1

DANICA JOY DAR DELA CRUZ

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
In the 1950s ASCA developed the national standards for school counselling programs.
The national standards provide for defining the role of the school counselor, evaluating the
content of counselling programs, and effectively meeting the needs of students.

School guidance in the Philippines (PRE-SPANISH)

The Philippines has a history replete with several layers off cultural influences.
Anthoropolists and historians name three external cultural overlays of Philippine culture. They
are the Islamic cultural tradition (13th- 14th Century AD); Spanish cultural tradition (15th
Century AD); and American cultural tradition (20th Century AD). Anthology is made in this
chapter to trace Philippine education from the pre-Spanish to the present time in an attempt to
establish the philosophical foundations of school guidance in the Philippines.
Before the Spaniards came, education in the Philippines was informal and unstructured,
more vocational and tribal tutors provided their children with more vocational training and less
academics. It may be safe to assume then that guidance during this stage in the history of the
country may still be at the so-called Amorphous Stage by Carlton Beck. It is very possible that
among many people groups, particularly the indigenous peoples (IPs), guidance is still at this
stage and may even be operating at parallel with the Prescriptive Stage. A study of Villanueva
(2008) seems to validate this conjecture. Villanueva notes that in Bontoc in the Cordillera
Administrative Region (CAR), “old men of the Ato still make major decisions for the
community. When the old men say it has never been done therefore it should not be done.”
When the Spaniards came, many changes occurred. Tribal tutors were replaced by
Spanish missionaries whose aim was to Christianize and to conquer the country. Philippine
education under this regime was only for the elite- the Spaniards and for the Filipinos or those
born to Spanish parents. The enactment of Educational Act of 1863 provided for the
establishment of one primary school for boys and girls in each town under the supervision of
the Jesuits. It may be assumed then that guidance at this period was informal, religious- oriented
provided by the religious missionaries. Towards the latter end of the Spanish rule, educational
reforms were made through Higher education schools for the training of teachers, an academy
for artists, a technical school for agriculture, and a school for commercial studies were
established. The University of Santo Tomas offered more courses (pharmacy, philosophy and
letters) and the degree of doctor in all faculties. Some privileged Filipino youth had the
opportunity to study in universities, military school, and private colleges in Spain and in other
capitals in Europe, the Americas and Asia. When the formal guidance movement was
germinating in the United States, the thrust of the Educated Filipinos during this time was the
identity of the people and the founding of a new nation.
It may be recalled that in the early years of American occupation of the Philippines the
formal guidance movement in the United States was taking shape.
As pointed earlier, the Second World War helped move the direction of the guidance
movement with the use of evaluation and counselling in the United States. The Philippines,
then a colony of the United States, participated in the formalization of the guidance movement.
In November 1945, when the first Guidance Institute was held in Manila, the US Army

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psychologists were the resource persons. The Bureau of Public Schools started to send teachers
and officials abroad for study and observation on guidance. Fullbright exchange professors
offered guidance and counselling courses at the Philippine Normal College, Vocational Normal
School in Baguio, and in some other colleges. Later, guidance experts from the United States
like Edward Jones, the author of the most popular books on guidance and Henry B. McDaniels,
professor of guidance at Stanford University, further popularized guidance in the country. It is
therefore safe to assume that the philosophical foundation of guidance in the Philippine public
elementary and high schools as well as in the state colleges and university (specifically the
UP), is rooted in the philosophical foundation of American guidance and counselling. Private
sectarian schools, owned by missions groups like the American Baptist Mission which
established Central Philippine University, the Presbyterians who established Siliman
University, and the Adventist University of the Philippines, may have guidance services rooted
philosophically in the same foundation as the American schools in the United States. Private
sectarian Schools run by Catholic religious congregations and orders like the Jesuits,
Dominicans, Franciscans, and many others have guidance services philosophically rooted in
the spirituality of their respective founders and of the Roman Catholic Church. It must be noted
too that education under Spain included the study of philosophy, with Aristotle and St. Thomas
Aquinas as the principal texts.
During the Japanese occupation of the Philippines (1941-44), the Ministry of Education
was created by the Japanese- sponsored republic. Love for work and dignity of labor was
emphasized. Guidance in whatever form at this period in the Philippine history is not known.
In 1946, the United States turned over the reins of government of Filipinos. The
regulation and supervision of public and private schools belonged to the Bureau of Public and
Private Schools. In the late 1960’s and the 1970’s the rise of the so-called radical nationalism
helped shape a philosophical foundation of guidance rooted in Philippine culture and
personality. Dr Virgilio Enriquez of the UP Department of Psychology redefined psychology
to include indigenous concepts and practices. Anthropologists like Dr. F. Landa Jocano of the
department of Anthropology of the UP and Dr. Jaime Bulatao, S.J. of the Ateneo de Manila
University did much in helping shape the philosophy of the emerging Filipino psychology and
also of guidance. The succeeding years saw the development and validation of psychological
tests with Philippine culture and personality as theoretical framework. Indigenous counselling
methodologies are being espoused by both psychologists and counselors educated abroad or in
the Philippines.
Garcia (1999) describes Philippine education as an embodiment of “both the ideal of
unity of society and the freedom of the individual” and “an eclectic conglomeration and
synthesis of several ideologies”.
The Philippines also opened its doors to more educational institutions- international
schools and more private sectarian schools owned by religious groups which are neither
Catholic nor Protestant. A homegrown religious group, the Iglesia ni Kristo which was founded
in 1914, put up its own school as well, the New Era University. It is against this backdrop that
the philosophical foundations of school guidance in the Philippines are presented and
discussed.

