Glossary

acceptor atom Atom with three valence electrons added to a candela Unit of light intensity in SI.
semiconductor to reduce the number of electrons in it, cascade amplifier Amplifier with two or more stages in which
thus creating holes in the semiconductor’s valence band. the output of one stage serves as the input to the next.
active region Area on a device characteristic where the ratio cascode amplifier High frequency amplifier made up of a com-
between applied voltage and resulting current is constant. mon-emitter amplifier with a common-base amplifier in its
That is, the device is not operating in regions such as sat- collector network.
uration, cutoff, or ohmic.
cathode Negative terminal of a bipolar device.
amplification Process of changing the amplitude of a signal
characteristics Set of graphs that display any operating feature
with minimum alteration in its shape.
of an electronic device, such as collector current vs. col-
amplifier Assembly that produces an output quantity such as lector-emitter voltage for a set of different base currents.
voltage or current in linear proportion to an applied input
chip Common name for an integrated circuit. Many chips are
quantity. The output quantity is not necessarily larger than
cut from a single wafer of silicon that has been doped and
the input quantity.
etched to form many elements and components.
analog-to-digital converter (ADC) Circuit that converts an
clamping Process of shifting an input ac signal to a different
analog signal to a digital signal whose binary value repre-
zero point.
sents the amplitude of the original analog signal.
clipper Circuit that cuts off some portion of an input signal.
anode Positive terminal of a bipolar device.
clipping Failure of a circuit to respond to signals above a cer-
astable multivibrator Oscillator circuit that produces a rectan-
tain amplitude, causing distortion of the output signal.
gular wave output.
CMOS Complimentary MOS: digital integrated circuitry in
bandwidth Range of frequencies for which the gain is at least
which both n- and p-channel MOSFETs are used.
0.707 of midband gain.
common Path for current returning to the power supply from a
bias line Graphical technique in circuit analysis which describes
circuit.
the bias circuit, external to a device, on the device transfer
characteristic curve. common base (emitter, etc.) Configuration in which the base
(emitter, etc.) the terminal of a three-terminal device is
bias(ing) Fixed dc voltage applied to a circuit that is intended
common to both the input and output loops of the circuit.
to set a device’s operation at a particular point on its char-
acteristic curve. common-mode rejection Ratio of the differential gain of an
op-amp to its common-mode gain.
bipolar Type of device whose functioning involves both major-
ity and minority charge carriers. comparator Op-amp circuit that compares two input voltages and
provides a DC output that indicates which input is greater.
bipolar junction transistor. See BJT
conduction angle Portion of a half wave, expressed in degrees,
BJT Bipolar junction transistor is a 3-layer device containing
during which a silicon-controlled rectifier is conducting.
both types of semiconductor material (either in p-n-p or n-
p-n form). It typically has three terminals. constant-current source Circuit that provides constant current
to a changing load.
Bode plot Graph of gain or phase shift versus frequency for a
circuit. contact resistance Resistance at the contacts with the material
of an electronic device—one aspect of how a practical de-
body resistance Inherent resistance of the block(s) of material
vice deviates from ideal.
composing an electronic device—one aspect of how a
practical device deviates from ideal. conversion efficiency For an amplifier, the ratio of output ac
power to input dc power.
bridge Network of four components arranged in a square with
identical opposite pairs of elements. The input is attached corner frequency Frequency at which the gain of an amplifier
across one diagonal, and the output across the other. has dropped to 0.707 of midband value.

