©2017 by TESOL International Association. All rights reserved. Not for distribution.

Chapter 1

PRINCIPLES OF
LANGUAGE LEARNING
AND THE ROLE
OF THE TEACHER
Preview
XXHow well students learn a language ultimately depends more on their own efforts than on the
teacher’s. Thus, any attempt to understand effective language teaching must consider the issue
of effective language learning.

XXFour basic realities of language learning are that language is a tool for communication, learning
a language involves mastery of both knowledge and skill, the struggle to learn a language
is a battle of the heart as well as the mind, and learners vary considerably in their preferred
approaches to language learning.

XXThe language teacher is not simply a transmitter of knowledge; like a coach, the language
teacher needs to assist students in understanding the task before them, staying motivated,
building discipline, and learning how to pursue the task on their own.

XXStudents or colleagues in your host country may not share the assumptions stated above, so it is
important to make your assumptions explicit to the students and to make sure that there is not
too large a gap between your expectations and the students’.

PRINCIPLES OF LANGUAGE LEARNING AND THE ROLE OF THE TEACHER   3

 ©2017 by TESOL International Association. All rights reserved. Not for distribution.

W
hat is a language teacher? Perhaps the first image from person to person; inevitably, no teacher-designed,
that occurs to you is of a tidily dressed woman one-size-fits-all lesson or program will meet the needs or
or man standing in front of an attentive class, suit the styles of all of the students in a class. Instead, as
explaining a grammar point or a new word. Then much as possible, students need to take charge of their own
he or she checks whether students understand learning, choosing goals that fit their needs and strategies
the point by asking each one a question or two, patiently that work for them.
correcting any mistakes they make. Most people have seen A second argument for student-centered approaches is
this model of teaching in films and on television, and many that students learn more effectively if they are active par-
have been in language classes that were taught largely in ticipants in the learning process than if they only passively
this fashion; it would therefore be easy to let this model follow the teacher’s instructions. This is true if for no other
shape the way you set out to teach your own classes. reason than that much language study and practice takes
As a starting point, there is nothing wrong with this place when the teacher is not around to give instructions or
model, and it does a reasonably good job of portraying to check up on students. Students who actively take advan-
some aspects of the teacher’s role. However, there are also tage of out-of-class study and practice opportunities will
some ways it is misleading about a teacher’s role, and, in make much more long-term progress than students who
this chapter, we challenge some of the assumptions under- consider them a chore to deal with as quickly as possible.
lying this language teaching model, introduce a number of Students who take responsibility for their own learning
basic principles of language learning, and suggest a more will not only improve their language skills more effectively
nuanced and flexible model of the language teacher. throughout the course but have the agency and skills they
need to continue studying after the course ends.
Why Focus First on Students? The final reason that language learning needs to focus
on students is that few English as a foreign language (EFL)
Even though this is a book about language teaching, any programs are long enough to guarantee that students
discussion of teaching needs to start with students. In will master English before they leave the program. In
recent years, more and more books on language teaching many countries, English is offered in middle school and
place students rather than teachers at center stage. This even primary school — often as a required subject — but
shift is due to a growing recognition that whether or not students study English only a few hours a week and have
students succeed in learning a language depends more on little opportunity to practice what they learn. Even the few
their own efforts than on the teacher’s and that a good pro- students who complete a university major in English still
gram of instruction therefore needs to be student centered usually have gaps in their English skills when they graduate,
instead of teacher centered. and students who are not English majors or who study in
One reason it is important to view language learning as a night school have even less English training and practice.
student centered is that students are individuals who differ Thus, if a high level of proficiency is the goal, students
in significant ways. First, students differ in their language will probably have to continue studying English long after
knowledge and skills; one student may read well and have they leave the educational system, and the students most
a broad vocabulary but be almost incapable of speech, likely to keep making progress toward mastery of English
while another student may have exactly the opposite profile are those who are already accustomed to designing and
of skills. Second, students differ in their learning styles carrying out their own language study plans.
and strengths; a study method that is intolerably boring,
confusing, or intimidating for one student may prove
comfortable and effective for another. Finally, students Why Is It Important for Language
differ greatly in their levels of motivation, their attitudes Teachers to Be Language Learners?
toward study in general, and their feelings toward English
For the reasons stated above, the focus of this book is
study in particular. One student is quite diligent but resents
frequently on language learning as much as on language
Western cultural influence in her country, another thinks
teaching. To become increasingly effective as a language
the West is appealing but he has little love for study, a third
teacher, you must understand as much as possible about
doesn’t care one way or another about English but would
how the process of language learning works and what it
like to get a good grade on the final exam. Consequently,
feels like. Therefore, as you embark on your career as a
the reasons for a student’s successes or failures differ greatly

4  MORE THAN A NATIVE SPEAKER

 ©2017 by TESOL International Association. All rights reserved. Not for distribution.