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THE AMERICAN REGIME

According to W. A. Kelly, organized guidance movement is considered to be the

outgrowth of the theories and work of Frank Parsons (1854- 1908) of Boston. He is generally
regarded as the “father of vocational guidance movement”. As a volunteer worker in the Civil
Service House in Boston, Parsons came in contact with many people who were out of school.
He became increasingly concerned by the fact that a large proportion of the youth were poorly
adjusted to their work and lacked the proper foundation for it.
To help this young and women, Parsons organized the Bread Winners Institute in 1905.
Through this organization, he began to develop vocational guidance on the basis of a planned
and increasingly systematic program. In 1908, in close association with Meyer Bloomfield,
Director of the Civil Service House, he organized the Vocational Bureau of Boston. In the first
and only report of the Bureau in 1908, Parsons used the term “vocational guidance” and gave
his official title as “director and vocational counselor”. It is regarded that this was the first time
on record that the terms “vocational guidance” and “vocational counselor” were used with the
same significance as now used and accepted.
Parsons believed that in order to choose a vocation wisely, the individual must have (1)
understanding of himself, (2) knowledge of the conditions and requirements for success in
different lines of work, and (3) ability to reason logically with regard to the relationship
between facts about himself and facts about his potential work environment. It is also
interesting to note his modern point of view regarding principles of counselling.
1. It is better to choose a vocation than merely to hunt for a job.
2. No one should choose a vocation without careful self- analysis, thorough, honest, and
under guidance.
3. The youth should have a large survey of the field of vocations, and not simply drop into
the convenient or accidental position.
4. Expert advice, or the advice of men who have made a careful study of men and
vocations and of the conditions of success, must be better and safer for young man than
the absence of it.
5. The putting down on paper of a self- analysis is of supreme importance.

Although Parsons was not connected with the schools, he saw that guidance was a long-
term educational undertaking. Consequently, he urges the provision of vocational guidance in
the schools. This led to the appointment of the Committee on Vocational Advice by the Boston
School Committee in 1909. In 1910, a vocational counselor was appointed in elementary and
high school in Boston, which resulted in the founding of the Boston Placement Bureau in 1913.
During the same period other cities were active in the organization of vocational work. Among
these were Grand Rapids, Michigan; Minneapolis, Minnesota, Hartford, Connecticut; New
York; Chicago, Illinois, and San Francisco, California.
Guidance as function of the public school in the United States has spread and developed,
rather slowly but gradually during the first two decades of this century (20th century). At an
accelerating rate during the third and fourth decades, and still more rapidly and after the Second
World War.
The Federal Government has assisted the guidance movement in various ways. One of the
most important of these was made through the United States Office of Education. 1938, this

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office established the Occupational Information and Guidance Service with Harry A. Jaeger as
Director. Its activities include “collecting and disseminating information about occupation,
developing plans for a permanent cumulative inventory of the individuals who pursue these
occupations, and promoting throughout the nation the consciousness of the needs for
occupational information and general guidance as an integral part of the school program.”
Another way by which the Federal government stimulated the growth and spread of
guidance was the enactment of the George-Barden Act approved August 1, 1946. Under this
Act, the federal government appropriates funds for the program and the funds are available to
the states. The program is administered by the Guidance Pupil Personnel Service of the Office
of the Education. Also the Wagner-Peyser Act of 1935 set up the United States Employment
Service. Its larger offices have been offering counselling services related to employment.
Public Law No. 16 of the 78th Congress of the United States was passed in 1944. This is
sometimes referred to as the Vocational Rehabilitation Act. The Servicemen’s Readjustment
Act of 1944, Public Law No. 346, otherwise known as the G.I. Bill of Rights, was also passed.
The Vocational Rehabilitation Act provides for the re-training and employment of disabled
veterans and the Servicemen’s Re-adjustment Act provides, among other things, for the
education and training of veterans. This program has made considerable use of evaluation and
counselling. It helps advance the guidance movement and to raise it to level of service never
before known in the country.

History of Guidance and Counseling in the PHILIPPINES

Rosalyn Tapalgo
The Bureau of Public Schools reported that vocational guidance was mentioned in
1913. It is believed that this is the first reference made on guidance. After the Monroe
Educational Survey in 1925, formal vocational guidance in the public schools began.
Instruction to this effect was embodied in the Bureau of Education Service Manual in 1925.

Dr. Sinforoso Padilla, Dean of Men of the University of the Philippines, started a
Psychological Clinic in 1932 which dealt with student cases of discipline, emotional, academic,
and vocational problems. This clinic was in operation up to the outbreak of the last was.
Psychological tests were also used in government institutions, such as Bilibid Prisons in 1924
and Welfareville in 1939.

In each of the four city high schools of Manila, during the school year 1939-1940,
counselors were assigned from among the faculty members. They were designated as “deans
of boys” and “deans of girls”, and their work was to advise students who came to them
voluntarily for help in solving personal difficulties. They also handled problem cases referred
to them by classroom teachers. They assisted the principals in taking care of disciplinary cases,
truant students, and cases about social, personal, and educational problems. The counselors
visited homes of students in order to interview parents and to enlist their cooperation. They
kept complete records of each case.

