leg, whereby the effective supplied voltage will increase with temperature,
compensating for the decrease in sensitivity with temperature.

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Zero Shift with temperature - If the TCGF of each gauge is not the same, there will be a zero shift
with temperature. This is also caused by anomalies in the force collector. This is usually compensated
for with one or more resistors strategically placed in the compensation network.
Linearity - This is an error whereby the sensitivity changes across the pressure range. This is
commonly a function of the force collection thickness selection for the intended pressure and/or the
quality of the bonding.
Hysteresis - This is an error of return to zero after pressure excursion.
Repeatability - This error is sometimes tied-in with hysteresis but is across the pressure range.
EMI induced errors - As strain gauges output voltage is in the mV range, even μV if the Wheatstone
bridge voltage drive is kept low to avoid self heating of the element, special care must be taken in
output signal amplification to avoid amplifying also the superimposed noise. A solution which is
frequently adopted is to use "carrier frequency" amplifiers which convert the voltage variation into a
frequency variation (as in VCOs) and have a narrow bandwidth thus reducing out of band EMI.
Overloading - If a strain gauge is loaded beyond its design limit (measured in microstrain) its
performance degrades and can not be recovered. Normally good engineering practice suggests not to
stress strain gauges beyond +/-3000 microstrain.
Humidity - If the wires connecting the strain gauge to the signal conditioner are not protected against
humidity (bare wire) a parasitic resistance creates between the wires and the substrate to which the
strain gauge is glued, or between the two wires themselves. This resistance introduces an error which
is proportional to the resistance of the strain gauge. For this reason low resistance strain gauges (120
ohm) are less prone to this type of error. To avoid this error it is sufficient to protect the strain gauges
wires with insulating enamel (e.g., epoxy or polyurethanic type). Strain gauges with unprotected wires
may be used only in a dry laboratory environment but not in an industrial one.
In some applications, strain gauges add mass and damping to the vibration profiles of the
hardware they are intended to measure. In the turbomachinery industry, one used alternative to strain
gauge technology in the measurement of vibrations on rotating hardware is the Non-Intrusive Stress
Measurement System, which allows measurement of blade vibrations without any blade or disc-
mounted hardware.

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MECHANICAL EXTENSOMETER

OPTICAL EXTENSOMETER

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UNIT-2

WHEATSTONE BRIDGE

The Wheatstone Bridge was originally designed by Charles Wheatstone to measure unknown
resistance values and as a means of calibrating measuring instruments, voltmeters, ammeters, etc, by
the use of a long resistive slide wire. Although today digital multimeters provide the simplest way to
measure a resistance, The Wheatstone Bridge can still be used to measure very low values of
resistances down in the milli-Ohms range.

The Wheatstone bridge (or resistance bridge) circuit can be used in a number of applications
and today, with modern operational amplifiers we can use the Wheatstone Bridge Circuit to interface
various transducers and sensors to these amplifier circuits.

The Wheatstone Bridge circuit is nothing more than two simple series-parallel arrangements of
resistors connected between a voltage supply terminal and ground producing zero voltage difference
when the two parallel resistor legs are balanced. A Wheatstone bridge circuit has two input terminals
and two output terminals consisting of four resistors configured in a diamond-like arrangement as
shown. This is typical of how the Wheatstone bridge is drawn.

The Wheatstone Bridge

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When balanced, the Wheatstone bridge can be analyzed simply as two series strings in parallel.
In our tutorial about Resistors in Series, we saw that each resistor within the series chain produces
an IR drop, or voltage drop across itself as a consequence of the current flowing through it as defined
by Ohms Law. Consider the series circuit below.

As the two resistors are in series, the same current i flow in both of them, therefore the current
flowing through the two resistors in series is given as: V/RT.

I = 12V ÷ (10Ω + 20Ω) = 0.4A

The voltage at point C, which is also the voltage drop across the lower resistor, R2 is calculated as:

VR2 = 0.4A × 20Ω = 8 volts

Then we can see that the source voltage VS is divided among the two series resistors in direct
proportion to their resistances as VR1 = 4V and VR2 = 8V. This is called the principle of voltage
division, producing what is commonly called a voltage divider circuit.

Now if we add another series resistor circuit using the same resistor values in parallel with the
first we would have the following circuit.

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As the second series circuit has the same resistive values of the first, the voltage at point D,
which is also the voltage drop across resistor, R4 will be the same at 8 volts, with respect to zero
(battery negative).

But something else equally as important is that the voltage difference between point C and
point D will be zero volts as both points are at the same value of 8 volts as: C = D = 8 volts, then the
difference is: 0 volts

When this happens, both sides of the parallel network are said to be balanced. Let us consider
what would happen when we reverse the position of resistors, R3 and R4 in the second parallel branch.

With resistors, R3 and R4 reversed, the same current flows through the series combination and
the voltage at point D, which is also the voltage drop across resistor, R4 will be:

VR4 = 0.4A × 10Ω = 4 volts

Now with VR4 having 4 volts dropped across it, the voltage difference between
points C and D will be 4 volts as: C = 8 volts and D = 4 volts. Then the difference is: 8 - 4 = 4 volts

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Now both sides and ―arms‖ of the parallel network are different as they produce different
voltage drops. When this happens the parallel network is said to be unbalanced. Then we can see that
the resistance ratio of these two parallel arms results in voltage difference between 0 volts and
maximum supply voltage, and this is the basic principal of the Wheatstone bridge.

Then we can see that a Wheatstone bridge circuit can be used to compare an unknown
resistance RX with others of a known value, for example, R1 and R2, have fixed values, and R3 could
be variable. If we connected a voltmeter, ammeter or classically a galvanometer between
points C and D, and then varied resistor, R3 until the meters read zero, would result in the two arms
being balanced and the value of RX, (substituting R4) known as shown.

Wheatstone Bridge Circuit

By placing a resistance of known or unknown value in the sensing arm of the Wheatstone
bridge corresponding to RX and adjusting the opposing resistor, R3 to ―balance‖ the bridge network,
will result in a zero voltage output. Then we can see that balance occurs when:

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The Wheatstone Bridge equation required to give the value of the unknown resistance, RX at
balance is given as:

Where resistors, R1 and R2 are preset values.

Wheatstone Bridge Example No1

The following unbalanced Wheatstone Bridge is constructed. Calculate the output voltage
across points C and D and the value of resistor R4 required to balance the bridge circuit.

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For the first series arm, ACB

For the second series arm, ACB

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DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING STUDY MATERIALS

The voltage across points C-D is given as:

The value of resistor, R4 required to balance the bridge is given as:

We have seen above that the Wheatstone Bridge has two input terminals (A-B) and two output
terminals (C-D). When the bridge is balanced, the voltage across the output terminals is 0 volts. When
the bridge is unbalanced, however, the output voltage may be either positive or negative depending
upon the direction of unbalance.

Wheatstone Bridge Light Detector

Balanced bridge circuits find many useful electronics applications such as being used to
measure changes in light intensity, pressure or strain. The types of resistive sensors that can be used
within a wheatstone bridge circuit include: photoresistive sensors (LDR’s), positional sensors
(potentiometers), piezoresistive sensors (strain gauges) and temperature sensors (thermistor’s), etc.

There are many wheatstone bridge applications for sensing a whole range of mechanical and
electrical quantities, but one very simple wheatstone bridge application is in the measurement of light
by using a photoresistive device. One of the resistors within the bridge network is replaced by a light
dependent resistor, or LDR.

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An LDR, also known as a cadmium-sulphide (Cds) photocell, is a passive resistive sensor which
converts changes in visible light levels into a change in resistance and hence a voltage. Light
dependent resistors can be used for monitoring and measuring the level of light intensity, or whether a
light source is ON or OFF.

The light dependent resistor typically has a resistance of several Megaohms (MΩ’s) in dark or
dim light, about 900Ω at a light intensity of 100 Lux (typical of a well lit room), down to about 30Ω in
bright sunlight. By carefully attaching the LDR to the Wheatstone bridge circuit above, we can
monitor and measure any changes in the light levels as shown.

Wheatstone Bridge Light Detector

The LDR photocell is connected into the Wheatstone Bridge circuit as shown to produce a
light sensitive switch that activates when the light level being sensed goes above or below the pre-set
value of VR1.

The op-amp is connected as a voltage comparator with the reference voltage VD applied to the
inverting pin and the variable resistor, VR1 sets the trip point voltage VC, applied to the non-inverting
input. The relay turns ―ON‖ when the voltage at point C is less than the voltage at point D.

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Adjusting VR1 sets the voltage at point C to balance the bridge circuit at the required light level
or intensity. The LDR can be any cadmium-sulphide device that has a high impedance at low light
levels and a low impedance at high light levels. Note that the circuit can be used to act as a light-
activated switch or a dark-activated switch simply by transposing the LDR and R3 positions.

The Wheatstone Bridge has many uses in electronic circuits other than comparing an unknown
resistance with a known resistance. When used with Operational Amplifiers, the Wheatstone bridge
circuit can be used to measure and amplify small changes in resistance, RX due, for example, to
changes in light intensity as we have seen above.