language teacher, you also need to either continue or begin with a foreign language were not particularly pleasant
your career as a language learner. Given that this point is or successful, he or she will tend to expect the next
not normally emphasized in books on language teaching, language learning experience to be just as stressful and
we make this argument in some detail here. There are at unfruitful as the first” (p. 8). It would seem reasonable
least four main reasons language teachers should also be to assume that negative language study experiences
language learners. could color one’s language teaching. Teachers who
 1. Personal experience: The first and perhaps most have never experienced success or reward in language
obvious reason is that the more experience you have study may find it difficult to be emotionally convinced
as a language learner, the more you will know about that such success is possible, and they may not really
what does and doesn’t work in language learning. expect students to achieve a high degree of proficiency.
Decisions you as a language teacher make about what These teachers may, in turn, communicate this lack
you require of students will have a significant impact of expectation to students through teaching practices
on how students invest their study and practice time, so that focus more on grades than on proficiency. We do
you must be sure that what you ask students to do will not mean to suggest that someone who does not speak
actually enhance their language learning. One of the a foreign language cannot be a good English teacher.
best ways to assess the effectiveness of a given method We do suggest, however, that language teachers who
is by trying it out yourself. Granted, what works for have never felt the rewards and successes of language
one person may not always be effective for another, so learning may not have as much enthusiasm or as strong
your personal experience as a language learner does not a proficiency orientation as those who are at least
provide a perfect guide for what will benefit students, beginning to experience those rewards and successes in
but it certainly provides a very good start. Furthermore, their own language study.
as you try different approaches and methods in your  4. An equal exchange and mutual need: A final reason
own language learning, your bag of language learning for you to be a language learner has to do with the
ideas and tricks will gradually fill, and you will have symbolic message that choosing to study the host lan-
more alternatives to offer to students when they need to guage sends to your host community. Presumably, one
try something new. motivation for teaching English lies in a desire to build
 2. More effective encouragement: A second reason your bridges of understanding between people of different
ongoing experience as a language learner will enhance nations and cultures, and the growing role of English
your language teaching is that it will deepen your as the world’s international language makes its mastery
understanding of what it feels like to try to learn a new especially important in a world brought ever closer
language. As we argue, language learning is a battle of together by globalization. However, the same dominant
the heart as much as of the mind, and your ability to role of English and its close association with globaliza-
empathize with students — to know how they feel —  tion can make it a threat — symbolic or real — to other
is the first step toward knowing how to more effectively nations, languages, and cultures. English may be seen as
encourage and motivate them (not to mention knowing a symbol and driving force of world homogenization or
how to avoid overwhelming them). of the growing power of English-speaking nations.
We believe this problem makes it imperative for
 3. Conviction: Let us tentatively suggest that a third
English teachers to be not merely advocates of the
important benefit of language study has do with the
English language and Western culture but rather
level of conviction underlying your teaching. Novice
ambassadors who believe in the value of all languages
teachers (NTs) may have only limited experience with
and cultures and who promote the value of language
foreign language study themselves, and many — espe-
and culture learning in general. If this is a message that
cially those from English-speaking nations — have not
you as a teacher wish to embody in a convincing way,
achieved a significant level of proficiency in a foreign
it is one you must practice as well as preach. One of
language. In fact, some NTs’ primary takeaway from
the most convincing ways to demonstrate respect for
high school or college foreign languages classes is that
the value of languages other than English is by actively
language study can be hard work.
making the effort to learn another language (and
Rubin and Thompson (1994) make the interesting
culture). One additional symbolic advantage of studying
observation that “if an individual’s first experiences

PRINCIPLES OF LANGUAGE LEARNING AND THE ROLE OF THE TEACHER   5

 ©2017 by TESOL International Association. All rights reserved. Not for distribution.

the language of your host country is that it changes it can mean sharing ideas face to face with someone from
the nature of your relationship with your host. If you a foreign country or gaining access to the knowledge
arrive in your host country solely as a knower and giver embedded in the world’s vast library of material published
of the English language, your presence suggests an in English. Although learning any language opens new
unequal exchange in which you have gifts to bring but doors, English’s growing role as an international language
need nothing that the host country has to offer. If, on means it is now the language of publishing and speech for
the other hand, you arrive with the desire to learn as most international communication; it is often used even by
much as to teach, your presence suggests a more equal people from non-English-speaking countries when they
exchange, a mutual need to both teach and learn. need to interact with people from other nations (Crystal,
Though the primary function of this book is to intro- 2003). Learning English means developing the ability
duce you to the teaching of English, our hope is that you to understand and interact with a universe that is largely
also read it as a language learner, perhaps one about to inaccessible to those who don’t know English.
embark on the study of a language you have not had much There are other reasons to focus on communication
previous experience with. in your teaching, one being that such a focus may make
language teaching easier for you and interesting for your
students. Many aspects of language teaching may initially
What Are Some Basic Principles seem unfamiliar and awkward to you; for example, most
of Language Learning? native speakers of English don’t start out with a natural
Of the great many points one could make about language knack for explaining the rules of English grammar. How-
learning, we focus on four that deserve special attention ever, it is entirely natural for you to want to communicate
because they are central to communicative language teach- with your students — and for them to want to communicate
ing (CLT) and because they are points that learners in EFL with you. Though your English courses can’t and shouldn’t
settings can easily lose sight of: focus entirely on “getting to know you” chats, they most
definitely can and should harness the natural human desire
 1. Language is a tool for communication, to communicate. You will generally find that the more often
 2. learning a language involves mastery of both skill and you can give students the opportunity to communicate gen-
knowledge, uinely with you and each other in class, the more quickly
 3. learners need to give serious consideration to the you will be comfortable in your new teaching role.
impact of feelings on language study, and Students must experience language as communication as
 4. learners vary considerably in their preferred approaches early as possible in their learning if they are to see language
to learning. as a communication tool and if they are to taste the thrill
that mastery of a new language can entail. In an English
Language Is a Tool for Communication class, this means using speaking or writing practice as an
Perhaps the most fundamental reality of language learning opportunity for students to share what they really think,
is that language is a tool for communication. As obvious as feel, or believe. It also means that when students say or
this point may seem, its implications are not always clear write something, you should respond to the ideas expressed
to students. Remember that many students’ experience of rather than only to the accuracy of the language.
English learning trains them to see English as anything but
a communication tool. The daily reality of English study Building Skills Is as Important
for many students is one of memorizing words and rules as Building Knowledge
in preparation for a test and rarely involves using English A second important truth of language learning is that
for communicative purposes. After years of this kind of it requires mastery of a skill as much as acquisition of
noncommunicative study, students often lose interest and knowledge. In other words, it is not enough for students to
begin to see language learning as an exercise geared toward know word meanings and structure rules; students need to
formal accuracy, especially on tests. be able to apply this knowledge quickly, even automatically,
When English is presented as a tool for establishing to express themselves smoothly, read competently, and
communication with a new world, it is potentially more comprehend spoken English rapidly. To build these skills,
appealing. This communication can take a variety of forms; practice is necessary; study alone will not suffice.