G1
G2 Glossary

crystal oscillator An oscillator with a piezoelectric crystal in its equivalent circuit Combination of elements intended to mimic
feedback network to maintain a stable frequency of oscil- the characteristics of an electronic device with mathemati-
lations. cal aspects that are simpler than those of the actual de-
current mirror Circuit consisting of two matching transistors vice. See also model
with the collector of one connected to the bases of both, extrinsic material Semiconducting material that has had its
thus producing the same collector current in each transistor. conducting properties altered by doping; n-type material
current-limiting circuit Protection circuitry that prevents the contains extra electrons; p-type material contains extra
output current from exceeding a maximum value under an holes.
overload or short-circuit condition. feedback Application of a portion of an amplifier’s output to its
cut-off State of a semiconductor device in which the current is input. It is used to improve amplifier performance or to
a minimum. cause oscillation.
cut-off frequency See corner frequency feedback pair Two bipolar junction transistors with the collec-
tor of the npn connected the emitter of the pnp and the
Darlington pair connection Two bipolar junction transistors
collector of the pnp connected the base of the npn.
with their collectors connected together and the emitter of
one connected to the base of the other. FET Field-effect transistor
demodulation Process of extracting a signal that has been im- filter Part of a power supply that converts the rectified sine
pressed on a carrier wave. wave from the rectifier into a dc voltage with ripple.
depletion Application of an electric field that repels majority foldback limiting Protection circuitry that causes the output
carriers in a volume of semiconductor material. current to decrease to a low value under an overload or
depletion region Region near the junction of a semiconducting short-circuit condition.
device that has few free carriers because electrons and follower Voltage amplifier whose output “follows” the input,
holes have combined. and so has a gain of approximately one.
detection See Demodulation forward-bias Voltage applied to a p-n junction (positive to p,
die Another term for chip. negative to n) that diminishes the depletion region and in-
creases the flow of majority carriers.
differential amplifier Amplifier in which the output voltage is
proportional to the difference between the voltages applied Fourier analysis Mathematical technique for describing a com-
to its two input terminals. plex waveform as the sum of the harmonics of a funda-
mental.
digital-to-analog converter (DAC) Circuit that converts a digi-
tal signal to an analog signal whose amplitude is propor- free Of electrons, those that are only loosely bound to an atom
tional to the binary value of the digital signal. or ion—they are able to migrate readily through a material
under the application of small electric fields.
diode Two-terminal device that conducts unidirectionally.
frequency modulation Process of varying the frequency of a
discrete component Package containing only a single electrical
signal such that the instantaneous value of the frequency
or electronic component.
is proportional to the amplitude of a control voltage or
donor atom Atom with five valence electrons added to a semi- signal.
conductor to increase the number of electrons in it.
frequency-shift keying Form of frequency modulation in which
donor level Energy level of the valence band in a semiconduc- the value of a digital signal sets the frequency at one of
tor with doping, which reduces the energy gap between two values.
the valence band and the conduction band.
full-wave rectification Converting ac to dc using both halves of
doping Process of adding small quantities of particular impuri- each ac input cycle.
ties to an intrinsically pure semiconductor in order to alter
its conducting properties. fundamental Lowest frequency component of a waveform.

dropout voltage Minimum value by which the input voltage of gain Amplification factor of an amplifier, the ratio of output to
a voltage regulator must exceed the output voltage for reg- input.
ulation to occur. gain margin Value in decibels of the amplitude of the βA factor
efficacy Measure of the ability of a device to produce a desired of a feedback amplifier at the frequency for which the
effect. phase shift of βA is 180°.
electroluminescence Emission of light by a device when elec- gain-bandwidth product Transistor parameter that indicates the
trical energy is supplied. maximum possible product of gain and bandwidth.
electron volt Energy required to move a charge of one gradient Regular change in a quantity along a given line or di-
electron through a potential difference of 1 V; equals mension; a the rate of change of such quantity.
1.602  1019J. half-power frequency See corner frequency
enhancement Application of an electric field that attracts ma- half-wave rectification Converting ac to dc using only half the
jority carriers to a volume of semiconductor material. input of each full ac cycle.
 Glossary G3