But the bridge circuit is also suitable for measuring the resistance change of other changing quantities,
so by replacing the above photo-resistive LDR light sensor for a thermistor, pressure sensor, strain
gauge, and other such transducers, as well as swapping the positions of the LDR andVR1, we can use
them in a variety of other Wheatstone bridge applications.

Also more than one resistive sensor can be used within the four arms (or branches) of the
bridge formed by the resistors R1 to R4 to produce ―full-bridge‖, ―half-bridge‖ or ―quarter-bridge
circuit arrangements providing thermal compensation or automatic balancing of the Wheatstone
bridge.

POTENTIOMETER CIRCUIT

The potentiometer circuit (sometimes called a half-bridge circuit), is the simplest circuit
arrangement for supplying a strain gage with excitation current and obtaining a signal corresponding
to deformation of the gage. In this circuit, the resistor RB (called the ballast resistor) is of relatively
high value to maintain the current flow in the circuit relatively constant and independent of small
changes in resistance of the strain gage RG. The current is supplied by the dc electrical source e.

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Here, the output signal from the potentiometer circuit, resulting from a variation in the
resistance of the strain gage, is designated as eo. This circuit is well suited to the instrumentation of
dynamic or fluctuating strains, but is totally unsuited for the measurement of static strains or the static
component of a combined static and dynamic strain. Therefore, in dynamic applications, it is common
practice to block the direct current, i.e., the steady-state (zero-strain) portion of the output voltage, so
that only the fluctuating component is measured. This is done by inserting a capacitor C between the
potentiometer circuit output and the input of the following amplifier, as illustrated in An ac signal,
representing the alternations in the strain to which the gage is subjected, is transmitted through the
capacitor.

Any influences in addition to strain that may modify the resistance of the strain gage (for
example, temperature changes) also produce output voltages in this circuit. Since the capacitor
coupling to the amplifier is essentially a high-pass filter, temperature induced output voltage changes
are attenuated severely unless the frequency of such changes is high enough to be of the same order of
magnitude as the alternating strain.

Fortunately, most temperature changes which may affect strain gages occur too slowly to be
carried through this circuit arrangement.

Materials for strain gauge

A typical strain gage attachment consists of three major parts: the wire, the backing, and the adhesive.

Wire

The material construction of the wire directly affects the sensitivity of the strain gage. Further discussion on
sensitivity can be found in the strain gage sensitivity page.

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 Select CONSTANTAN (Advance, Copel) alloy wire, if

- Applications are mainly static or quasi-static strains.

- Applications may encounter plastic deformation (large elongation).

- No extreme operating conditions, such as high temperatures, are present.

- Self-temperature-compensation is preferred.

- Cost is an issue. Constantan is the most widely used and probably the least expensive gage wire
material.

- One does not know what else to choose.

• Select ISOELASTIC alloy wire, if

- High signal-noise ratio is needed.

- The goal is to measure dynamic strains.

- The application is under Fatigue (cyclic) loading.

- Temperature is well controlled, e.g., in an air-conditioned laboratory.

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• Select KARMA alloy wire, if

- Applications involve low temperature environment, as low as -269°C/-452°F, or temperatures that may
vary during the measurement.

- Self-temperature-compensation is preferred.

- Soldering is NOT an issue. Karma alloy is usually more difficult to solder.

• Select PLATINUM BASED alloy wire, if

- The measurements are made at high temperatures(>230°C/450°F).

Backing (Carrier) Materials

Backing (carrier) materials are needed, because strain gage wires are very fragile and difficult to handle. The
backing is usually made of a dielectric (usually plastic) which provides a good electrical insulation between the
wires of the strain gage and the specimen. Polyimide is the prevalent backing material, and is thus the default
standard.

• Select POLYIMIDE backing, preferably 0.025 mm (0.001 in) or thinner, if

- No extreme operating conditions such as high temperatures, are present.

- Mostly static strain is encountered.

- There are no other constraints. Polyimide is the "standard" backing material.

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• Select EPOXY backing, if

- One wishes to minimize the error induced by the backing.

- Installation and handling are well understood. Epoxy backings are brittle and require skilled
workmanship to install.

• Select GLASS FIBER REINFORCED EPOXY backing, if

- The application is under Fatigue (cyclic) loading.

- Applications expose strain gage to moderate temperature (~400°C/750°F).

• Select STRIPPABLE backing, which will be removed during installation and the adhesive will be
used as an insulator, if

- Applications expose strain gage to high temperature.

Adhesives

Adhesives are used to secure the strain gage to the workpiece.

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• Select CYANOACRYLATE CEMENT (e.g., Eastman 910 SL), if

- Applications are needed as soon as possible, ~ 10 min after bonding. (A gentle clamping
pressure is needed for the first 1 to 2 minute.)

- Applications do NOT last a long period of time (months).

- One does not know what else to choose.

• Select EPOXY, if

- Higher bond strength is desired.

- Higher strains at failure need to be measured.

- A clamping pressure, 350 kPa (50 psi) for thin bond lines is used. A clamping pressure of
35-140 kPa (5-20 psi) in general, can be applied during the curing process.

- Sufficient time is available to complete the curing process. A temperature of 120°C/250°F is

applied for several hours to complete polymerization.

• Select CERAMIC CEMENT (e.g., NBS-x-142, flame-spray BLH-H rod), if

- High temperature environment, upto 980°C/1800°F is expected.

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• Select CELLULOSE NITRATE CEMENT (e.g., Duco, SR-4), if

- Paper backed strain gages are used.

- Temperature of 54°C/130°F, usually by blowing warm air, can be applied for curing and
removing solvents.

- The environment is fairly dry i.e. no water or high moisture is present

UNIT-3
PHOTO ELASTICITY
Photo elasticity:

Photo elasticity is an experimental method to determine the stress distribution in a material.

The method is mostly used in cases where mathematical methods become quite cumbersome. Unlike
the analytical methods of stress determination, photo elasticity gives a fairly accurate picture of stress
distribution, even around abrupt discontinuities in a material. The method is an important tool for
determining critical stress points in a material, and is used for determining stress concentration in
irregular geometries.

Photo elasticity analysis is widely used for problems in which stress or strain information is
required for extended regions of the structure. It provides quantitative evidence of highly stressed
areas and peak stresses at surface and interior points of the structure and often equally important,
it discerns areas of low stress level where structural material is utilized inefficiently.

This chapter is intended to introduce the basic concepts to emphasize those elements
that are fundamental to the photo elasticity method. The details involving characteristics of
specific photo elasticity materials their formulation, optical and mechanical properties,
machining techniques, etc. and the details involved in the use of specialized auxiliary
instruments and accessories are not included.

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While such information is vitally important to the student of photo elasticity, it quickly
becomes obsolete and is better disseminated by current technical papers and current
manufacturers' literature.
PHOTO ELASTICITY

Photo elasticity is an experimental technique for stress and strain analysis that is
particularly useful for members having complicated geometry, complicated loading
conditions, or both. For such cases, analytical methods (that is, strictly mathematical methods)
may be cumbersome or impossible, and analysis by an experimental approach maybe more
appropriate. While the virtues of experimental solution of static, elastic, two-dimensional
problems are now largely overshadowed by analytical methods, problems involving three-
dimensional geometry, multiple-component assemblies, dynamic loading and inelastic material
behavior are usually more amenable to experimental analysis.

The name photo elasticity reflects the nature of this experimental method: photo
implies the use of light rays and optical techniques, while elasticity depicts the study of
stresses and deformations in elastic bodies. Through the photo elasticity-coating technique, its
domain has extended to inelastic bodies, too.

Photo elasticity analysis is widely used for problems in which stress or strain information
is required for extended regions of the structure. It provides quantitative evidence of highly
stressed areas and peak stresses at surface and interior points of the structure and often equally
important, it discerns areas of low stress level where structural material is utilized inefficiently.

This chapter is intended to introduce the basic concepts to emphasize those elements
that are fundamental to the photo elasticity method. The details involving characteristics of
specific photo elasticity materials their formulation, optical and mechanical properties,
machining techniques, etc. and the details involved in the use of specialized auxiliary
instruments and accessories are not included.

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DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING STUDY MATERIALS

While such information is vitally important to the student of photo elasticity, it quickly
becomes obsolete and is better disseminated by current technical papers and current
manufacturers' literature.

PHOTO ELASTICITY BEHAVIOR

The photo elasticity method is based upon a unique property of some transparent
materials, in particular, certain plastics. Consider a model of some structural part made from a
photo elasticity material. When the model is stressed and a ray of light enters along one of the
directions of principal stress, a remarkable thing happens. The light is divided into two
component waves, each with its plane of vibration (plane of polarization) parallel to one of the
remaining two principal planes (planes on which shear stress is zero). Furthermore, the light
travels along these two paths with different velocities, which depend upon the magnitudes of the
remaining two principal stresses in the material.

Fig. Photo elasticity pattern for wrench model.

TWO-DIMENSIONAL PHOTO ELASTICITY

The foregoing is a rather general description of the formation of photo elasticity patterns. It
applies equally well to two-dimensional and three-dimensional photo elasticity and to
the method of photo elasticity coatings.