6  MORE THAN A NATIVE SPEAKER

 ©2017 by TESOL International Association. All rights reserved. Not for distribution.

Again, this point might seem obvious, but remember each point should only be covered one time and that, once
the unintended lessons that many approaches to language the material is covered, students should know it. (Among
teaching leave students with. For many students, language students who have internalized this view of language learn-
learning has always been about learning grammar rules ing, the protest that “We’ve done this already” is expected to
and memorizing vocabulary to perform well on tests. effectively veto an activity whether or not they have really
Many students have had little experience using English learned the skill in question.) The problem, of course, is
in actual conversation, and have not built the speed and that covering material in a textbook is often not enough to
automaticity that can only be developed through repeated allow learners to build necessary skills, and you may need
practice. Naturally, students’ perceptions of the important to repeat activities several times before students can use the
parts of language learning are shaped by their experience new material automatically.
in language classes, and it is not surprising if students are
inclined to neglect practice in favor of study. Language Learning Is a Battle of the Heart
Language use has a heavy skill component, which A third fundamental reality of language learning is that
demands that the user perform complex operations feelings play a major role in language study and need to be
accurately and quickly, and this has some important impli- taken seriously in planning a successful language learning
cations for the ways in which students must learn: campaign. As Ehrmann, Leaver, and Oxford (2003) put
 1. Language learners need a lot of practice. To learn to it, “It is at least as important to manage feelings as it is to
speak well, students need to spend a lot of time speak- use more cognitive strategies, since negative feelings reduce
ing; in order to learn to read quickly and effectively, the effectiveness of most [language] learning activities.
they need to spend a lot of time reading, and so forth. Appropriate self-efficacy promotes persistence in the face
Almost all teachers would assent to this principle in of difficulty” (p. 319). Learners who have a strong desire to
theory, but in many English classrooms, the teacher still learn and who feel good about their progress are far more
talks most of the time. Sometimes this is because teach- likely to continue working hard in the long term.
ers feel they need to dominate in order to maintain One reason emotions play such an important role in
control in class; sometimes it is because teachers feel language learning is that learning a foreign language well
that if they aren’t “teaching,” they aren’t really earning involves a great deal of effort over a long period of time.
their pay. For whatever reasons, stepping off the podium The basic rules of English grammar and a survival vocabu-
and giving students a chance to speak (read, write, etc.) lary can be learned within a few months, but mastering the
is more problematic than it may initially seem. language takes much longer. Students need considerable
practice to develop effective skills in listening and speaking,
 2. Language learners need repeated practice. One
not to mention reading and writing. It also takes a long
important concept related to language learning is auto-
time to amass a sufficient vocabulary for reading texts and
maticity (Omaggio Hadley, 2001; Brown & Lee, 2015).
listening to speech (e.g., movies, television) intended for
The idea here is that many language skills require a
native speakers. Finally, students can benefit from a good
student to do many different things at the same time;
understanding of the cultures of English. All of this is
for example, speaking involves choosing words, apply-
particularly difficult for students in an EFL environment
ing grammar rules, and attending to pronunciation and
to achieve because they have few opportunities for practice
intonation —  all while trying to decide what to say.
and contact with Western culture. The problem is especially
A speaker cannot consciously pay attention to all of
severe for English students in places such as Asia, the
these operations simultaneously, so some of them must
Middle East, and Africa whose native languages, writing
be practiced often enough that they can be performed
systems, and cultures have little in common with those
automatically. It takes repeated practice to learn to
of the English-speaking world and whose English study
perform any skill smoothly and automatically, and
entails far more learning.
language learning is no exception.
This point is important because students and teachers FROM MAXI: Some students are surprised by the
often unconsciously assume that their job is to cover the amount of time and effort required to learn a language.
material in the book and ensure students complete any When I began studying Japanese in college, I had
related exercises. Part of this unconscious assumption is that thought I would be advanced in Japanese after six

PRINCIPLES OF LANGUAGE LEARNING AND THE ROLE OF THE TEACHER   7

 ©2017 by TESOL International Association. All rights reserved. Not for distribution.