In November 1945, the first Guidance Institute was held in Manila and seminar on
guidance was held with the United States Army Psychologists as resource persons.

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About this time, the Bureau of Public Schools started to send teachers and officials
abroad, especially in the United States, for study and observation on guidance and personnel
work. Guidance experts, like Dr. Roy G. Bose, Fulbright exchange professors, and George H.
Bennett, UNESCO specialist in Guidance, helped in leading Filipino school administrators
guidance-conscious. Dr. Bose offered courses in guidance and counselling to several groups of
supervisors, principals, teachers and students in the Philippine Normal College, in the
Vocational Normal School in Baguio and in some other places.

Recognizing the role of guidance I our schools, the Joint Congressional Committee on
Education in its report in 1951 to Congress stated:

There should be established in every secondary school a functional guidance

and counseling program to help the students select courses, activities, occupations, and
friends and future mates; to guide them in their personal problems; to assist them in
obtaining jobs and to make the initial occupational adjustments; and to help them
further after they have settled down so that they may know the latest in their line of
work or occupation. Such a program should be well planned and staffed and should
include such features as student orientation at the beginning of the year, community
surveys by student groups, the use of school records and reports to study individual
student’s education-health-character-vocational counselling, mental-hygiene and
student health services, student organizations, housing and food service and
maintenance of group morale.

In 1952, the school superintendents, in a convention, approved ten recommendations

pertaining to the early development of guidance services in the public schools.

A boom to the development of guidance in the Philippines was the establishment of the
Advisement and Guidance Section of the United States Veterans Administration, Manila
Regional Office. American and Filipino educators and psychologists were employed as
Vocational Counselors, Training Officers and psychometrists. Filipino who had been training
in guidance, such as Dr. Sinforoso Padilla, Dr. Jesus Perpinan, Dr. Benicio Catapusan,
Professor Roman Tuazon, Professor Vicente Rivera, Dr. Marcelo Ordonez, and the author were
employed as specialist by the United States Guidance Section of the United States Veterans
Administration, Manila Regional Office. It was this office which pioneered the first and most
systematic guidance program in the Philippines.

Because of the increasing interest developed in guidance and counseling, colleges and
universities started offering courses in guidance and few had established their own guidance
programs. Notable among the earlier ones are the Philippine Women’s University, MLQ
University, University of Santo Tomas, and University of Manila. Later, other colleges and
universities also followed, such as Ateneo de Manila University, Xavier University, Manila
Central University, Araneta University, De La Salle College, St. Therese College, and the
University of the Philippines. The psychological clinic in the University of the Philippines
established by Dr. Padilla before the war was interrupted during the war and the guidance
program was resumed in that school later after the liberation.

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The First National Conference on Student Mental Health held at Baguio from October
19 to 23, 1959, and the Second National Conference on Student Mental Health held also at
Baguio from October 23-27, 1961 contributed much in the Guidance Movement in the
Philippines. The topic of the first conference was the “Causes of Failures Among College
Students”, and the main topic of the second was “Guidance and Counseling in the Schools and
Universities.” The second conference deliberated on the following subjects:

1. Nature of Counseling Done in the Philippines Colleges and Universities,

2. Counselor’s Qualifications for Colleges and Universities,
3. Techniques of Counseling, and
4. Practicum in the Use of Counseling Techniques.

The Manila Central University was ably and actively represented in these conferences
by Dr. Filemon Tanchoco, Jr. and the writer. They sat and participated in the various
committees during the different sessions of these conferences. Other Filipino educators and
experts in Guidance and Counseling were in attendance. Among them are Rev. Fr. Jaime
Bulatao, S.J., Fr. James F. Culligan, S.J., Dr. Adoracion Arjona, Dr. Estefania Aldaba- Lim,
Dr. Marcelo Ordonez, Dr. Espreranza Limcaco, Prof. Waldo S. Perfecto and Dr. Carmen Diaz
Tanedo.

SOURCES:

Arellano, A. (1975). Principles, Facts, Practices and Problems of Guidance and Counseling.
Quezon City: Mahinak Book Store, Inc.

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PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (Schools of Thoughts)

Marie June B. Limayo
School of Thoughts
 a set of ideas or opinions about a matter that are shared by a group
 a perspective of a group of people who share common characteristics of opinion or
outlook of a philosophy, discipline or belief

5 Early Schools of Thoughts

 STRUCTURALISM
 FUNCTIONALISM
 GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY
 BEHAVIORISM
 PSYCHOANALYSIS

The other Perspectives of Contemporary Psychology

 Bio-Psychological Perspective
 Psychodynamics
 Humanistic
 Cognitive
 Social

A. EARLY SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT

I. STRUCTURALISM
 can be defined as the study of the elements of the consciousness
 focuses on the study directly on the basic elements of experience such as images,
sensations and emotions
 Goal: to identify how these basic elements combines with each other to create
different forces of conscious experience.
PROPONENTS
 Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)

- A German physiologist and psychologist who is generally acknowledged as the

founder of EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY.
- founded the first psychological laboratory in the world at the University of
Leipzig in 1879
- interpreted psychology as the study of the mind and its structures
- He was in SEARCH for the basic Unit of Thought

- focused on analyzing the workings of the mind in more structured way with the
emphasis of objective measurement and control

 Edward Titchener (1867-1927)

- student of Wundt
- viewed that human conscious experience could be understood by breaking it
into components

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- he drew the distinction between sensation and perception

SENSATION – is the stimulus effect on your senses
PERCEPTION – is our brain interpretation of the stimulus
- INTROSPECTION – attention on the part of an individual
- a reflective looking inward : an examination of one's own
thoughts and feelings

 STRUCTURALISM strives to understand the key components of the mind by

breaking each thought and emotion down to its most basic elements.