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Now, let us restrict the discussion to plane-stress systems, so that the basis of photo
elasticity can be developed without needless complications. A plane-stress problem is
approached when the thickness (lateral dimension) of the prototype and the model is small in
relation to dimensions in the plane, and the applied forces act in the plane at mid
thickness (Fig.). For such a system, we are concerned with stresses acting parallel to the
plane of the model only, for all other stress components are zero.

Mentally remove any small element, oriented such that the faces of the element
are principal planes. The surfaces of the model are automatically principal planes (for no shear
stress acts on these surfaces). Define the orientation of principal planes by the angle and it
represent the algebraically larger of the two principal stresses, such that it is always
positive. The objective now is to show how stresses and stress directions are derived from photo
elastic patterns.

Fig. Plane-stress system.

THE ISOCHROMATIC PATTERN

Let us view a plane-stress model in a circular polariscope. A pattern of dark and light bands
(Fig.) forms in the viewing screen when external forces or loads are applied to the model, and
the number of these bands increases in proportion to the external forces. These patterns, which
provide the value of N throughout the model, are appropriately called isochromatic patterns.

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DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING STUDY MATERIALS

Fig. For formation of the isochromatic pattern with increasing loads; centrally loaded arch.

The isochromatic pattern is related to the stress system by the stress-optic law.

INTERPRETATION OF ISOCHROMATIC PATTERNS

Since it varies throughout the model in a continuous manner, N varies in a

continuous manner. A change from a dark fringe to an adjacent light fringe represents
an increase or decrease of 1/2 in the value of N ; to assign any other magnitude would
violate the principle of continuity.

In terms of the isochromatic pattern, the isochromatic fringe order, N at a point is

defined specifically as the number of fringes that pass through the point during the application of
the external loads. Thus, at point A, N increases with load from 0 to l, 3 and 8. Similarly,the
number of fringes that passed through point B for these patterns is 1/2, 1 1/2 and 4. We
can,therefore, observe the formation of the isochromatic pattern to determine N at any point.
Alternately, we can learn to count fringes in an isochromatic pattern from a point of zero stress
to any other point in the model. In this case, it is important to recognize whether the fringe order is
increasing or decreasing along the path of the fringe count. Additional discussion appears
under the heading "Free-boundary Stresses."

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DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING STUDY MATERIALS

THE CIRCULAR POLARISCOPE

The formation of the photo elasticity pattern has been described as a case of optical
interference. Each ray that enters the model is divided into two components. and after emerging
from the model they combine to yield either constructive or destructive interference. The
relation between fringe order and light intensity is given by the equation of two-beam
interference.
However, it is well established and demonstrated in elementary courses on light
that waves cannot combine to yield optical interference unless they are coherent and are
polarized in the same plane. The photo elasticity pol ar i s co pe serves to bring these waves
into a common plane, so that optical interference can ensue. The polariscope does not rotate
the planes of polarization of these rays, but instead, it transmits only those components of the
two interfering rays that lie in a common plane (plane of polarization of the analyzer). For
example, let the arrows y1 and y2, in Fig. represent the planes of polarization of the two wave
components. If the rays are passed through a polarizing medium (such as a Polaroid plane-
polarizing sheet) oriented with its transmission axis horizontal, the vertical component of
these waves will be stopped (absorbed) and the horizontal components, y3 , and y 4, transmitted.
Now y3, and y4 are waves polarized in a common plane, and they can combine to produce
optical interference.

The apparatus employed to exhibit isochromatic patterns is called a circular polariscope,

shown schematically in Fig. Several other versions of the photo elasticity polariscope have been
advanced, notably the diffused-light polariscope and the reflection or doubling polariscope.
The lens-system polariscope, however, is generally accepted as the most versatile instrument for
photo elasticity investigations.

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Fig. Lens-type circular polariscope.

The polariscope components can be divided into two categories; elements that direct and
focus the light rays, and elements that control the wavelength and polarization of the waves.
The two field lenses and the camera lens are in the first category. The first field lens is
located such that the light source lies at its focal point; thus, a parallel or collimated beam of
light issues from the field lens into the model zone. The second field lens converges this beam so
that all the light enters the camera lens. The camera, in turn, is focused to project an image of the
model onto the camera screen or photographic film.

In the second category, a color filter is usually employed to isolate a small band of
wavelengths by absorbing all colors except that which is desired. The functions of the polarizing
elements, polarizer, quarter-wave plates and analyzer are shown in Fig. 6.7. The polarizer
divides the incident light waves into vertical and horizontal components. It absorbs all the
vertical components and transmits the remaining plane-polarized light (horizontal).

Fig. Polarization of light waves in a circular polariscope

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DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING STUDY MATERIALS

A quarter-wave plate is a member that behaves exactly like a photo elasticity model
having uniform birefringence of N = 1/4.It is oriented with its principal planes (or principal axes
in this case) at an angle of 450 to the axis of the polarizer. The purpose of the quarter-wave
plate is to supply equal quantities of light along each of the two planes of polarization at every
point in the model. Ordinarily, the quarter-wave plates are crossed, i.e., the plane of
polarization of the higher-velocity waves in the first plate coincides with the plane of the
slower waves in the second quarter-wave plate.

The analyzer is actually a second polarizer. If it is oriented with its polarizing axis
crossed to the axis of the polarizer, a dark-field isochromatic pattern is formed, as in the
right-hand pattern of Fig. 6.8. Then, the centers of dark fringes are points of integral values of N
( N = 0, 1, 2, 3,...). If the polarizer and analyzer axes are parallel, a light-field isochromatic
pattern is formed, and the centers of light fringes are points of integral values of N (see Fig. 6.8,
left). The light-field pattern is generally preferred, for then the model boundaries are clearly
defined.
DIRECTIONS OF PRINCIPAL STRESS

If we remove the quarter-wave plates from the polariscope described above. we are
left with the system shown schematically.Plane-polarized light (horizontal) passes through
the region between polarizer and analyzer. If the polarizing axis of the analyzer is horizontal.
this light passes through the system; if the axis is vertical, however, the light is stopped
by the analyzer and complete extinction results. Next, insert a model between the
elements such that the direction of principal stresses is at an angle from the vertical. Upon entering
the model, the plane-polarized light y1, is divided into two components, these components

traverse the model. Components of y2 and y 3 that lie in a vertical plane are capable of
passing through the analyzer. Indeed, these components, y 4 and y 5, are transmitted by the
analyzer, and they combine to form an optical interference pattern which depends upon the
values of N introduced by the model.

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This is, of course, the now familiar isochromatic pattern.

In the last diagram,the arrangement is similar, except here the model is oriented such that
the principal-stress directions are parallel to the axes of the polarizer and analyzer The
model resolves the incident light into components parallel to the principal-stress directions,
but in this case there is no component of the incident light in the vertical direction. All the
light is transmitted with a horizontal plane of vibration. Upon reaching the analyzer, there
is still no component in the vertical direction, and the light is completely extinguished.

DETERMINATION OF FRACTIONAL FRINGE ORDERS

For isochromatic patterns from monochromatic light, the distribution of fringe order (
N ) along any line can be plotted by ascertaining the positions of the centers of integral and half-
order isochromatic fringes that cross the line. High accuracy is obtained directly from fringe
photographs in cases where a large number of fringes cross the region of interest. For cases
in which the maximum fringe order is low, or the variation of fringe order is low, we
cannot be content with integral and half-order fringe locations. Instead, the ability to
locate points of intermediate or partial values of N (fractional or decimal values) is required.

In general, the method of partial-fringe measurement can be broken into three

categories, namely, compensation, analyzer rotation and fringe multiplication. They are
characterized by a common objective the modification, such that intensity maxima and minima
occur not merely at integral and half-order values of relative retardation in the model, but
also at intermediate points. Analyzer rotation and compensation are point-by-point methods,
since the direction of principal stresses must be determined at each point before its fractional
fringe order is measured. Fringe multiplication is a full-field method. All three
methods enhance the sensitivity of data retrieved by about one order of magnitude.

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Analyzer Rotation

The method of analyzer rotation has the advantage that no additional equipment is
required. A dark-field circular polariscope using monochromatic light is employed. First the
quarter-wave plates arc removed and the polarizer and analyzer are rotated together until an
isoclinic fringe is centered on the point being measured in the stressed photo elasticity
model, e.g., point A.Thus, the polarizer and analyzer are aligned with the principal stress
directions at A. Next, the quarter-wave plates are reinserted with their usual 45 0 alignment
for dark-field circular polarization and fringes such as those in Fig. 6.11(a) are observed. Then, by
rotating the analyzer (only the analyzer) while viewing the fringes, we find that either of the
neighboring fringes can be moved to point A.

Compensation

In compensation, we add to the birefringence of the model, at some given point, an

equal and opposite birefringence such as to bring the total relative retardation to zero. This is done
by placing an instrument a compensator in the optical path adjacent to the model. The
compensator is adjusted to bring the center of a zero-order fringe to some given point on the
photo elasticity model and the fringe order contributed by the compensator is read off the
instrument. Of course, this corresponds to the fringe order in the model, too.