semesters of courses (approximately 3 years); after each additional day of study makes on their skills; progress
all, the fifth and sixth semester courses were entitled becomes harder and harder to discern. Beginning-level lan-
“advanced” Japanese. At the end of these courses, I still guage students can see their progress very clearly; between
felt incapable of having a conversation in Japanese, and Unit 1 and Unit 2 in a textbook, their knowledge of English
I was too afraid of making grammar mistakes to even doubles, and every new word they learn significantly
try. Most language students are probably not quite increases their ability to communicate. However, as they
this naïve, but unreasonable expectations are not rare. reach more advanced skill levels, their progress becomes
As Scarcella and Oxford (1992) point out, “Students less apparent. Successful completion of Unit 74 does not
are often unrealistic in what they believe they can and make as obvious an impact on students’ English skill level
should accomplish in a given period of time, so their as completion of Unit 6 did, and learning lower-frequency
self-esteem suffers” (p. 58). words like manual and tome doesn’t enhance their ability to
communicate as much as mastering earlier words like book
Students who feel bad about their language learning did. This means that students in the intermediate stages of
are particularly vulnerable to discouragement and the language learning are especially vulnerable to discourage-
temptation to quit. Even students who recognize that lan- ment because they often have relatively little sense that they
guage study is emotionally demanding often fail to account are making progress.
for this problem in their study plans. Too many students A final reason English study can be emotionally
assume that being a good student means toughing it out, demanding is that the first years of English study in an
slugging away at a language until it finally gives in. EFL setting generally offer few rewards. Reaching a level
of English skill that allows students to actually use English
FROM DON: I remember fantasizing that if I could for practical or personally rewarding purposes helps sustain
just read one big Russian novel —— even if it meant interest in continued use and study of the language. For
shoveling my way through the book word by word with example, students who can finally follow a news broadcast
a dictionary —— I would conquer the Russian reading in English no longer need a sense of daily progress to keep
problem forever. The strategy may well have worked if them going. However, students in the middle stages of
I had been able to keep at it, but I never could. (Farber, language learning, whose progress seems to be slowing and
1991, seriously suggests this approach for beginning- who cannot yet do much with their English, may find it
level readers, using newspapers instead of novels. very difficult to resist the temptation to give up. It may take
Granted, he makes it very clear that this approach is years for students to develop their speaking to the point
not for the fainthearted.) This tendency to try to take a where they can converse with an English speaker or learn to
language by frontal assault, of course, often reflects the read well enough to comfortably read an English newspaper
way languages are taught, with inadequate attention to or book. It is hard in such circumstances to sustain much
learners’ emotional needs. enthusiasm for language study.
It is hard to overstate how important affective factors, in
Another problem arises from a peculiarity of the lan- other words, those related to feelings, are in language learn-
guage learning process: The further students go, the more ing. As Brown (1991) points out: “The emotions are the
their rate of progress seems to slow. To some extent, plateaus foundation on which all your learning strategies, techniques,
are often experienced by intermediate- and advanced-level and gimmicks will stand or fall. . . . Without that emotional
learners. Many learners also tend to make progress in spurts foundation, you are fighting an uphill battle at best” (p. 73).
more than in a neat, step-by-step progression, and between It thus makes sense to structure teaching in a way that gives
those spurts students often feel that they have hit a plateau students the maximum sense of progress and reward and
and are making no progress. These plateaus, however, are encourages them not to abandon the effort halfway.
generally temporary and therefore do not pose a serious
threat to students who know that such periods are a com- Language Learners Do Not
mon feature of language learning, and that the best thing All Learn the Same Way
to do is keep on studying or lighten up for a short break
Sometimes we talk about “students” as if they are a more
before plunging back in.
or less homogeneous group and that there should be a set
A more serious problem arises from the fact that the
of learning and teaching methods that would work well for
more students learn of a language, the less visible impact

8  MORE THAN A NATIVE SPEAKER

 ©2017 by TESOL International Association. All rights reserved. Not for distribution.

all of them. However, learners vary considerably, and there a greater chance of experiencing a method that works well
is no reason for us to believe that they should all go about for him or her. The second involves encouraging learners
language learning in the same way. In the language teaching to explore different approaches to language learning so that
profession, this point is often made when talking about each learner can find study and practice methods that work
learning styles. One contrasting set of learning styles that for him or her. This is one of the most important reasons
has received much attention has to do with learners’ sensory any consideration of language teaching needs to start with a
preferences, with learners categorized into four groups: look at the learners.
Visual learners:
XX those who learn best by seeing
Auditory learners: those who learn best by hearing
XX What Is the Role of
Kinesthetic learners: those who learn best by moving
XX the Language Teacher?
and doing things
Many people are accustomed to a model of language
Tactile learners: those who learn best through feeling
XX teaching that is heavily teacher centered. To our minds
and touching (influenced no doubt by many years in China), this
Another set of learning-style categories has to do with teacher-centered approach calls up images of the great sage
learners’ personality types, and some learning-style contrasts Confucius sitting amidst his disciples, explaining the Way
that have been suggested include the following distinctions: and occasionally asking questions to check his disciples’
comprehension; hence, we will refer to this approach as the
Extroverted versus introverted learners: This
XX one is
sage model of teaching. The sage owes his exalted position to
fairly self-explanatory.
the fact that he knows more than his students do, and his
Thinking versus feeling learners: This is a distinction
XX
primary task is to transfer his knowledge to his students.
between learners who are more cognitively oriented and
Once the students understand what the sage is trying to
those who are more affectively oriented. For example,
explain, the teaching task has been successfully completed.
in a discussion, thinking-oriented students would
A certain amount of the sage is virtually inevitable in
generally be more interested in the factual content of
your teaching life, and it is not necessarily bad. You do in
the discussion, while feeling-oriented learners would be
fact know far more about English than the students do,
more attentive to the feelings and emotional needs of
and one of your roles as language teacher is to convey as
others in the discussion.
much of that knowledge as possible. However, excessive
Closure-oriented and judging learners versus open
XX
reliance on this model has serious drawbacks. One is that it
and perceiving learners: The former would strive for can be hard to play the sage role well. For example, setting
clarity, results, and closure; the latter are more com- yourself up as the final authority on English can result in
fortable with ambiguity for longer periods and feel less very uncomfortable situations, particularly if you are not
internal pressure to resolve questions any time soon (for a master at explaining the intricacies of English grammar.
more categories, see Oxford, 2001, p. 360–362). Students often have more explicit knowledge of grammar
Recent research calls into question the notion that individ- rules (and the vocabulary used to discuss them) than NTs
ual learners have distinct and relatively stable learning styles do, and this can prove awkward when students ask ques-
(e.g., Willingham, Highes, & Dobolyi, 2015). However, we tions that you can’t answer.
definitely should assume that language learners differ from Even for NTs who become proficient in explaining
each other in a variety of ways, and that these differences obscure points of grammar, the teacher-centered sage
can have a significant impact on what works for any given model still presents problems. In this model, teachers are
student when it comes to language learning. Obviously, it personally responsible not only for transmitting most of
is not possible for each student to have a teacher and class- the knowledge students are to learn, but also for deciding
room situation tailored precisely to his or her preferred lan- what is to be learned and how. A (usually unintended) side
guage learning approaches; this can’t happen even in small effect of this approach is that students learn to be passive,
classes, let alone large ones. However, teachers can do two to do what they are told rather than actively finding ways
important things to accommodate individual differences to enhance their own learning. Another unfortunate side
between students. The first is to use a reasonably broad and effect is that, as suggested earlier, the teacher’s role may
rich variety of teaching techniques, so that each learner has degenerate into a formal one of covering material during