 The process of INTROSPECTION, or looking deeper into the self, was used to
understand and interpret the conscious mind. Introspection required people to focus
on the emotion that they were currently feeling or the thought they were currently
having and try to understand what made them experience that feeling or thought.

II. FUNCTIONALISM

 formed as a reaction to structuralism

 a theory of mental life and behavior that is concerned with how an organism uses the
perceptual abilities to function to its environment
 the mind functions to aid the individual in adjusting to the changes of the environment

PROPONENT
 William James (1842-1910)
- founded functionalism
- 1st American born Psychologist
- Published the Principles of Psychology
 “Consciousness helps people adapt to their environment.” Gale Encyclopedia of
Psychology 2010,pg. 150

 “Functionalists held that the key to understanding the human mind and behavior was to
study the processes of how and why the mind works as it does, rather than to study the
structural contents and elements of the mind.” Sternberg, R.J. (2010)

III. GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY

 the term Gestalt means form, pattern or configuration
 focused on describing the organization of cognitive process
 studies how people perceive and experience objects as a whole patterns
 “the whole is greater than the sum of its parts”

PROPONENTS
 Max Wertheimer
- Czech-born psychologist
- Founded Psychologische Forschung (“Psychological Research”), the journal
that was to be the central organ of the Gestalt movement.
- Regarded as one of the three founders of Gestalt psychology, Wertheimer is
also known for his concept of the phi phenomenon.
- PHI PHENOMENON- an optical illusion in which stationary objects shown in
rapid succession, transcending the threshold at which they can be perceived
separately, appear to move.

 Wolfgang Kohler

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- was born January 21, 1887, in Reval, Estonia

- In 1917, he wrote his most famous book, Mentality of Apes.
- Insight learning: solving a problem by means of the recognition of a gestalt or
organizing principle.

 Kurt Koffka
- was born March 18, 1886, in Berlin
- received his PhD from the University of Berlin in 1909
- he wrote Growth of the Mind: An Introduction to Child Psychology (1921)
- He studied memory, learning, perception and also applied Gestalt to fields such
as child psychology.
- It emphasized the need to consider mental processes from a holistic point of
view
GESTALT LAWS
1. PROXIMITY – objects placed near each other tend to perceived as one group
2. SIMILARITY – we are more likely to group together the objects that have similar
qualities
3. CONTINUITY – When we can see a line, for example, as continuing through another
line, rather than stopping and starting, we will do so, as in this example, which we see as
composed of two lines, not as a combination of two angles
4. FIGURE AND GROUND – this principle shows our perceptual tendency to separate
whole figures from their backgrounds based on one or more number of possible variables,
such as contrast, color, size, etc.

5. CLOSURE – The law of closure says that, if something is missing in an otherwise

complete figure, we will tend to add it.
APPLICATIONS:
• Problem solving
If we want to solve a problem we have to reorganize its components to discover a new
solution. This idea can be extrapolated to all areas of our life. What do we have to do every
day to solve a problem?
• Wertheimer proposed the difference between
 productive thinking, which consists in carrying out creative reorganizations of the
elements of the problems in order to solve them
 Reproductive thinking, which is limited to applying the previous knowledge in a
mechanical way.
• Gestalt theory insists on using productive thinking, which will help us to reach
insight. This term refers to the eureka moment, which takes place when we suddenly
realize what the answer to our difficulties is.
• Education
Students should be more than just data recorders and learn to look for ways to solve
their difficulties on their own. From their insights into mental processes to their ideas
about therapy, they enable students to progress both academically and personally.

IV. BEHAVIORISM
 studies observable and measurable behaviors
 Suggests that all behavior can be explained by environmental causes rather than by
internal forces.
 focuses on observable, overt behaviors that are learned from the environment

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PROPONENTS
 Ivan Pavlov (Classical Conditioning)
 conditioning as an automatic form of learning
 John B. Watson ( Little Albert Experiment)
- demonstrated how emotions could become conditioned responses.
 Edward Lee Thorndike ( Law of Effect)
- states that responses that create a satisfying effect are more likely to occur again,
while responses that produce a discomforting effect become less likely to occur
 B.F Skinner ( Operant Conditioning)
- describes a form of learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or
weakened depending on its association with either positive or negative consequences

Behavioristic Approach (Application)

• CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Behavioral therapy that is based on classical conditioning uses a number of techniques to
bring about behavior change
 Flooding- is a process generally used for those with phobias and anxiety, and
involves exposing the individual to objects or situations they are afraid of in an
intense and fast manner
 Systematic desensitization
- More gradual than flooding
- The therapist will help the individual confront their fears in a relaxed state.
 Aversion therapy
-This process pairs undesirable behavior with some form of aversive stimulus with the
aim of reducing unwanted behavior.
• OPERANT CONDITIONING
 Uses techniques such as positive reinforcement, punishment and modelling to help
alter behavior. The following strategies may be used within this type of therapy:
 Token economies
This strategy relies on positive reinforcement - offering individuals ‘tokens’ that can be
exchanged for privileges or desired items when positive behavior is exhibited. This is a
common tactic used by parents and teachers to help improve the behavior of children.
 Contingency management
A more formal approach, contingency management involves a written contract between
the therapist and client that outlines goals, rewards and penalties. For some, having this
kind of clear agreement helps to change behavior and add a sense of accountability.
 Modelling
Modelling involves learning through observation and imitation of others. Having a
positive role model can give individuals something to aim for, allowing them to change
their behavior to match theirs. This role model may be the therapist or someone the
individual already knows.
 Extinction
Extinction works by removing any type of reinforcement to behavior. An example of this
would be a disruptive child who is given a time-out or told to sit somewhere quiet. By
removing them from the situation (and associated attention) the behavior should come to
a stop. This method isn’t only effective with children and can be used with adults, too.