Fig. Nullification of relative retardation by compensation

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The active element of the compensator is usually a wedge of a permanently birefringent

crystal which is moved across any given point in the model until compensation, or zero relative
retardation is achieved: alternatively, a photo elasticity model with a simple predetermined stress
system is used as the active element. The simple wedge, the Babinet compensator and
the Babinet-Soleil compensator are in this category. Equivalent instruments have been made in
photo elasticity laboratories using a strained photo elasticity specimen in place of the crystal

INTERPRETATION OF PHOTO ELASTICITY DATA

Calibration

The principal-stress difference at each point in the model is proportional to the

birefringence N at the point. But what is the constant of proportionality? This can be
determined by an experiment in which all quantities are known (or measured) except that
constant. Thus, a very simple model, for example, a bar in pure tension or a beam in pure
flexure, may be chosen. In these cases the principal stresses are well known in terms of the
dimensions of the model and applied load. The model thickness and fringe order are
measured, and the stress-optical coefficient is computed.

Normally, calibration bars are cut from the same sheet or batch of photo elasticity
material as the corresponding photo elasticity model, and the calibration measurement is
performed with the same light source as the model measurements, for f is a function of both
the model material and the wavelength of the light used.

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Free-boundary Stresses

The magnitude of is derived throughout the member from the isochromatic

pattern. However, at free boundaries, that is, boundaries along which no external forces
are applied, one of the principal stresses is zero. Therefore, the remaining principal stress is
determined uniquely by the isochromatic fringe order. The designation of boundary stresses must
be consistent with the proposition. Free-boundary stresses play a very important role in stress
analysis, for the critical stress in a body very frequently occurs at a boundary point.

Fig.. Free-boundary stresses.

At a free external corner, the complete absence of external forces must be accompanied
by the complete absence of internal resistive forces, or stresses. Thus 0 at external comers
and the isochromatic fringe order is always zero; this holds equally true for dynamic and three-
dimensional stress systems, as well as for static two-dimensional stress systems. An example
of N 0 at a free comer appears. Advance knowledge of a fringe order at some point is often
extremely helpful in interpreting an isochromatic pattern from a photograph, particularly when the
development of the pattern during load application is not observed.

Free boundaries provide additional clues for ascertaining fringe order from photographs of
isochromatic patterns. The engineer can usually surmise from the model geometry and loading
whether boundary stresses are tensile or compressive, and whether stress along a boundary is
increasing or decreasing.

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This together with knowledge of fringe orders at one or more points and knowledge
that fringe orders change In a continuous, orderly fashion, usually allows the experimenter to
establish stress values along boundaries. Since the fringe order is constant along any
isochromatic band, determination of fringe orders at all points within the model is then a
simple step; instances in which an isochromatic band intercepts model boundaries at more
than one point provide valuable check points.

Stress Trajectories

Maps showing the directions of principal stresses in loaded members are valuable aids for
understanding stress systems. By studying such stress-flow diagrams, or stress-trajectory
diagrams, an engineer can develop a talent for predicting the stress system in a part prior
to formal analysis.

Stress trajectories are paths comprised of points et which the principal-stress directions are
tangent to the path. An orthogonal network is formed by the two families of trajectories
one everywhere tangent to 1 and the other to 2 .

TWO-DIMENSIONAL MODELS

Hard plastics for photo elasticity models are characterized by a modulus of

elasticity from about 300,000 to 500,000 psi (2.1 GPa to 3.5 GPa). They are generally brittle,
exhibiting linear stress- strain behavior as well as linear strain-birefringence behavior to stress
levels approaching the ultimate strength. Polyester resins such as Paraplex and Homalite 100,
allyl resins such as CR-39, and various epoxy formulations are in this category. Epoxy resins
are often favored because of their high photo elasticity sensitivity and increased freedom from
mechanical and optical creep. The others are colorless resins that offer glass-like surfaces
similar to the plate-glass molds in which they are cast.

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DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING STUDY MATERIALS

Soft plastics, characterized by moduli of elasticity of the order of 5000 psi (0.345 MPa),
have found primary application in dynamic photo elasticity. Elastic wave propagation is much
smaller in these low-modulus materials, permitting use of relatively common high-speed
cameras in the 10,000-frames/s class. Urethane rubbers are most common, while highly
plasticized epoxy formulations have also been used. Both exhibit viscoelastic behavior, rather
than unique mechanical and optical constants.

Models having clear surfaces can be used without surface treatment, while those with
diffusing surfaces require special attention. Surfaces can be ground and polished with fine
abrasives and rouges. Alternately, they can be coated with oil or light grease to fill the minute
irregularities and thus exhibit optically smooth surfaces. Epoxy and urethane plates that are cut
from thicker slabs require such treatment. When these resins are cast against smooth
Teflon molds or molds having smooth layers of mold-release agents, the model surfaces
are usually adequately clear for direct use.

Machining these model materials is best accomplished with carbide burrs or

milling cutters driven at 5000 to 50,000 rpm. A quick and easy model-making procedure consists
of first cutting the model 1/16 to 1/8 in. (1.5 to 3 mm) oversize with a bandsaw or jigsaw.
The part is then attached to a metal template with double-faced pressure-sensitive tape. The
model and template composite is placed on a high-speed routing machine in which a plug is
fixed to the table directly below the cutting tool. The model is manually advanced into the cutter
in a series of tangential strokes until the template contacts the plug. The plug then acts as a limit
stop, and the model matches the template when the plug touches the template everywhere along its
periphery. Both hard and soft plastics are machined by this method.

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Fig. Sequence of isochromatic patterns during dynamic crack propagation.

Machining stress and associated birefringence are induced along model boundaries if
excessive pressure and excessive heating are permitted. Sharp tools, high speeds and
moderate feeds give stress-free models.

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DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING STUDY MATERIALS

All model materials absorb moisture from the atmosphere. Moisture absorbed at newly cut
edges causes swelling or volumetric expansion of material along the boundaries, inducing local
compressive stresses and accompanying birefringence. Similarly, moisture lost along newly cut
boundaries causes tensile boundary stresses. This buildup of extraneous birefringence is a time-
dependent effect, the so-called 'time-edge effect'. It can be eliminated by keeping the material
at fixed humidity before and after machining, so that the moisture content in the material
remains at equilibrium with the atmosphere. The time-edge effect can be minimized by
immediately coating the model edges with a waterproofing agent, such as a silicone coating. Most
generally, however, the time-edge effect is circumvented by performing the test within a few hours
after the model is machined, thus precluding the buildup of substantial boundary birefringence.

TWO DIMENSIONAL PHOTO ELASTICITY

photo elasticity can be applied both to three-dimensional and two-dimensional state of stress.
But the application of photo elasticityty to the three-dimensional state of stress is more involved as
compared to the state of two-dimensional or plane-stress system. So the present section deals with
application of photo elasticity in investigation of a plane stress system. This condition is achieved
when the thickness of the prototype is much smaller as compared to dimensions in the plane. Thus one
is only concerned with stresses acting parallel to the plane of the model, as other stress components are
zero. The experimental setup varies from experiment to experiment. The two basic kinds of setup used
are plane polariscope and circular polariscope.

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The working principle of two-dimensional photo elasticity allows the measurement of

retardation, which can be converted to the difference between the first and second principal stress and
their orientation. To further get values of each stress component, a technique called stress-separation is
required. Several theoretical and experimental methods are utilized to provide additional information
to solve individual stress components.

PLANE POLARISCOPE

The setup consists of two linear polarizers and a light source. The light source can either emit
monochromatic light or white light depending upon the experiment. First the light is passed through
the first polarizer which converts the light into plane polarized light. The apparatus is set up in such a
way that this plane polarized light then passes through the stressed specimen. This light then follows,
at each point of the specimen, the direction of principal stress at that point. The light is then made to
pass through the analyzer and we finally get the fringe pattern.

The fringe pattern in a plane polariscope setup consists of both the isochromatics and the
isoclinics. The isoclinics change with the orientation of the polariscope while there is no change in the
isochromatics.

Transmission Circular Polariscope The same device functions as a plane polariscoe when quarter wave
plates are taken aside or rotated so their axes parallel to polarization axes

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CIRCULAR POLAISCOPE

In a circular polariscope setup two quarter-wave plates are added to the experimental setup of
the plane polariscope. The first quarter-wave plate is placed in between the polarizer and the specimen
and the second quarter-wave plate is placed between the specimen and the analyzer. The effect of
adding the quarter-wave plate after the source-side polarizer is that we get circularly polarized
light passing through the sample. The analyzer-side quarter-wave plate converts the circular
polarization state back to linear before the light passes through the analyzer.

The basic advantage of a circular polariscope over a plane polariscope is that in a circular
polariscope setup we only get the isochromatics and not the isoclinics. This eliminates the problem of
differentiating between the isoclinics and the isochromatics.

Applications

photo elasticity has been used for a variety of stress analyses and even for routine use in
design, particularly before the advent of numerical methods, such as for instance finite elements or
boundary elements. Digitization of polariscopy enables fast image acquisition and data processing,
which allows its industrial applications to control quality of manufacturing process for materials such
as glass and polymer. Dentistry utilizes photo elasticity to analyze strain in denture materials.