PRINCIPLES OF LANGUAGE LEARNING AND THE ROLE OF THE TEACHER   9

 ©2017 by TESOL International Association. All rights reserved. Not for distribution.

class so that students can be held responsible for it on the These are not the only possible roles that NTs could adopt,
final exam. but they are vitally important ones that are worthy of
A second flaw of the sage model is that it is often further discussion. In the following sections of this chapter,
classroom centered; in other words, it assumes that most we consider these four aspects of the coach’s role and the
learning takes place in the classroom and downplays the way they relate to basic principles of language learning
importance of work students do on their own. Of course, and teaching.
the sage also assigns some homework, but in the minds of
the teacher and students, the homework is simply rehearsal Helping Students Understand
for the main show. For students, the subtle message of this Language Learning
assumption is that real learning requires the teacher; for One of your first tasks as a language teacher is to help
teachers, the temptation is to measure success by the polish students understand some of the concepts discussed above.
of classroom performances rather than by student progress. In part, you do this by talking with the students about
A final problem with the sage model is that it assumes these principles, and you should certainly do so as often
that learning a language is essentially an accumulation of as you have the chance. However, if your views are going
knowledge that is complete once students understand what to have much impact on the students, the way you teach
the teacher is trying to explain. Unfortunately, this assump- should reinforce what you say about language learning. In
tion isn’t true. Though acquisition of knowledge plays an other words, if you stress the idea that students should take
important part in language learning, it is not enough — as responsibility for their own language learning, you need to
we have seen, learning a language is also mastering a find ways to structure room for student initiative into your
set of skills, and skills are not learned via explanation. courses. If you argue that language is a tool for communi-
Explanation is generally only the beginning of the learning cation, you must allow students to use language for genuine
process, and the teacher who plays the sage role often puts communication as often as possible. If you emphasize that
on an impressive show but leaves students to face the real mastery of English involves developing language skills
battle alone. through practice, you need to give students ample oppor-
A better model for a language teacher is that of the tunities to practice in class. Finally, if you urge students to
athletic coach or piano teacher, a model that we will call attend to the affective side of language learning, you need
the coach (for more on this analogy, see, e.g., McKay, 1987, to show concern for the issue in the way you structure class
and Stevick, 1988). The main advantage of this model is exercises and practice.
that it assumes that most of the learning process takes place Another important aspect of helping students under-
during practice away from the teacher’s watchful eye, and stand language learning is teaching them to think through
that success or failure depends much more on what students their goals and methods. This is especially important for
do outside class than on what teachers do in class. A coach students who have generally been passive participants in the
provides tips on how a basketball player should make jump language learning process. Without a clear sense of goal, it
shots, but it is the player’s hours of practice shots that teach is difficult to decide what language learning methods will
the skill. Likewise, a piano teacher cannot teach a student be most effective. One question NTs may hear often from
digital dexterity by explaining it; a student must practice students is “How can I improve my English?” The initial
scales many times before they can be played smoothly. urge may be to suggest that the questioner study hard,
Of course, one duty of the coach is to share knowledge but this invariably brings a groan from the student and a
of the subject, but equally important parts of the coach’s demand that you stop avoiding the question. Instead, ask
role are the questioner to be more precise about his or her goal — is
 1. helping students better understand the learning process, it to build a better reading vocabulary? Improve oral
 2. encouraging students and cultivating motivation, fluency? You may find that the questioner often has no clear
 3. helping students build discipline through accountability, idea of what he or she wants to achieve beyond “improving
and English.” Later in this book, especially in Chapters 7–12,
you will find many ideas that can help you answer the
 4. guiding them toward taking initiative and responsibility
“How do I improve my English?” question. However, sim-
for their own learning.
ply asking students to think more carefully about what their
goals are — and then what methods they might use to work

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 ©2017 by TESOL International Association. All rights reserved. Not for distribution.

toward those goals — is a big first step toward helping them For many students in EFL settings, to the extent that
become better language learners. they are motivated to study English at all, their primary
A final way to help students become better language motivation is extrinsic: motivation based on a reward that
learners is to help them explore different methods and comes from outside the learner. Examples of extrinsic
strategies for language learning. In part, this involves motivation would include the desire to get a good score
sharing what you know about language learning from your on a test or to get a good job. Such rewards can have
own experiences, both positive and negative. However, significant power in motivating students to study and learn,
it is equally important to encourage students to explore but they are also problematic. For example, students who
new methods on their own and share with each other are motivated primarily by a desire to do well on tests may
what works and what does not. Often, the mere fact that study only what they need to in order to pass the test, and
you raise this issue from time to time for class discussion then lose interest in English study once the test is over.
expands students’ horizons and serves as a useful stimulus, Similarly, if the prospect of a job is years in the future, it
prodding them to get out of an old study routine that may becomes a reward that seems too distant and may not have
have outlived its usefulness for them. much power to motivate students to study today.
Rather than relying exclusively on extrinsic rewards to
Encouraging and Motivating Students motivate students, English teachers should also try to build
In EFL settings where opportunities to use English are their students’ intrinsic motivation by encouraging them to
relatively few and far between, one of the main challenges consider rewards that come from within themselves, such as
faced by English teachers is how to motivate students. a sense of accomplishment, the love of learning new things,
Though many students are initially interested in learning the love of creating, or the desire to pursue their curiosity
English, it is not unusual for their enthusiasm to disappear and interests. In fact, many researchers suggest that intrinsic
over time, partly because learning a foreign language motivation is a more powerful driving force than extrinsic
involves lots of hard work, partly because English doesn’t motivation (Brown & Lee, 2015). One reason intrinsic
seem immediately useful or relevant to their lives, and rewards tend to be especially effective as motivators is that,
partly because they rarely get a chance to use the skills coming from within the learner, they are always there to
they learn.