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V. PSYCHOANALYSIS
 human behavior and personality development is due primarily to the unconscious
motivations, feelings, desires and wishes that are blocked from conscious awareness
 Goal: to make the unconscious conscious

PROPONENT
 Sigmund Freud
- Born in the Czech Republic in 1856, Sigmund Freud spent most of his life in
Vienna.
- a Psychiatrist
- believed that much of our behavior is governed by hidden motives and
unconscious desires
- postulated that personality consist of 3 system that works as a whole
- ID (pleasure principle)
-EGO (reality principle)
-SUPEREGO (idealistic principle)
- The UNCONSCIOUS encompasses those that are not easily available to
awareness; it is also the storehouse of memories and emotions often associated
with trauma
- Defense Mechanism are the ways by which the ego handles anxiety as it deals
with demands of reality, the id and the superego
- “ childhood experiences determines adult personality”
Methods used
 Dream Analysis- In interpreting dreams, Freud differentiated the manifest content
(conscious description) from the latent content (the unconscious meaning). Nearly all
dreams are wish-fulfillments, although the wish is usually unconscious and can be
known only through dream interpretation. To interpret dreams, Freud used both dream
symbols and the dreamer's associations to the dream content.
 Slips of the tongue/ Freudian Slips- Freud believed that parapraxes, or so-called
Freudian slips, are not chance accidents but reveal a person's true but unconscious
intentions.
 Free association – a therapist asks a person in therapy to freely share thoughts,
words, and anything else that comes to mind.
 Catharsis – is associated with the elimination of negative emotions, affect, or
behaviors associated with unacknowledged trauma.
 Hypnosis – often associated with sideshow performances, it’s not a magical act.
- It’s a technique for putting someone into a state of heightened concentration
where they are more suggestible.

B. THE OTHER PERSPECTIVES OF CONTEMPORARY PSYCHOLOGY

VI. PSYCHODYNAMICS
 unconscious forces are vital influence on human behavior ( Crider, 1989)
 refers to both theory and the followers of Freud while Psychoanalysis is both theory
and Therapy
 Freud's Psychoanalysis was the original Psychodynamic Theory but the
Psychodynamic Approach as a whole includes all theories that were based on ideas
of Jung, Adler and Horney

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PROPONENTS
 CARL JUNG
- unconscious forces are vital influence on human behavior ( Crider, 1989)
- Jung's early experience with parents (who were quite opposite of each other)
probably influenced his own theory of personality.
- Believed that people are extremely complex beings who possess a variety of
opposing qualities, such as introversion and extraversion, masculinity and
femininity, and rational and irrational drives.

JUNG'S METHODS OF INVESTIGATION

- Jung used the word association test, dreams, and active imagination during the process
of psychotherapy, and all these methods contributed to his theory of personality.
A. Word Association Test
Jung used the word association test early in his career to uncover complexes embedded
in the personal unconscious. The technique requires a patient to utter the first word that
comes to mind after the examiner reads a stimulus word. Unusual responses indicate a
complex.
B. Dream Analysis
Jung believed that dreams may have both a cause and a purpose and thus can be useful in
explaining past events and in making decisions about the future. "Big dreams" and
"typical dreams," both of which come from the collective unconscious, have meanings
that lie beyond the experiences of a single individual.
C. Active Imagination
Jung also used active imagination to arrive at collective images. This technique requires
the patient to concentrate on a single image until that image begins to appear in a
different form. Eventually, the patient should see figures that represent archetypes and
other collective unconscious images.
D. Psychotherapy
The goal of Jungian therapy is to help neurotic patients become healthy and to move
healthy people in the direction of self-realization. Jung was eclectic in his choice of
therapeutic techniques and treated old people differently than the young.

 ALFRED ADLER
- Was born in 1870 in a town near Vienna, a second son of middle-class Jewish
parents.
- a physician
- founded his own group, the Society for Individual Psychology
- Adler's view was optimistic, idealistic, and rooted in family experiences.
- Adler stressed a positive view of human nature. He believed that individuals
can control their fate. They can do this in part by trying to help others (social
interest). How they do this can be understood

through analyzing their lifestyle. Early interactions with family members, peers
and teachers help to determine the role of inferiority and superiority in their
lives.

APPLICATIONS OF INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY

Adler applied the principles of individual psychology to family constellation, early
recollections, dreams, and psychotherapy.
A. Family Constellation
Adler believed that people's perception of how they fit into their family is related to their
style of life. He claimed that firstborns are likely to have strong feelings of power and
superiority, to be overprotective, and to have more than their share of anxiety. Second-born

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children are likely to have strong social interest, provided they do not get trapped trying to
overcome their older sibling. Youngest children are likely to be pampered and to lack
independence, whereas only children have some of the characteristics of both the oldest and
the youngest child.