harmonic A sine wave that is an integral multiple of a funda- mesa transistor Transistor produced by etching away a part of
mental frequency. See also fundamental the area above the collector region to form a plateau on
hole Vacancy in a normally filled site in a valence shell or band, which the base and emitter regions are then formed.
created by doping with an acceptor atom. A hole is mobile minority carriers Charge carriers that are deficient in extrinsic
and conducts as if it were a positive charge. material—holes in n-type material or electrons in p-type
hybrid Involving the combination of unlike quantities or materi- material.
als, as for example, voltage and current. model Representation of a system (either concrete or abstract)
hybrid IC Integrated circuit that is composed of monolithic intended to assist in understanding the system, either by
components and either thin-film or thick-film components. simplifying or emphasizing particular features of the sys-
IC component Package containing more than one electrical or tem. Consider the differences among “model airplane,”
electronic component in a single package. “atomic model,” and “fashion model.” See also equivalent
circuit
ideal device Device that performs its function perfectly; e.g., an
ideal transducer converts without loss all the energy ap- modulation Process of combining a signal with a carrier wave
plied to it. (which is usually at a much higher frequency).

ideal diode Diode that conducts perfectly in one direction and monolithic IC Circuit in which all components are formed as
not at all in the opposite direction (zero resistance in one pn junctions on or within a semiconductor substrate.
direction and infinite resistance in the opposite direction). monostable multivibrator Circuit with one stable output state
integrated circuit (IC) Collection of solid-state devices com- that, when triggered, switches to an unstable state for a
bined with other circuit elements printed on a single chip. fixed period of time and then returns to the stable state.
interface circuit Circuit that links input and output signals of MOSFET Metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor.
different types of logic families with each other or with negative feedback Circuitry in which a feedback signal is 180°
analog signals. out of phase with the input signal.
intrinsic carriers Charges constituting a current that are able to no-bias Circuit that contains no fixed applied voltage.
move simply because of the nature of the material and its Nyquist diagram Plot of the βA factor of a feedback amplifier
temperature. see also extrinsic as a vector on the complex plane for frequencies from
ionization Process by which an electron is removed from an zero to infinity.
atom by the application of some form of energy.
offset potential Potential difference at which a diode or transis-
ionization potential Electrical potential that is just sufficient to tor begins to conduct at significant currents. It is also
remove an electron from a shell of its atom. called the firing potential or threshold potential, and is
JFET Junction field-effect transistor symbolized as VT.
junction The area of contact between volumes of n- and p-type op-amp Operational amplifier, a high-gain amplifier with an
extrinsic material. output that corresponds to the difference between two in-
lattice Regular spacing in three-dimensions of atoms in a crystal. put signals.
leakage current Minority carrier current in a reverse-biased oscillator Electronic circuit that produces a periodic output
junction in the absence of injected minority carriers. waveform with no voltage other than dc applied.
light-emitting diode Diode that will emit light when forward parallel resonance Condition occurring in a parallel RLC net-
biased. work at the frequency where the reactance of the inductor
equals the reactance of the capacitor.
linear circuit Circuit in which one quantity changes in direct
proportion to another quantity. peak inverse voltage See PIV
load line Graphical technique in circuit analysis which de- phase margin 180° minus the phase shift at the frequency at
scribes the output circuit, external to a device, on the de- which the gain is 0 dB.
vice output characteristic. phase-locked loop Circuit in which the phase of the output sig-
load-line analysis Method of describing the operation of an nal is compared to the phase of the input signal and
electronic device using the intersection of a line represent- adjustments made such that the output signal will lock
ing the load on the device and a graph line of the device’s onto and track the input signal.
characteristics. The intersection is called the Q-point. phase-shift oscillator Oscillator with a feedback network con-
load regulation Measure of the change in load voltage as load sisting of three RC high-pass networks connected in series
current changes from no-load to full-load value. that produce 180° phase shift.
majority carriers Charge carriers made abundant in the doping piecewise linear equivalent circuit Equivalent circuit with ele-
process of extrinsic material—electrons in n-type material ments chosen to approximate the device’s characteristic
or holes in p-type material. with straight-line segments.
G4 Glossary