Extrinsic Rewards Intrinsic Rewards

XXGood test scores XXSense of accomplishment (e.g., pride, self-respect)

XXIncreased range of education opportunities XXSense of confidence in one’s ability to handle a wider

XXBetter job opportunities (e.g., wider range, better range of situations

pay, more promotion opportunities, opportunity XXOpportunity to pursue a wider range of interests
to travel) (e.g., through reading books or watching films one
XXAbility to interact with people from other countries likes in English)
(for practical purposes) XXSense of understanding the world better, being more

XXAccess to professional information in English (e.g., in touch with the international scene, and being a
books, journals, websites, lectures) “world citizen”
XXAccess to a wider range of information about the XXOpportunity to develop friendships with people from
world and world events other countries (out of a personal desire to do so)
XXEasier travel

PRINCIPLES OF LANGUAGE LEARNING AND THE ROLE OF THE TEACHER   11

 ©2017 by TESOL International Association. All rights reserved. Not for distribution.

drive one’s study — they are not years away, and they don’t for students to see you practicing what you preach. Your
disappear when the test ends. effort to learn the language of your host country will make
One way you can help motivate students to engage your life there easier and richer, give you a much better idea
actively in English study is simply to make your class as of the difficulties that the students face, and increase your
lively and interesting as possible; on the whole, students ability to empathize with them. In general, students tend to
tend to learn more about something they like and find work harder for a teacher who they feel understands them
interesting than about something that holds no appeal and identifies with them than one who doesn’t seem to
for them. A class that is lively and enjoyable is — all other share their burdens. (See further discussion of learning the
things being equal — usually better than one that is boring host language in Chapter 15.)
or tense. It is also helpful if students find you encouraging
and friendly, and if the class environment is as nonthreaten- Building Accountability and Discipline
ing as possible. When it comes right down to it, one of the greatest advan-
A second way to arouse and maintain student interest in tages of taking a language course (as opposed to studying
English study is to make your courses as genuinely commu- a language on your own) is that it provides someone who
nicative as possible. Most people enjoy talking about them- holds you accountable for how much and how well you
selves and learning about others, which provides a natural learn. In other words, when you take a course, you must
opportunity for speaking and even writing practice — and study because tomorrow there might be a quiz, a test, a
is certainly more interesting than rewriting sentences or discussion covering tonight’s reading assignment, or at
parroting a memorized dialogue. Many students are also least a teacher who will be disappointed if you don’t do
interested in the world beyond the borders of their town or what you are supposed to. Thus, as long as human beings
country, and learning about this broader world provides an are naturally inclined toward procrastination and laziness,
excellent excuse for reading and listening. In fact, as a for- a third important role of the language teacher will be to
eigner in your host country, you have a powerful advantage see that students put in the many hours of work necessary
as a teacher because your presence in the classroom creates for language mastery and to help them learn the discipline
a natural information gap. In other words, you know many to keep them working diligently when there is no longer a
things that the students don’t, and vice versa, so you have teacher around.
a great deal to talk to each other about without having to Many of the ways teachers hold students accountable
manufacture a topic. come under the heading of assessment and evaluation, dis-
The two other important factors in the sustaining cussed in Chapter 4, but let us note here that accountability
of student motivation, a sense of progress and feeling of is not only a matter of quizzes, tests, graded homework
reward, have been mentioned above and are also covered in assignments, and other measures that students often view
more detail in Chapter 3. Here, suffice it to say that praise as more akin to the stick than the carrot. Accountability
from the teacher and a good time in class will not go far if also includes praise, encouragement for work well done,
students do not feel that they are making progress or that and almost any other response that recognizes students’
their study has any purpose. efforts. Research in psychology indicates that such rewards
A final way you can be a source of encouragement for have a strong positive impact on students. In fact, praise
students is by serving as a role model (Dörnyei & Ushioda, from respected people tends to act more like intrinsic than
2011). Students often have great respect for a teacher who extrinsic motivation, even though it comes from outside the
has mastered a foreign language, and this respect may make learner (Brown & Lee, 2015).
them more eager to follow the teacher’s example. However, The basic idea of accountability is that you consider
it by no means follows that a good language teacher must students’ efforts important and care whether or not they
be a great language learner; in fact, those rare individuals did their work. Some students will work only if threatened;
who seem to absorb languages effortlessly may be discour- others only need a gentle reminder. Most, however, are a
aging for struggling students to be around, and such indi- little more likely to work if they know that they will be
viduals may not make very good language teachers because held responsible for doing so. Though excessive anxiety
they don’t understand the difficulties that mere mortals face. in a situation can hinder learning, “a certain amount of it
To be a good role model, what is perhaps most important is can stimulate a learner to invest more energy in the task”
for you to make a serious effort to learn what you can and (Littlewood, 1984, p. 59).

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 ©2017 by TESOL International Association. All rights reserved. Not for distribution.