B. Early Recollections
A more reliable method of determining style of life is to ask people for their earliest
recollections. Adler believed that early memories are templates on which people project their
current style of life. These recollections need not be accurate accounts of early events; they
have psychological importance because they reflect a person's current view of the world.
C. Dreams
Adler believed that dreams can provide clues to solving future problems. However, dreams
are disguised to deceive the dreamer and usually must be interpreted by another person.
D. Psychotherapy
The goal of Adlerian therapy is to create a relationship between therapists and patient that
fosters social interest. To ensure that the patient's social interest will eventually generalize to
other relationships, the therapist adopts both a maternal and a paternal role.

 KAREN HORNEY
- born in Germany in 1885
- one of the first women in that country admitted to medical school
- She became acquainted with Freudian theory and eventually became a
psychoanalyst and a psychiatrist.
- Karen Horney's psychoanalytic social theory assumes that social and cultural
conditions, especially during childhood, have a powerful effect on later
personality.

Psychoanalytic Social Theory

A. The Impact of Culture
Horney insisted that modern culture is too competitive and that competition leads to
hostility and feelings of isolation. These conditions lead to exaggerated needs for
affection and cause people to overvalue love.

B. the Importance of Childhood Experiences

Neurotic conflict stems largely from childhood traumas, most of which are traced to a lack of
genuine love. Children who do not receive genuine affection feel threatened and adopt rigid
behavioral patterns in an attempt to gain love.

Psychotherapy
The goal of Horney's psychotherapy was to help patients grow toward self-realization, give
up their idealized self-image, relinquish their neurotic search for glory, and change self-
hatred to self-acceptance. Horney believed that successful therapy is built on self-analysis
and self-understanding.

VII. HUMANISTIC PERPECTIVE

 stresses the whole person and the importance of each person’s subjective
experience
 Main concept – the need for self- actualization
 emphasizes that people can choose and that if society gives them more
freedom, people will be able and gladly take responsibility of their own lives
and make the best for them
 CARL ROGERS
- was born into a devoutly religious family in a Chicago suburb in 1902

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- completed a Ph.D. in psychology from Columbia University in 1931

- best known as the founder of client-centered therapy
- is more on how people can become themselves and how they can relate to
others in helpful and constructive ways (Crider, 1989)
PSYCHOTHERAPY
For client-centered psychotherapy to be effective, certain conditions are necessary:
A vulnerable client must have contact of some duration with a counselor who is congruent,
and who demonstrates unconditional positive regard and listens with empathy to a client. The
client must in turn perceive the congruence, unconditional positive regard, and empathy of
the therapist. If these conditions are present, then the process of therapy will take place and
certain predictable outcomes will result.
 ABRAHAM MASLOW
- was born in New York in 1908, the oldest of seven children of Russian Jewish
immigrants
- received both a bachelor's degree and a Ph.D. from the University of Wisconsin
- Emphasized that basic motives must be satisfied before we can develop our
potentials.

Psychotherapy
The hierarchy of needs concept has obvious ramifications for psychotherapy. Most people who
seek psychotherapy probably do so because they have not adequately satisfied their love and
belongingness needs. This suggests that much of therapy should involve a productive human
relationship and that the job of a therapist is to help clients satisfy love and belongingness
needs.

VIII. COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE

- view human beings as extremely active processors of information
COGNITION
- The method of processing or changing the information about the world

- consists of the mental processes of thinking, knowing, perceiving, attending and

remembering
Goal: To explore mental processes involved in judgment, decision making and other
process of complex thought

PROPONENT
 ULRIC NEISSER
- Father of Cognitive Psychology
- cognition involves "all processes by which the sensory input is transformed, reduced,
elaborated, stored, recovered, and used.”

Assumptions:
1. All behavior is determined by mental processes within the brain such as memory, language
& problem solving. These processes cannot be directly observed & have to be inferred by
scientific measurement.

2. Our minds work like computers: they are information processors. The brain inputs, stores
and outputs information, and this is the best way of explaining our thinking and behavior

COGNITIVE THERAPY (Applications)

 Involves therapists working collaboratively with clients to develop skills for
identifying and replacing distorted thoughts and beliefs, ultimately changing the
associated habitual behavior towards them. It is usually focused on the present and is
a problem-solving orientated treatment.
 REBT by Albert Ellis ( Rational Emotive Behavioral Therapy)

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- a form of cognitive behavioral therapy w/c somebody is encourage to examine and

change irrational though patterns and beliefs in order to reduce dysfunctional behavior

IX. SOCIAL PERSPECTIVE

 other people in our social environment shape an individual’s behavior, attitudes and
thinking
PROPONENT
 ALBERT BANDURA
- Albert Bandura was born in Canada in 1925
- completed a Ph.D. in clinical psychology at the University of Iowa in 1951
- “People learn through observing others and by attending to the consequences of
their own actions.”
- OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
- ENACTIVE LEARNING
Therapy
The goal of social cognitive therapy is self-regulation.
Bandura noted three levels of treatment:
(1) induction of change,
(2) generalization of change to other appropriate situations,
(3) Maintenance of newly acquired functional behaviors.
 Social cognitive therapists sometimes use systematic desensitization, a technique
aimed at diminishing phobias through relaxation.