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DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING STUDY MATERIALS

photo elasticity model to validate the stiffener model. Isochromatic fringe patterns around a steel
platelet in a photo-elastic two-part epoxy resin.

photo elasticity can successfully be used to investigate the highly localized stress state within
masonry or in proximity of a rigid line inclusion (stiffener) embedded in an elastic medium. In the
former case, the problem is nonlinear due to the contacts between bricks, while in the latter case the
elastic solution is singular, so that numerical methods may fail to provide correct results. These can be
obtained through photo elasticity techniques. Dynamic photo elasticity integrated with high-speed
photography is utilized to investigate fracture behavior in materials.

UNIT-4

BRITTLE COATING METHODS

a. Fibre – optic sensors

A fiber optic sensor is a sensor that uses optical fiber either as the sensing element ("intrinsic
sensors"), or as a means of relaying signals from a remote sensor to the electronics that process the
signals ("extrinsic sensors"). Fibers have many uses in remote sensing. Depending on the application,
fiber may be used because of its small size, or because no electrical power is needed at the remote
location, or because many sensors can be multiplexed along the length of a fiber by using different
wavelengths of light for each sensor, or by sensing the time delay as light passes along the fiber
through each sensor. Time delay can be determined using a device such as an optical time-domain
reflect meter.

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b. Thermography

Infrared thermography, thermal imaging, and thermal video are examples of infraredimaging
science. Thermal imaging cameras detect radiation in the infrared range of the electromagnetic
spectrum (roughly 9000–14,000 nanometers or 9–14 μm) and produce images of that radiation, called
thermograms.

c. C – Scan

The test area is fully scanned with an ultrasonic transducer. A video camera tracking the
transducer or an X-Y encoder is used to plot the movement of the transducer.

The ultrasonic signals from the geometric features and any flaws that may occur are recorded with
each movement of the transducer. Signal processing is used to convert this information into a coloured
image similar to that shown below. The various colors of the image represent a range of thickness
values resulting in a topographic map of the test item. The signals, processed image, calibration
parameters and other relevant information are stored electronically and can be recalled whenever
required.

HOLOGRAPHY
Holography is a technique which enables three-dimensional images (holograms) to be made. It
involves the use of a laser, interference, diffraction, light intensity recording and suitable illumination
of the recording. The image changes as the position and orientation of the viewing system changes in
exactly the same way as if the object were still present, thus making the image appear three-
dimensional.
The holographic recording itself is not an image; it consists of an apparently random structure
of varying intensity, density or profile.

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WORKING OF HOLOGRAPHY

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Close-up photograph of a hologram's surface. The object in the hologram is a toy van. It is no
more possible to discern the subject of a hologram from this pattern than it is to identify what music
has been recorded by looking at a CD surface. Note that the hologram is described by thespeckle
pattern, rather than the "wavy" line pattern.

Holography is a technique that enables a light field, which is generally the product of a light
source scattered off objects, to be recorded and later reconstructed when the original light field is no
longer present, due to the absence of the original objects.[20] Holography can be thought of as
somewhat similar to sound recording, whereby a sound field created by vibrating matter like musical
instruments or vocal cords, is encoded in such a way that it can be reproduced later, without the
presence of the original vibrating matter.

Laser

Holograms are recorded using a flash of light that illuminates a scene and then imprints on a
recording medium, much in the way a photograph is recorded. In addition, however, part of the light
beam must be shone directly onto the recording medium - this second light beam is known as
the reference beam. A hologram requires a laser as the sole light source. Lasers can be precisely
controlled and have a fixed wavelength, unlike sunlight or light from conventional sources, which
contain many different wavelengths.

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To prevent external light from interfering, holograms are usually taken in darkness, or in low
level light of a different color from the laser light used in making the hologram. Holography requires a
specific exposure time (just like photography), which can be controlled using a shutter, or by
electronically timing the laser.

Apparatus

A hologram can be made by shining part of the light beam directly onto the recording medium,
and the other part onto the object in such a way that some of the scattered light falls onto the recording
medium.

A more flexible arrangement for recording a hologram requires the laser beam to be aimed
through a series of elements that change it in different ways. The first element is a beam splitter that
divides the beam into two identical beams, each aimed in different directions:

 One beam (known as the illumination or object beam) is spread usinglenses and directed onto the
scene using mirrors. Some of the light scattered (reflected) from the scene then falls onto the
recording medium.

 The second beam (known as the reference beam) is also spread through the use of lenses, but is
directed so that it doesn't come in contact with the scene, and instead travels directly onto the
recording medium.

Several different materials can be used as the recording medium. One of the most common is a
film very similar to photographic film (silver halide photographic emulsion), but with a much higher
concentration of light-reactive grains, making it capable of the much higher resolution that holograms
require. A layer of this recording medium (e.g. silver halide) is attached to a transparent substrate,
which is commonly glass, but may also be plastic.

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Process

When the two laser beams reach the recording medium, their light waves intersect and
interfere with each other. It is this interference pattern that is imprinted on the recording medium. The
pattern itself is seemingly random, as it represents the way in which the scene's light interfered with
the original light source — but not the original light source itself. The interference pattern can be
considered an encoded version of the scene, requiring a particular key — the original light source —
in order to view its contents.

This missing key is provided later by shining a laser, identical to the one used to record the
hologram, onto the developed film. When this beam illuminates the hologram, it is diffracted by the
hologram's surface pattern. This produces a light field identical to the one originally produced by the
scene and scattered onto the hologram. The image this effect produces in a person's retina is known as
a virtual image.
PLANE WAVEFRONTS
A diffraction grating is a structure with a repeating pattern. A simple example is a metal plate
with slits cut at regular intervals. A light wave incident on a grating is split into several waves; the
direction of these diffracted waves is determined by the grating spacing and the wavelength of the
light.
A simple hologram can be made by superimposing two plane waves from the same light source
on a holographic recording medium. The two waves interfere giving a straight line fringe
pattern whose intensity varies sinusoidally across the medium. The spacing of the fringe pattern is
determined by the angle between the two waves, and on the wavelength of the light.
The recorded light pattern is a diffraction grating. When it is illuminated by only one of the
waves used to create it, it can be shown that one of the diffracted waves emerges at the same angle as
that at which the second wave was originally incident so that the second wave has been 'reconstructed'.
Thus, the recorded light pattern is a holographic recording as defined above.
POINT SOURCES

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Sinusoidal zone plate

If the recording medium is illuminated with a point source and a normally incident plane wave,
the resulting pattern is a sinusoidal zone plate which acts as a negative Fresnel lens whose focal length
is equal to the separation of the point source and the recording plane.
When a plane wave front illuminates a negative lens, it is expanded into a wave which appears
to diverge from the focal point of the lens. Thus, when the recorded pattern is illuminated with the
original plane wave, some of the light is diffracted into a diverging beam equivalent to the original
plane wave; a holographic recording of the point source has been created.
When the plane wave is incident at a non-normal angle, the pattern formed is more complex
but still acts as a negative lens provided it is illuminated at the original angle.
COMPLEX OBJECTS
To record a hologram of a complex object, a laser beam is first split into two separate beams of
light. One beam illuminates the object, which then scatters light onto the recording medium.
According to diffraction theory, each point in the object acts as a point source of light so the recording
medium can be considered to be illuminated by a set of point sources located at varying distances from
the medium.
The second (reference) beam illuminates the recording medium directly. Each point source
wave interferes with the reference beam, giving rise to its own sinusoidal zone plate in the recording
medium. The resulting pattern is the sum of all these 'zone plates' which combine to produce a random
(speckle) pattern as in the photograph above.

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When the hologram is illuminated by the original reference beam, each of the individual zone
plates reconstructs the object wave which produced it, and these individual wavefronts add together to
reconstruct the whole of the object beam. The viewer perceives a wavefront that is identical to the
wavefront scattered from the object onto the recording medium, so that it appears to him or her that
the object is still in place even if it has been removed. This image is known as a "virtual" image, as it
is generated even though the object is no longer there.
MATHEMATICAL MODEL
A single-frequency light wave can be modelled by a complex number U, which represents
the electric or magnetic field of the light wave. The amplitude and phase of the light are represented
by the absolute value and angle of the complex number. The object and reference waves at any point
in the holographic system are given by UO and UR. The combined beam is given by UO + UR. The
energy of the combined beams is proportional to the square of magnitude of the combined waves as:

If a photographic plate is exposed to the two beams and then developed, its transmittance, T, is
proportional to the light energy that was incident on the plate and is given by

where k is a constant.
When the developed plate is illuminated by the reference beam, the light transmitted through
the plate, UH is equal to the transmittanceT multiplied by the reference beam amplitude UR, giving

It can be seen that UH has four terms, each representing a light beam emerging from the
hologram. The first of these is proportional toUO. This is the reconstructed object beam which enables
a viewer to 'see' the original object even when it is no longer present in the field of view.
The second and third beams are modified versions of the reference beam. The fourth term is
known as the "conjugate object beam". It has the reverse curvature to the object beam itself and forms
a real image of the object in the space beyond the holographic plate.