Encouraging Students to Take Command have yourself had experience with a broad range of study
methods and strategies, but you can still make a valuable
The language teacher’s final role is to move students toward
contribution simply by calling students’ attention to the
taking charge of their own language learning — setting their
issue — many students have never consciously asked them-
own goals, making their own study plans, and then holding
selves what study methods are best suited to them. That
themselves to those plans — because it is self-starters who
you are from a different culture also means that you are
are most likely to succeed in language learning. As Brown
probably familiar with a somewhat different range of study
(2001) notes,
methods than those normally used by students in your
All too often, language teachers are so consumed with host country, and this creates the possibility for useful and
the “delivery” of language to their students that they interesting cross-fertilization.
neglect to spend some effort preparing learners to Language learning projects (LLPs) are another aspect of
“receive” the language. And students, mostly unaware encouraging students to take control of their own language
of the tricks of successful language learning, simply learning. In the framework of your course, an LLP is a
do whatever the teacher tells them to do, having no separate, additional project in which students choose their
means to question the wisdom thereof. In an effort own goals, methods, and study plans. Though doing an
to fill class hours with fascinating material, teachers LLP may be a required part of your course, students are
might overlook their mission of enabling learners to expected to take as much responsibility as possible for all
eventually become independent of classrooms — that is, aspects of the project — including evaluation. The virtue of
to be autonomous learners. (p. 208) such projects is that, in addition to helping students learn a
Even as you plan your course, then, you need to think about little more English, they help students become more inde-
ways in which you can encourage students to take initiative. pendent and autonomous as language learners. The hope
There are endless ways to do this: is that by helping students become accustomed to taking
as much responsibility as possible for their own language
Have
XX students keep their own vocabulary list,
learning, you are helping prepare them for the day when
let them choose their own books for reading practice,
XX
they can no longer rely on teachers and ready-made courses
have them choose topics for writing or discussions,
XX
to drive their further language study. (See Chapter 3 for
ask them to tape their own listening material (e.g., off
XX more on LLPs.)
the radio), or Getting students to take charge of their own language
even have them design and carry out their own study
XX study is often more easily said than done. Many students
plan as a component of your course. don’t truly desire to learn English and only long for the
It is most important that students get into the habit of tak- day when they complete their requirement and can kiss the
ing charge of their own study programs as much as possible. whole thing good-bye. However, there are other students
One aspect of helping students take control of their own whose attitudes toward language study will change if you
learning is exposing them to different learning strategies carefully but firmly hand the reins over to them.
(e.g., see Oxford, 1990; Cohen, 2011; Oxford, 2011). As
mentioned above, students are individuals who differ in Making Your Assumptions Explicit
their learning styles as well as in their English skill levels. The assumptions we’ve made about language teaching are
Some students learn language best through careful analysis, basic tenets of CLT and would not raise many eyebrows
and others may rely more on instinct; some thrive in in the Western English teaching world. However, some
freewheeling group discussion, and others in quiet conver- very different assumptions may shape the approaches of
sations with a partner. However, in many countries, students your host-country colleagues and students. Here are a
are only familiar with a narrow range of study methods that few examples:
are recommended — or required — by teachers, classmates,
or tradition, and may use methods unsuitable to their  1. Teacher-centered approaches to education: In
personalities or skills simply because they are not aware many societies, the teacher’s social role is much closer
of alternatives. One of your roles as a teacher is to suggest to that of the sage than that of the coach; teachers
approaches to language learning that students might not are respected in the community primarily for their
have previously considered. Of course, this is easier if you knowledge of their field, and their word is not to

PRINCIPLES OF LANGUAGE LEARNING AND THE ROLE OF THE TEACHER   13

 ©2017 by TESOL International Association. All rights reserved. Not for distribution.

be challenged. In such a society, a teacher-centered We have two suggestions for helping students deal with
approach to education fits the culture better than the discrepancies between your language teaching approaches
student-centered approach we have argued for. and their language learning expectations:
 2. Emphasis on standardized education: The emphasis  1. Communicate your expectations explicitly. You
on the student as a unique individual with a distinct cannot assume that students share your assumptions.
learning style may seem rather foreign in some Students should know what to expect in your class
societies. Compared to the United States, for example, and how you perceive your role as teacher. You may
many societies are more culturally uniform, have a sometimes also need to modify your assumptions so
more standardized education system, and encourage that you are more in tune with your class. In fact, this
individualism less. may even be necessary in classes in English-speaking
 3. Text-centered, grammar-focused approach to countries, and Nunan (1989) recommends negotiation
language: Some of your host-country colleagues may in these cases.
have had little opportunity to develop their English  2. Present your approaches as assumptions. You need
skills, particularly spoken fluency; in contrast, they may not explicitly or implicitly criticize other approaches
be very familiar with the formal features of English, to teaching. Instead, present your assumptions as just
especially grammar and vocabulary. They may also tend that — your assumptions — rather than as the only
to give lectures that stick closely to the text because this acceptable approach to language teaching. As sug-
allows them to prepare a limited body of material. This gested previously, some of these ideas have a Western
text-centered, grammar-analysis approach to teaching flavor, and you might present them as an alternative
plays to their strengths; a highly communicative teach- approach that you are adopting in class because it
ing approach might be unfamiliar and very difficult for suits your teaching strengths and because it is a part of
some of your colleagues to adopt. your culture.
Note also that for many students who are in educational By approaching your teaching in this way, you are less
systems in which test results determine their academic likely to come into conflict with your host culture, and
futures and careers, learning how to communicate is not the it will be easier for you to maintain an open mind when
primary goal; the primary goal is to score well on exams. In considering other approaches to teaching.
such situations, though it is desirable to add a communica-
tion skill element, it would be irresponsible for the teacher
to fail to prepare students for tests, and traditional methods
A Concluding Thought
may well be as effective in preparing students for exams as When all is said and done, your most important role may
communicative methods are — or more so. be an unintended one, related more to who you are than
Our point is not to undermine all of the principles that what you do. Many schools like having NTs less because of
we have argued for in this chapter; those CLT principles their expertise in language teaching than because they are
are sound and provide a good foundation for your language natives of an English-speaking country, and your presence
teaching. However, it is important not to arrive in your has a number of advantages for an English program. First,
host country with the attitude that your colleagues and as Dörnyei and Ushioda (2011) note, the presence of
students are backward and that your job is to reform their foreigners brings a sense of authenticity and reality to the
English teaching system; likewise, you don’t want to create classroom — you are living proof that there is a place where
the impression that you think your local colleagues’ work is real people use the peculiar sounds and symbols of English
of little value. A more generous, fairer, and diplomatic way for real communication. Second, your presence forces stu-
to look at the situation is to recognize that all approaches dents — possibly for the first time — to use English as the
to teaching have advantages and disadvantages, and that medium for real communication. Unlike your host-country
in many ways the teaching methods we have described as colleagues, you probably can’t speak to students in any
traditional may be very efficacious within their context. language other than English, and even limited communi-
However, they also have weaknesses, and your different cation with you is evidence to students that they have in
approaches to teaching can help round out the diet of fact learned something that has a purpose beyond exams.
language learning approaches offered to students. This realization can be a boost to students’ self-confidence.
Finally, the opportunity to meet and get to know a native of