X. BIO-PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
 for every behavior, feeling and thought, there is corresponding physical event that takes
place in the brain
 genetics play a role in human behavior ( Charles Darwin)

Bio- Psychological View

• Example
a. Aggression
-might consider how certain types of brain injury might lead to aggressive
actions
-might consider genetic factors that can contribute to such displays of behavior
- might consider the role of neurotransmitters in aggression (low serotonin
levels, high in dopamine levels)

*******In order to fully understand human behavior, it is necessary to integrate all

psychological perspective.

REFERENCES:
• Z.C. Santos,G.N. Pastor, C.S. Bautista. Principles of Guidance and Counseling:
Theory and Practice (First Edition)
• Feist, Feist & Robert (2013). Theories of Personality( Eight Edition) New York:
McGraw-Hill
• https://www.verywellmind.com
• https://www.cliffsnotes.com/study-guides/psychology
• https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wsu-sandbox/chapter/psychological-
perspectives/
• http://www.psychologyandsociety.com
• https://www.counselling-directory.org.uk

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MAILYN D. EQUIAS
MAGC Student
___________________________________________________________________________

FILIPINO PHILOSOPHIES

A. FILIPINO PHILOSOPHIES OF TIME, SPACE, CAUSALITY AND LAW

1. FILIPINO PHILOSOPHY OF TIME

- The Filipino has the harmony with nature compared to the westerner who has the
mastery-over-nature orientation.
- To a Filipino, harmony is the theme of the universe and he does not tamper with the
ways of nature
Mercado, 1974; Wehrly, 1998- distinguishes between cosmic time and human time.
 COSMIC TIME- for the Filipino is cyclic, spiral and dynamic. It is not a resource.
- For westerner “time is gold or you can’t turn back the hands of time..
- But for Filipinos “there is always tomorrow, - a philosophy which reflected in his
maxims.
Ex: “paglipas ng dilim may araw pang darating or may araw pa bukas
 HUMAN TIME- is not subject to mathematical calculations. It is not oriented to
space but to man’s consciousness. The Filipino remembers the past in terms of
consciousness and not in terms of linear time
Ex:
Q: What time do you turn on the radio in the morning?
A: When the cock crows for the second time at dawn.
Q: Can you recall when this barrio was split into two barrios?
A: That was the time when the price of rice went down to 70 centavos a ganta.

2. FILIPINO PHILOSOPHY OF SPACE

- The Filipino has a “non-dualistic concept of space”
- He measures space “through his existence. He does not measure his hometown in
terms of distance but in terms of meaningfulness
- A meaningful place can be the centre on one’s life and other places are measured by
it.
Ex: When a Filipino says, “uuwi ako” what does he/she mean?
- A Filipino can declare that he/she is going home to province when he/she has literally left
the province for years. Literally there is no “home” to go home to as the parents and siblings
are no longer there and there is no physical structure that one can claim as his/her house
Ex: A Filipino who migrated to Singapore with his family. One day he said, “uuwi ako sa
Pilipinas. When he returned to Singapore a couple of days later he texted, “Am already
back to Singapore.”
- The question is: where did he go home to when he visited the Philippines and is not
returning to Singapore to his family “going home?”
-Is it possible then that “home to the Filipino is where his/her heart is, and not necessarily
where he or she lives, with or without his/her family?

3. FILIPINO PHILOSOPHY OF CAUSALITY

- The Filipino philosophy-with-nature world view leads to a synchronistic view of
causality.

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- Filipinos intuitively delves into the causality of phenomena in contrast to the objective
mind of the west.
- Health is viewed in relation with nature-harmony.
- A Filipino then may attribute illness to the disturbance of spirit’s abode (such as tree)
which was cut without asking permission from the spirit which inhabits it. Or he/she
may attribute it to the disturbance of the spirits

4. FILIPINO PHILOSOPHY OF LAW

- Filipino ethics stresses duty: doing well is an obligation.
- Duty, another aspect of the Philippine philosophy of law in its interiority. The Filipino
views the law from its interior.
- Filipinos wants to be in harmony with himself, with his fellowmen, and with the
nature. And if he/she aspires harmony, he does not need external laws for that.
The Filipino:
- Emphasizes the “DUTY” aspect of the law and less the “right” aspect.
- Sees the law as predominantly interior(therefore unwritten)
- Considers the law in the concrete