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When the reference and object beams are incident on the holographic recording medium at
significantly different angles, the virtual, real and reference wavefronts all emerge at different angles,
enabling the reconstructed object to be seen clearly.
RECORDING A HOLOGRAM

An optical table being used to make a hologram

To make a hologram, the following are required:

 a suitable object or set of objects

 a suitable laser beam

 part of the laser beam to be directed so that it illuminates the object (the object beam) and another
part so that it illuminates the recording medium directly (the reference beam), enabling the
reference beam and the light which is scattered from the object onto the recording medium to form
an interference pattern

 a recording medium which converts this interference pattern into an optical element which
modifies either the amplitude or the phase of an incident light beam according to the intensity of
the interference pattern.

 an environment which provides sufficient mechanical and thermal stability that the interference
pattern is stable during the time in which the interference pattern is recorded.

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These requirements are inter-related, and it is essential to understand the nature of optical
interference to see this. Interference is the variation in intensity which can occur when two light
waves are superimposed. The intensity of the maxima exceeds the sum of the individual intensities of
the two beams, and the intensity at the minima is less than this and may be zero. The interference
pattern maps the relative phase between the two waves, and any change in the relative phases causes
the interference pattern to move across the field of view.
If the relative phase of the two waves changes by one cycle, then the pattern drifts by one whole
fringe. One phase cycle corresponds to a change in the relative distances travelled by the two beams of
one wavelength. Since the wavelength of light is of the order of 0.5μm, it can be seen that very small
changes in the optical paths travelled by either of the beams in the holographic recording system lead
to movement of the interference pattern which is the holographic recording. Such changes can be
caused by relative movements of any of the optical components or the object itself, and also by local
changes in air-temperature.
It is essential that any such changes are significantly less than the wavelength of light if a clear
well-defined recording of the interference is to be created.
The exposure time required to record the hologram depends on the laser power available, on the
particular medium used and on the size and nature of the object(s) to be recorded, just as in
conventional photography. This determines the stability requirements.
Exposure times of several minutes are typical when using quite powerful gas lasers and silver halide
emulsions. All the elements within the optical system have to be stable to fractions of a μm over that
period. It is possible to make holograms of much less stable objects by using a pulsed laser which
produces a large amount of energy in a very short time
These systems have been used to produce holograms of live people. Thus, the laser power,
recording medium sensitivity, recording time and mechanical and thermal stability requirements are
all interlinked. Generally, the smaller the object, the more compact the optical layout, so that the
stability requirements are significantly less than when making holograms of large objects.

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Another very important laser parameter is its coherence. This can be envisaged by considering
a laser producing a sine wave whose frequency drifts over time; the coherence length can then be
considered to be the distance over which it maintains a single frequency. This is important because
two waves of different frequencies do not produce a stable interference pattern.
The coherence length of the laser determines the depth of field which can be recorded in the
scene. A good holography laser will typically have a coherence length of several meters, ample for a
deep hologram.
The objects that form the scene must, in general, have optically rough surfaces so that they scatter
light over a wide range of angles. A specularly reflecting (or shiny) surface reflects the light in only
one direction at each point on its surface, so in general, most of the light will not be incident on the
recording medium. A hologram of a shiny object can be made by locating it very close to the
recording plate.
HOLOGRAM CLASSIFICATIONS
There are three important properties of a hologram which are defined in this section. A given
hologram will have one or other of each of these three properties, e.g. an amplitude modulated thin
transmission hologram, or a phase modulated, volume reflection hologram.
AMPLITUDE AND PHASE MODULATION HOLOGRAMS
An amplitude modulation hologram is one where the amplitude of light diffracted by the
hologram is proportional to the intensity of the recorded light. A straightforward example of this
is photographic emulsion on a transparent substrate. The emulsion is exposed to the interference
pattern, and is subsequently developed giving a transmittance which varies with the intensity of the
pattern - the more light that fell on the plate at a given point, the darker the developed plate at that
point.

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A phase hologram is made by changing either the thickness or the refractive index of the
material in proportion to the intensity of the holographic interference pattern. This is a phase
grating and it can be shown that when such a plate is illuminated by the original reference beam, it
reconstructs the original object wavefront. The efficiency (i.e. the fraction of the illuminated beam
which is converted to reconstructed object beam) is greater for phase than for amplitude modulated
holograms.
THIN HOLOGRAMS AND THICK (VOLUME) HOLOGRAMS
A thin hologram is one where the thickness of the recording medium is much less than the
spacing of the interference fringes which make up the holographic recording.
A thick or volume hologram is one where the thickness of the recording medium is greater than
the spacing of the interference pattern. The recorded hologram is now a three dimensional structure,
and it can be shown that incident light is diffracted by the grating only at a particular angle, known as
the Bragg angle.
If the hologram is illuminated with a light source incident at the original reference beam angle
but a broad spectrum of wavelengths; reconstruction occurs only at the wavelength of the original
laser used. If the angle of illumination is changed, reconstruction will occur at a different wavelength
and the colour of the re-constructed scene changes. A volume hologram effectively acts as a colour
filter.
TRANSMISSION AND REFLECTION HOLOGRAMS
A transmission hologram is one where the object and reference beams are incident on the
recording medium from the same side. In practice, several more mirrors may be used to direct the
beams in the required directions.
Normally, transmission holograms can only be reconstructed using a laser or a quasi-
monochromatic source, but a particular type of transmission hologram, known as a rainbow hologram,
can be viewed with white light.
In a reflection hologram, the object and reference beams are incident on the plate from
opposite sides of the plate. The reconstructed object is then viewed from the same side of the plate as
that at which the re-constructing beam is incident.

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Only volume holograms can be used to make reflection holograms, as only a very low intensity
diffracted beam would be reflected by a thin hologram.
HOLOGRAPHIC RECORDING MEDIA
The recording medium has to convert the original interference pattern into an optical element
that modifies either the amplitude or thephase of an incident light beam in proportion to the intensity
of the original light field.

General properties of recording materials for holography. Source:

Theoretical Required
Type of Resolution
Material Reusable Processing maximum exposure
hologram 2
limit [mm−1]
efficiency [mJ/cm ]

Amplitude 6%
Photographic
No Wet 1.5 5000
emulsions Phase
60%
(bleached)

Dichromated gelatin No Wet Phase 100% 100 10,000

Photoresists No Wet Phase 30% 100 3,000

Charge and
Photothermoplastics Yes Phase 33% 0.1 500–1,200
heat

Post
Photopolymers No Phase 100% 10000 5,000
exposure

Photorefractives Yes None Phase 100% 10 10,000

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The recording medium should be able to resolve fully all the fringes arising from interference
between object and reference beam. These fringe spacings can range from tens of micrometers to less
than one micrometer, i.e. spatial frequencies ranging from a few hundred to several thousand
cycles/mm, and ideally, the recording medium should have a response which is flat over this range.
If the response of the medium to these spatial frequencies is low, the diffraction efficiency of
the hologram will be poor, and a dim image will be obtained. Standard photographic film has a very
low or even zero response at the frequencies involved and cannot be used to make a hologram - see,
for example, Kodak's professional black and white film whose resolution starts falling off at 20
lines/mm — it is unlikely that any reconstructed beam could be obtained using this film.
If the response is not flat over the range of spatial frequencies in the interference pattern, then
the resolution of the reconstructed image may also be degraded.
The table below shows the principal materials used for holographic recording. Note that these
do not include the materials used in them as replication of an existing hologram, which are discussed
in the next section. The resolution limit given in the table indicates the maximal number of
interference lines/mm of the gratings.
The required exposure, expressed as millijoules (mJ) of photon energy impacting the surface
area, is for a long exposure time. Short exposure times (less than 1/1000 of a second, such as with a
pulsed laser) require much higher exposure energies, due to reciprocity failure.

An existing hologram can be copied by embossing or optically.

Most holographic recordings (e.g. bleached silver halide, photoresist, and photopolymers) have
surface relief patterns which conform with the original illumination intensity. Embossing, which is
similar to the method used to stamp out plastic discs from a master in audio recording, involves
copying this surface relief pattern by impressing it onto another material.

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The first step in the embossing process is to make a stamper by electrodeposition of nickel on
the relief image recorded on the photoresist or photothermoplastic. When the nickel layer is thick
enough, it is separated from the master hologram and mounted on a metal backing plate. The material
used to make embossed copies consists of a polyester base film, a resin separation layer and a
thermoplastic film constituting the holographic layer.
The embossing process can be carried out with a simple heated press. The bottom layer of the
duplicating film (the thermoplastic layer) is heated above its softening point and pressed against the
stamper, so that it takes up its shape. This shape is retained when the film is cooled and removed from
the press. In order to permit the viewing of embossed holograms in reflection, an additional reflecting
layer of aluminum is usually added on the hologram recording layer. This method is particularly suited
to mass production.
The first book to feature a hologram on the front cover was The Skook (Warner Books, 1984)
by JP Miller, featuring an illustration by Miller. That same year, "Telstar" by Ad Infinitum became the
first record with a hologram cover and National Geographic published the first magazine with a
hologram cover.[34] Embossed holograms are used widely on credit cards, banknotes, and high value
products for authentication purposes.
It is possible to print holograms directly into steel using a sheet explosive charge to create the
required surface relief. The Royal Canadian Mint produces holographic gold and silver coinage
through a complex stamping process
A hologram can be copied optically by illuminating it with a laser beam, and locating a second
hologram plate so that it is illuminated both by the reconstructed object beam, and the illuminating
beam. Stability and coherence requirements are significantly reduced if the two plates are located very
close together. An index matching fluid is often used between the plates to minimize spurious
interference between the plates. Uniform illumination can be obtained by scanning point-by-point or
with a beam shaped into a thin line.