piezoelectric effect Property of a crystal that produces a voltage strobe Control signal whose value determines whether a circuit
across opposite faces due to mechanical stress and vice is enabled or disabled.
versa. switching regulator Regulator in which regulation is main-
PIV Peak inverse voltage, the maximum reverse-bias potential tained by switching the power control devices between on
that can be applied to a diode before entering the Zener and off states.
region; also called PRV.
temperature coefficient Number that expresses the rate of
planar transistor Transistor produced by forming the base and change of a quantity with temperature as, for example, the
emitter regions within the collector region rather than temperature coefficient of resistance.
above it.
tetravalent atom Atom containing four electrons in its (outer)
port A pair of terminals. valence shell.
power supply Circuit that converts a sinusoidal voltage into a thick-film IC Integrated circuit with passive elements deposited
dc voltage. on a substrate using screening and firing processes and ac-
Q-point Point on a device’s characteristic from which it oper- tive elements added on the surface as discrete components.
ates. Set by the dc components in the circuit, the quies-
thin-film IC Integrated circuit with passive elements deposited
cent point sets the zero for ac variations. It is the
on a substrate using a sputtering or vacuum process and ac-
intersection of the load line with a characteristic curve.
tive elements added on the surface as discrete components.
quiescent point See Q-point
threshold voltage Voltage level for a diode or transistor that re-
rectification Process of converting ac to dc. sults in a significant increase in drain current. See also
reverse-bias Voltage applied to a p-n junction (negative to p, offset potential
positive to n) that enlarges the depletion region and in-
tilt Measure of the loss in amplitude of a pulse from the leading
creases the flow of minority carriers.
edge to the trailing edge of the pulse.
ripple Ratio of the ripple voltage to the dc voltage expressed as
transconductance factor For an FET, the ratio of the change in
a percentage.
drain current to the change in gate voltage that induced it;
ripple voltage Small variations in the amplitude of the voltage symbol, gm; unit, siemen.
at the output of the filter in a power supply.
transfer characteristic Graph that displays the relationship be-
saturation (1) Condition in a semiconductor in which no fur- tween the input and output quantities of a device.
ther increase in current results, no matter how much addi-
tional voltage is applied. (2) In a BJT, the state in which transistor Semiconductor device useful for amplifying or
the voltage from collector to emitter is a minimum, typi- switching electrical signals.
cally 100 mV. (3) In an FET, the state in which an in- tuned oscillator Oscillator in which component values in an LC
crease in the voltage from drain to source does not result network determine the frequency of oscillations.
in a significant increase in non-zero drain current. two-port network Generalized model of a linear circuit that has
semiconductor Any material that possesses a resistivity much two input and two output terminals.
higher than good conductors and much lower than good
unipolar Device whose functioning involves only majority
insulators.
charge carriers.
series regulator Voltage regulator in which the control element
valence Outer shell of an atom containing the electrons that de-
is in series with the output voltage.
termine the element’s chemical characteristics.
series resonance Condition occurring in a series RLC network
voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) Oscillator whose output
at the frequency where the reactance of the inductor
frequency varies with a modulating input voltage.
equals the reactance of the capacitor.
shunt voltage regulator Voltage regulator in which the control wafer Thin slice of semiconductor crystal on which many IC
element is in parallel with the output voltage. circuits (chips) are formed.

signal Electrical waveform that contains information, varying Wien bridge oscillator Oscillator with a feedback network con-
according to (for example) an audio or video input. sisting of a series RC network and a parallel RC network
in a bridge circuit.
single-crystal Any material composed only of the repetitive
structure of one kind of unit crystal. yield rate Percentage of the chips obtained from a single wafer
that meet specifications.
small signal AC operation of an electronic device in a small
enough vicinity around the q-point that the slope of the Zener potential The reverse-bias voltage at which a diode will
device transfer characteristic in that vicinity can be con- experience a sharp increase in reverse current.
sidered constant. Zener region Portion of the current-voltage characteristic of a
source regulation Measure of the change in load voltage as diode which shows a sharp increase in reverse current at
source voltage changes. the Zener potential.