B. FILIPINO CONCEPT OF GOD, SPIRITS, AND DEPARTED ANCESTORS

1. THE FILIPINO CONCEPT OF GOD
- The Filipino philosophy of the origin of the world does not posit creation in the
scholastic sense of origin from nothingness. Rather, certain animals are presupposed
to have existed prior to the formation of the earth.
- The world came from pre-existing matter and/or other parts of God (like tears
becoming the rain) or his subordinates.
- The Filipino’s philosophy of God is a reflection of his social philosophy as well as his
general philosophy of harmony.
2. Filipino concept of Spirits
- (mercado 1994) asserts that before the Spaniards came, Filipinos believed that spirits
guarded the forces of nature, such as spirits for harvest, for hunting, for childbirth, etc.
- The good spirits were those for the seasons of life phases while the bad spirits were
responsible for sickness and misfortune.
- Filipinos did not directly implore God but directed their petitions to these spirits.
- When the Spaniards came they found the set-up suitable for substituting the saints for
spirit.
- The Ibanags of Northern Luzon have a term,Ikararua (soul), which means a companion
of the body.
- The soul is said to leave the body while the body remains alive
- The soul gives "direction and wholeness to the man" and therefore complements the
body.
-The Ibanags also think that the soul has corporeal qualities. It can have color, and souls
of dead babies and children are "supposed to reach full maturity or adulthood."
- Ilocano says that the Ilocano have two terms for soul:al-alia(or ar-ria) and karkarna
-The word al-alia may come from al-al ("to pant, to breathe in a laboured manner").
- Al-alia can mean "ghost, spectre, apparition, spirit."
- The al-alia, the companion of the body, comes to the bedside of a dying person, stays
the area after death, and even appears to relatives in dreams or through other signs to ask
for prayers and forgiveness. Ma-al-aliaen is "to be visited by a ghost."
- The Hanunuos (mangyans) have two opinions on the soul.
1. a person has only one soul (karadwa tawo)
2. In addition to his one soul, a person can have others in the form of animals such as
dogs, birds, mice, cats, etc.

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- The Hanunuos also believe that the soul can separate itself from the body.
For example, if a person is frightened, his soul will leave the body and therefore, he
will get sick.

3. The Filipinos venerate their departed ancestors.

- There is a continuous relationship between the living and the deed
Ex: a son talking to his departed father asking for guidance, as the Filipino assumes
that the departed souls are still interested in the living members of the family
- On all soul’s day, Filipinos flock to the cemetery to be with their departed love ones.
- For the rich, it is not unusual to see the burial place of the dead members of the family
to have living rooms, CR, etc.

- They celebrate important family occasions with the dead as they believe that these
departed family members are also entitled to be part of family gatherings. The dead
are believe to share the food of the living.
- A butterfly seen during family gatherings is interpreted as a representation of the
departed member of the family who is, perceived to be present during this important
family occasions.

C. FILIPINO’S VIEW OF MAN

1. The Filipino’s Behavior
- According to Mercado (1974) the Filipino generally believes in the innate goodness of
man as manifested in the concept, of mercy (luoy/awa/asi)
- Luoy connotes compassion or pity. It is also connected with giving
- The use of pagkalooban (sharing one’s human-heartedness), or show innate goodness.
- Awa as benevolence or kindness corresponds to kagandahang-loob and kanbutihang-
loob

2. THE FILIPINO AS A SOCIAL BEING

- Mercado (1974) observes that “companion (kuyog, kasama/kadwa) seems to
characterize the Filipino’s social orientation.
- From birth the baby is never left alone. Neglectful parents are censured for leaving
their child alone.
- When one dies, the corpse is never left alone during the wake.
- When conflict arises between deciding on individual’s interest and that of his/her
group, the latter usually prevails
- The Filipino is less-individualistic because he wants to be in harmony with his
fellowmen. Just as harmony with himself is behind many of his personal actuations,
the principle of non-dualism or harmony also explains the Filipinos communitarian
nature.
- The Filipino is person-oriented. He thinks of himself as belonging to, and identifies
himself with a group and considers the success and welfare of the group as his own
fulfilment.

FILIPINO’S VIEW OF MAN (according to Clemena 1991)

- Man was created by God to serve Him
- Man is the highest created being by God
- Man was created in the image of God and should live according to His will.
- Man is God if he knows how to relate with others and is not selfish

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- Man is of worth and must be respected

- Man was born into this world for different purposes
- Man is unique. Each is endowed with different character traits and principles in life

COUNSELOR’S VIEW OF MAN

 SIGMUND FREUD
a. Freud’s view of nature is considered to be dynamic, meaning
That there is an exchange of energy and transformation. Freud used theterm catharsis to
describe this release of this energy.
b. Freud saw the personality as composed of a conscious mind, preconscious mind and an
unconscious mind. The conscious mind has
Knowledge of what is happening in the present. The preconscious mind
Contains information from both the unconscious and the conscious mind. The
unconscious mind contains hidden or forgotten memories or
Experiences.

 ALFRED ADLER
A. The Adlerian concept of social interest is the individual’s feeling of being part of a
whole, spanning both the past, present, and the future. Adler believed that people
were mainly motivated toward this feeling of belonging. He did not believe that social
interest was innate but rather a result of social training.
B. Adler expressed that people strove to become successful and overcome the areas that
they perceived as inferior. He referred to this process of personal growth as striving
for perfection. Those who did not overcome feelings of inferiority developed an
inferiority complex. Those who overcompensated for feelings of inferiority developed
a superiority complex.

 CARL ROGERS-
a. Rogers viewed human nature as basically good
b. He believed that if given the appropriate environment of acceptance, warmth and
empathy, the individual would move toward self-actualization
c. Self-actualization is the motivation that makes the individual move toward growth,
meaning, and purpose
d. Person-centered is considered a phenomenological psychology where by the
individuals perception of reality is accepted as reality for the individual.
e. Person-centered is often referred to as self-theory, because on Roger’s emphasis on
the self being, a result of the person’s life experiences and the person’s awareness of
comparisons to other as the same or different.
 GESTALT (FRITZ PERLS)
A. The Gestaltists believe that the individual naturally seeks to become an integrated
whole, living productively.
B. Gestaltists believes that individuals emphasize intellectual experiences, diminishing
the importance of emotions and senses, resulting in an ability to respond to the
situations or events in their life.

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Master of Arts in Guidance and Counseling