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Reconstructing and viewing the holographic image

When the hologram plate is illuminated by a laser beam identical to the reference beam which
was used to record the hologram, an exact reconstruction of the original object wavefront is obtained.
An imaging system (an eye or a camera) located in the reconstructed beam 'sees' exactly the same
scene as it would have done when viewing the original. When the lens is moved, the image changes in
the same way as it would have done when the object was in place. If several objects were present
when the hologram was recorded, the reconstructed objects move relative to one another, i.e.
exhibit parallax, in the same way as the original objects would have done. It was very common in the
early days of holography to use a chess board as the object and then take photographs at several
different angles using the reconstructed light to show how the relative positions of the chess pieces
appeared to change.
A holographic image can also be obtained using a different laser beam configuration to the
original recording object beam, but the reconstructed image will not match the original exactly. When
a laser is used to reconstruct the hologram, the image is speckledjust as the original image will have
been. This can be a major drawback in viewing a hologram.
White light consists of light of a wide range of wavelengths. Normally, if a hologram is
illuminated by a white light source, each wavelength can be considered to generate its own
holographic reconstruction, and these will vary in size, angle, and distance.
These will be superimposed, and the summed image will wipe out any information about the
original scene, as if superimposing a set of photographs of the same object of different sizes and
orientations. However, a holographic image can be obtained using white light in specific
circumstances, e.g. with volume holograms and rainbow holograms.
The white light source used to view these holograms should always approximate to a point
source, i.e. a spot light or the sun. An extended source (e.g. a fluorescent lamp) will not reconstruct a
hologram since its light is incident at each point at a wide range of angles, giving multiple
reconstructions which will "wipe" one another out.

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UNIT 5
ON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
 Fundamentals of NDT,

 Acoustic Emission Technique,

 Radiography,

 Thermography,

 Ultrasonics, N

 Eddy Current testing,

 Fluorescent Penetrant Testing

Non-destructive Testing
• Which will test materials, components and assemblies for flaws in their structure without damaging their future
usefulness

IMPORTANCE OF NDT
NDT plays an important role in the quality control of a product. It is used during all the stages of manufacturing of a
product. It is used to monitor the quality of the:

 Raw materials which are used in the construction of the product.

 Fabrication processes which are used to manufacture the product.

 Finished product before it is put into service.

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Use of NDT during all stages of manufacturing results in the following benefits:

 It increases the safety and reliability of the product during operation.

 It decreases the cost of the product by reducing scrap and conserving materials, labour and energy.

 It enhances the reputation of the manufacturer as producer of quality goods.

Types of NDT methods

 Visual Inspection

 Liquid Penetrant Test

 Magnetic Particle inspection

 Ultrasonic Test

 Eddy Current Test

 Radiography (X-ray Test )

Visual Inspection
 Most basic and common inspection method.

 It is visually inspected

 Tools used fiberscopes, borescopes, magnifying glasses and mirrors.

 Portable video inspection unit with zoom allows inspection of large tanks and vessels, railroad tank cars, sewer
lines

 Robotic crawlers permit observation in hazardous or tight areas, such as air ducts, reactors, pipelines

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Dye penetrate inspection

 A liquid with high surface wetting characteristics is applied to the surface of the part and allowed time to seep into
surface breaking defects.

 The excess liquid is removed from the surface of the part.

 A developer is applied to pull the trapped penetrant out the defect and spread it on the surface where it can be seen
(capillary action)

 Visual inspection is the final step in the process. The penetrant used is often loaded with a fluorescent dye and the
inspection is done under UV light to increase test sensitivity.

 Dye penetrant inspection can be performed at any time (after the grinding operation is most common) and

 It is used to highlight cracks on the roll surface.

 Dye penetrant testing can also be done using a florescent dye. The cracks are then highlighted using a florescent
black light instead of developer.

ADVANTAGE
 Low cost

 Easy to perform

 Portable

 Dye penetrant inspection is accurate at highlighting large, wide cracks

DISADVANTAGE
 Dye penetrate inspection is accurate at highlighting large, wide cracks, however, if the crack is too narrow, the
penetrate cannot seep into the crack and will not be highlighted when developed.

 It is generally preferred to perform the test after locating surface indications with eddy current and ultrasonic
inspection.

 Only the general area of the indications can then be tested rather than the entire roll body

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MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION

 Magnetic particle testing is one of the most widely utilized NDT methods since it is fast and relatively easy to
apply and part surface preparation is not as critical as it is for some other methods.

 This method uses magnetic fields and small magnetic particles (i.e. iron filings) to detect flaws in components.

 The only requirement is that the component being inspected must be made of a ferromagnetic material (a
materials that can be magnetized) such as iron, nickel, cobalt, or some of their alloys

METHOD
 The part is magnetized.

 Finely milled iron particles coated with a dye pigment .

 These particles are attracted to magnetic flux leakage fields and will cluster to form an indication directly over the
discontinuity.

 This indication can be visually detected under proper lighting conditions.

MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION

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ADVANTAGES
 High sensitivity (small discontinuities can be detected).

 Indications are produced directly on the surface of the part and constitute a visual representation of the flaw.

 Minimal surface preparation (no need for paint removal)

 Portable (materials are available in aerosol spray cans)

 Low cost (materials and associated equipment are relatively inexpensive)

DISADVANTAGES
 Only surface and near surface defects can be detected.

 Only applicable to ferromagnetic materials.

 Relatively small area can be inspected at a time.

 Only materials with a relatively nonporous surface can be inspected.

 The inspector must have direct access to the surface being inspected.

Ultrasonic Test
 is a family of non-destructive testing techniques based on the propagation of ultrasonic waves in the object or
material tested.

 Ultrasonic testing is often performed on steel and other metals and alloys, though it can also be used on concrete,
wood and composites, albeit with less resolution.

 It is used in many industries including steel and aluminium construction, metallurgy, manufacturing, aerospace,
automotive and other transportation sectors.

 At a construction site, a technician tests a pipeline weld for defects using an ultrasonic phased array instrument.

 The scanner, which consists of a frame with magnetic wheels, holds the probe in contact with the pipe by a spring.

 The wet area is the ultrasonic couplant that allows the sound to pass into the pipe wall.

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Advantages
 High penetrating power, which allows the detection of flaws deep in the part.

 High sensitivity, permitting the detection of extremely small flaws.

 In many cases only one surface needs to be accessible.

 Greater accuracy than other non destructive methods in determining the depth of internal flaws and the thickness
of parts with parallel surfaces.

 Some capability of estimating the size, orientation, shape and nature of defects.

 Some capability of estimating the structure of alloys of components with different acoustic properties

 Non hazardous to operations or to nearby personnel and has no effect on equipment and materials in the vicinity.

 Capable of portable or highly automated operation.

 Results are immediate. Hence on the spot decisions can be made.

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Disadvantages
 Manual operation requires careful attention by experienced technicians.

 The transducers alert to both normal structure of some materials, tolerable anomalies of other specimens (both
termed ―noise‖) and to faults therein severe enough to compromise specimen integrity.

 These signals must be distinguished by a skilled technician, possibly requiring follow up with other non
destructive testing methods.

 Surface must be prepared by cleaning and removing loose scale, paint, etc., although paint that is properly bonded
to a surface need not be removed.

 Extensive technical knowledge is required for the development of inspection procedures.

 Parts that are rough, irregular in shape, very small or thin, or not homogeneous are difficult to inspect.

Eddy Current testing

(also commonly seen as eddy current testing and ECT) is one of many electromagnetic testing methods used in
non destructive testing (NDT) making use of electromagnetic induction to detect and characterize surface and sub-surface
flaws in conductive materials.

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Recent advances in eddy current testing that are responsible for its enhanced use by the industry

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Eddy Current testing

ECT on surfaces
When it comes to surface applications, the performance of any given inspection technique depends greatly on the
specific conditions mostly the types of materials and defects, but also surface conditions, etc.

However, in most situations, the following are true:

 Effective on coatings/paint: yes

 Computerized record keeping: partial

 3D/Advanced imaging: none

 User dependence: high

 Speed: low

 Post-inspection analysis: none

 Requires chemicals/consumables: no

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Eddy current array

Eddy current array (ECA) and conventional ECT share the same basic working principles.

ECA technology provides the ability to electronically drive an array of coils ( multiple coils) arranged in specific pattern
called a topology that generates a sensitivity profile suited to the target defects.

Data acquisition is achieved by multiplexing the coils in a special pattern to avoid mutual inductance between the
individual coils.

The benefits of ECA are:

 Faster inspections

 Wider coverage

 Less operator dependence — array probes yield more consistent results compared to manual raster scans

 Better detection capabilities

 Easier analysis because of simpler scan patterns

 Improved positioning and sizing because of encoded data

 Array probes can easily be designed to be flexible or shaped to specifications, making hard-to-reach areas

 easier to inspect

 ECA technology provides a remarkably powerful tool and saves significant time during inspections.