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 ©2017 by TESOL International Association. All rights reserved. Not for distribution.

an English-speaking country often does a great deal to raise a friend or classmate. Include answers to questions
students’ level of interest in English study. As Rubin and like these:
Thompson (1994) point out, XX What was your skill level at the time?
Research has shown a definite relationship between XX What was your goal?
attitudes and success when foreign language learners XX Why did you do what you did? What
have an opportunity to know people who speak the motivated you?
language they are studying. Such positive attitudes XX What exactly did you do? (Describe in detail.)
usually help learners maintain their interest long XX What materials did you use?
enough to achieve their goals. (p. 6) XX What role did a teacher play?
XX What influence did classmates have?
The implication of these realities is this: Though you XX What was the environment in which you learned/
should still strive to make your teaching as professional as studied like?
possible, you should also bear in mind that, simply through XX Why did it work?
your presence and your efforts, you may be making a far
 7. Legacies: Ask a friend from the host country to talk
greater contribution than you would have imagined.
with you about the history — both good and bad — of
relations between the host country and your country.
For Thought, Discussion, and Action Ask what impact — if any — the historical legacy or
 1. A look back: Look back at your own foreign language current relations might have on the students’ attitudes
learning experience to date, and list lessons you have toward studying English.
learned about what does and does not seem to work  8. Host-country learning culture: Ask someone from
in foreign language learning. Compare your ideas with your host country to tell you about the normal language
those of your friends or classmates and discuss. teaching and learning practices there. Talk with that
 2. Feelings in language learning: Think back to your person about the learning and teaching assumptions
experience learning a foreign language, and try to discussed in this chapter, and find out how they
remember the role feelings played in the process. List compare to the assumptions commonly held in the
ways in which feelings entered the experience and the host country.
effect they had on your learning.  9. Communicative language teaching: Talk with an
 3. Language learning survey: Ask several friends or English teacher from your host country about CLT.
classmates to talk with you about their language learn- Find out what he or she knows about it, whether or not
ing experiences. What are the best language learning it is promoted or accepted in the host country, and what
experiences they had, and why were they good? What he or she thinks about it.
experiences were more difficult, and why? 10. Choices in language learning: One of the most
 4. Skill learning: Think back on your experience learning important strategies for helping students become more
a skill (e.g., playing a sport, doing a craft, playing a independent and autonomous as language learners is
musical instrument). Describe the process, and compare to give them as much choice as possible in their own
it with your foreign language learning experiences. study. The more they make their own choices, the
In what ways were the processes similar, and how did more they are likely to take responsibility for their own
they differ? English study. Consider a typical English course in your
country, and make a list of ways you could give students
 5. Past language teachers: Think back on positive and
some choice in their English study (e.g., with regard to
negative examples of language teachers you have had.
goals, homework, activities). Be as specific as possible.
Who would you like to be like, and why? Who would
you not like to be like, and why? 11. Intrinsic motivation: Brown and Lee (2015) argue
that teachers should try to build students’ intrinsic
 6. Description of a language learning experience: Think
motivation as much as possible, and provide the
of a successful language learning experience you had,
following checklist of criteria to determine whether
and prepare a detailed description involving everything
a particular language teaching technique, activity, or
you can remember that might be relevant. Then share
strategy promotes intrinsic motivation. Analyze each of
your experience — and any lessons learned — with

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 ©2017 by TESOL International Association. All rights reserved. Not for distribution.

the criteria, and explain how or why it would contribute Does

XX it contribute to students’ ultimate autonomy
to intrinsic motivation: and independence?
XX Does the technique appeal to the genuine interests XXDoes it foster cooperative negotiation with other
of the students? Is it relevant? students in the class?
XX Do you present the technique in a positive, enthusi- XXDoes the activity present a “reasonable challenge”?
astic manner? XXDo students receive sufficient feedback on their
XX Are students clearly aware of the purpose of the performance? (p. 170)
activity? 12. Genuine communication: This chapter suggests that
XX Do students have some choice in choosing some one way to motivate students is to include as much
aspect of the activity? genuine communication as possible in English courses.
XX Does the activity encourage students to “discover” on Make a checklist (like the list above) for assessing
their own? whether or not an activity is genuinely communicative.
XXDoes it encourage students to use effective
strategies?

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