S.RAJASUDHAKAR,.B.E-AERO M.SHANMUGANATHAN,.B.E-AERO
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DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING STUDY MATERIALS

Acoustic Emission Technique

 Acoustic Emission, according to ASTM, refers to the generation of transient elastic waves during the rapid release
of energy from localized sources within a material.

 The source of these emissions in metals is closely associated with the dislocation movement accompanying plastic
deformation and the initiation and extension of cracks in a structure under stress. Other sources of Acoustic
Emission are: melting, phase transformation, thermal stresses, cool down cracking and stress build up.

 The Acoustic Emission NDT technique is based on the detection and conversion of these high frequency elastic
waves to electrical signals. This is accomplished by directly coupling piezoelectric transducers on the surface of
the structure under test and loading the structure.

S.RAJASUDHAKAR,.B.E-AERO M.SHANMUGANATHAN,.B.E-AERO
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DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING STUDY MATERIALS

Applications
 Laboratory & R&D studies

 In field inspection

 Structural integrity evaluation

 Vessels testing [ambient, hot or cryogenic, metallic and FRP, spheres]

 Tank bottom testing

 Nuclear components inspection (valves, lift beams, steam lines)

 Corrosion detection

 Pipeline testing

 Transformers testing (Partial Discharge)

 Railroad tank car testing

 Tube trailers & high pressure gas cylinders

 Reactor & high energy piping testing

 Aging aircraft evaluation

 Advanced materials testing (composites, ceramics)

 Production quality control

 Rocket motor testing.

Acoustic Emission for Laboratory Testing

 Acoustic Emission inspection is a powerful aid to materials testing and the study of deformation, fracture
and corrosion. It gives an immediate indication of the response and behaviour of a material under stress,
intimately connected with strength, damage and failure. Acoustic Emission is used also for monitoring chemical
reactions including corrosion process, liquid solid transformations, phase transformations.

Acoustic Emission In field testing

Many codes and standards exist for Acoustic Emission testing of vessels, from transportation gas cylinders and
railroad tanks to thousands tons storage tanks. Because only active defects and deterioration produce Acoustic
Emission no time is wasted on inactive defects which are not threatening structural integrity.

S.RAJASUDHAKAR,.B.E-AERO M.SHANMUGANATHAN,.B.E-AERO
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DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING STUDY MATERIALS

ADVANTAGES
Compared to conventional inspection methods the advantages of the Acoustic Emission technique are:

 High sensitivity.

 Early and rapid detection of defects, flaws, cracks etc.

 Real time monitoring

 Cost Reduction

 Defective area location: only critical defects provide sustainable Acoustic Emission sources.

 Minimization of plant downtime for inspection, no need for scanning the whole structural surface.

 Minor disturbance of insulation.

 Application of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Technological Packages: Expert systems for evaluating the
condition of metallic pressure systems and tank bottoms based on the acquired experience of a huge number of
tests are world wide used.

Radiography
Radiography is used in a very wide range of aplications including medicine, engineering, forensics, security, etc.
In NDT, radiography is one of the most important and widely used methods. Radiographic testing (RT) offers a
number of advantages over other NDT methods , however, one of its major disadvantages is the health risk associated
with the radiation.

 RT is method of inspecting materials for hidden flaws by using the ability of short wavelength electromagnetic
radiation (high energy photons) to penetrate various materials.

 The intensity of the radiation that penetrates and passes through the material is either captured by a radiation
sensitive film (Film Radiography) or by a planer array of radiation sensitive sensors (Real-time Radiography).

 Film radiography is the oldest approach, yet it is still the most widely used in NDT.

S.RAJASUDHAKAR,.B.E-AERO M.SHANMUGANATHAN,.B.E-AERO
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DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING STUDY MATERIALS

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DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING STUDY MATERIALS

Advantages
 Both surface and internal discontinuities can be detected.

 Significant variations in composition can be detected.

 It has a very few material limitations.

 Can be used for inspecting hidden areas (direct access to surface is not required)

 Very minimal or no part preparation is required.

 Permanent test record is obtained.

 Good portability especially for gamma-ray sources.

Disadvantages
 Hazardous to operators and other nearby personnel.

 High degree of skill and experience is required for exposure and interpretation.

 The equipment is relatively expensive (especially for x-ray sources).

 The process is generally slow.

 Highly directional (sensitive to flaw orientation).

 Depth of discontinuity is not indicated.

 It requires a two-sided access to the component.

Thermography
 Thermography is a non destructive testing (NDT) technique based on the principle that two dissimilar materials,
i.e., possessing different thermo-physical properties, would produce two distinctive thermal signatures that can be
revealed by an infrared sensor, such as a thermal camera.

 The fields of NDT applications are expanding from classical building or electronic components monitoring to
more recent ones such as inspection of artworks or composite materials.

 Furthermore, thermography can be conveniently used as a didactic tool for physics education in universities given
that it provides the possibility of visualizing fundamental principles, such as thermal physics and mechanics
among others.

S.RAJASUDHAKAR,.B.E-AERO M.SHANMUGANATHAN,.B.E-AERO
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DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING STUDY MATERIALS

There are two approaches in thermo graphic inspection:

 (1) passive, in which the features of interest are naturally at a higher or lower temperature than the background,
for example: the surveillance of people on a scene;

 and (2) active, in which an energy source is required to produce a thermal contrast between the feature of interest
and the background, for example: an aircraft part with internal flaws.

Fluorescent Penetrant Testing

FPI is a type of dye penetrant inspection in which a fluorescent dye is applied to the surface of a non-porous
material in order to detect defects that may compromise the integrity or quality of the part in question. Noted for its
low cost and simple process, FPI is used widely in a variety of industries

S.RAJASUDHAKAR,.B.E-AERO M.SHANMUGANATHAN,.B.E-AERO
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DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING STUDY MATERIALS

Step 1: Initial cleaning

 Before the penetrant can be applied to the surface of the material in question one must ensure that the surface is
free of any contamination such as paint, oil, dirt, or scale that may fill a defect or falsely indicate a flaw.

 Chemical can be used to rid the surface of undesired contaminants and ensure good penetration when the
penetrant is applied.

 Sandblasting to remove paint from a surface prior to the FPI process may mask (smear material over) cracks
making the penantrant not effective.

 Even if the part has already been through a previous FPI operation it is imperative that it is cleaned again.

Step 2: Penetrant application

 The fluorescent penetrant is applied to the surface and allowed time to seep into flaws or defects in the material.

 The process of waiting for the penetrant to seep into flaws is called Dwell Time.

 Dwell time varies by material and the size of the indications that are intended to be identified but is generally less
than 30 minutes.

 It requires much less time to penetrate larger flaws because the penetrant is able to soak in much faster. The
opposite is true for smaller flaws/defects.

Step 3: Excess penetrant removal

 After the identified dwell time has passed, penetrant on the outer surface of the material is then removed.

 This highly controlled process is necessary in order to ensure that the penetrant is removed only from the surface
of the material and not from inside any identified flaws.

 Various chemicals can be used for such a process and vary by specific penetrant types.

 Typically, the cleaner is applied to a lint-free cloth that is used to carefully clean the surface.

Step 4: Developer application

 Having removed excess penetrant a contrasting developer may be applied to the surface.

 This serves as a background against which flaws can more readily be detected.

 The developer also causes penetrant that is still in any defects to surface and bleed.

 These two attributes allow defects to be easily detected upon inspection. Dwell time is then allowed for the
developer to achieve desired results before inspection.

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DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING STUDY MATERIALS

Step 5: Inspection

 In the case of fluorescent inspection, the inspector will use ultraviolet radiation with an intensity appropriate to the
intent of the inspection operation.

 This must take place in a dark room to ensure good contrast between the glow emitted by the penetrant in the
defected areas and the unlit surface of the material.

 The inspector carefully examines all surfaces in question and records any concerns. Areas in question may be
marked so that location of indications can be identified easily without the use of the UV lighting.

Step 6: Final cleaning

 Upon successful inspection of the product, it is returned for a final cleaning before it is either shipped, moved on
to another process, or deemed defective and reworked or scrapped.

 Note that a flawed part may not go through the final cleaning process if it is considered not to be cost effective.

Advantages
 Highly sensitive fluorescent penetrant is ideal for even the smallest imperfections

 Low cost and potentially high volume

 Suitable for inspection of non-magnetic materials and electrical insulators.

Disadvantages
 The method requires thorough cleaning of the inspected items. Inadequate cleaning may prevent detection of
discontinuities.

 Test materials can be damaged if compatibility is not ensured. The operator or his/her supervisor should verify
compatibility on the tested material, especially when considering the testing of plastic components and ceramics.

 The method is unsuitable for testing porous ceramics.

 Penetrant stains clothes and skin and must be treated with care

 The method is limited to surface defects

 Training is required for the inspector

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S.RAJASUDHAKAR,.B.E-AERO M.SHANMUGANATHAN,.B.E-AERO