Surface Phenomina

Experiments on Surface Phenomena and Colloids http://www.funsci.com/fun3_en/exper2/exper2.
htm
EXPERIMENTS ON
Giorgio Carboni, march 2002

Translation edited by G.L. Stuart
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Experiments on Surface Phenomena and Colloids http://www.funsci.com/fun3_en/exper2/exper2.htm
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PRESENTATION
In this article, we collect a series of laboratory experiments which
mainly concern surface phenomena and colloidal systems. Due to
their number, these experiments will be briefly described. As you
know, our articles do not intend to supply an exhaustive explanation
of the topics we deal with, but rather to give rise to a curiosity toward
them and to give young people exposure to interesting categories of
natural phenomena. We try to achieve these goals through practical
and experimental activities in which hands-on involvement plays an
important role. The way these activities are presented tends to bring
out their amusing aspects and, hopefully, to establish a positive
attitude towards the subjects treated. We are convinced that these
activities will arouse questions in the participants and that they
themselves, through curiosity, will go looking for explanations. We are
also convinced that feeding the desire to know the “how and why” of
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things, that is, the curiosity spawned within each student is more
important and useful than explanations supplied when a student feels
no need.
As the explanations are short, we have often supplied links to Internet

websites and sometimes a bibliography. Unfortunately, we will not be
able to continually update these links, so we have supplied keywords
to look for updated information on the Internet using search engines.
Do not use all these keywords together, but in the combinations which
seem more relevant to you. During these searches, often too much
documentation is found, much of which is useless to our search. So, if
necessary, add a term like these: school, students, experiment, test,
classroom, homemade, homework, science fair, science project,
lesson, lesson plan.
WARNING: Some of these experiments can be dangerous. When

children are doing them, an adult must always be present to avoid
any damage or harm. In any case, we do not assume any liability. As
for the safety and the liabilities, we recommend you to read
our Warning page.
Have a good time!
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INTRODUCTION TO SURFACE PHENOMENA

Why do some insects succeed in skating on water instead of sinking?
Why in some cases, does the water sprinkled on a glass surface
collect into drops and in other cases spread like a thin film? Why does
water climb up a thin tube? Why can you make bubbles with soapy
water and not with tap water? For reasons we will see later on, the
surface of a substance has special properties. These surface
properties are what allow these strange phenomena we have
mentioned. Not only that, but the surface is also the place of contact
among different substances. In short, the properties of surfaces are
so special and important that there is a branch of science, the physics
of surfaces, devoted to the study of surface phenomena.
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SURFA
TENSI
A mo
of a
attracts
molecul
which
surroun
and in
turn i
attracte
them (f
2). For
molecul
which
inside
liquid,
resultan
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all
forces
neutral
all them
in
equilibr
by rea
with
other.
these
molecul
are on
surface
they
attracte
the
molecul
below
by
lateral
but
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toward
outside
resultan
a
directed
inside
liquid.
turn,
cohesio
among
molecul
supplies
force
tangent
the su
So, a
surface
behave
an e
membra
which w
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and
compre
the b
liquid.
surface
tension
express
the
with
the su
molecul
attract
other. A
to see
surface
tension
action
observe
efforts
bug to
out of
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water.
the
contrary
other
insects,
the m
treader
the
striders
exploit
surface
tension
skate o
water
without
sinking.
Here
some s
experim
using
surface
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tension
1 -The floating
needle.
Carefully place a needle
on the surface of a glass
of water. If the water
does not completely wet
it, you will see the
needle float. To avoid
your fingers disturbing
the surface as you place
the needle, you can
make a small cradle
from wire to hold the
needle as you lower it
gently on to the surface
of the water. Another
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way to make it easier to

float an object heavier
than water using only
the surface tension is to
first float a strip of
tissue paper and lay the
needle on it. Slowly, the
water will soak the strip,
which will eventually
sink, while the needle
will remain on the
surface.
Figure 3 - Floating
needle. At the bottom of
the pot you can see the
sunken strip of tissue
paper.
2 - Make sulfur powder sink. Sprinkle some sulfur powder over a

glass of water (You can buy sulfur in a hardware store). Sulfur is
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hydrophobic enough to float on the water. Add a drop of detergent

and you will see the particles of sulfur sink. This experiment also
works with talcum powder which you probably already have in your
home.
http://www.ilpi.com/genchem/demo/tension/ has a short movie on
this experiment and a description of the properties of surfactants.
3 - Launch of the needle. With some steel wire, make a ring. Place
a needle on the ring and submerge in soapy water. When you extract
the ring, two membranes will be formed: one at the left side of the
needle and the other at the right side. Now, with a finger burst one of
these membranes. The needle will be thrown away by the surface
tension of the remaining membrane, which quickly contracts, in an
effort to achieve the smallest possible surface area.
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4 - The strength of
the soap films.
With some iron wire,
make a "U" frame and a
slider, as shown by the
figure 4. Plunge the
frame in soapy water.
When you extract it, you
will see that the slider
will be drawn toward the
bottom of the frame by
the surface tension of
the soap membrane. By
holding the slider still
with your fingers, you
can feel the force of the
membrane.
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Figure 4 - U-shaped
frame with slider. The
surface tension of the
membrane draws the
slider toward left.
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5 - Measuring the surface tension. In order to measure the surface

tension of a liquid, you can use an equal-arm analytical balance. As
shown by the figures 5 and 6, hang a U-shaped steel wire under one
of the two weighing pans (A). By lowering the A arm and then by
lifting it up again, make a membrane to form in the U-shaped frame.
Balance it with some masses on the weighing pan B. At this point,
break the film. The balance will go down by the B side, therefore
restore the equilibrium placing some masses on the side A. The value
of these last masses (F) corresponds to the force with which the
membrane tends to close into the liquid. The surface tension (T) is
given by the force (F) divided by the width (W) of the membrane,
divided again by two because it is necessary to keep into account the
membrane possess two surfaces. So, T = F/2W. The value of the
surface tension of the distilled water is 7,42 g/m at 20°C and that of
ethyl alcohol is 2,27 g/m always at 20°C. We supply to you these
values because you will be allowed to compare with them those you
obtain through experimentation. If you do not possess an analytical
balance, you can build one of them. It will not be as exact, but it will
allow you to do these measures. Given the forces which play in this
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experiment, the balance should have an accuracy of a hundredth of a

gram at least.
http://www.pvri.com/sp/BalBuild.htm How to build a no cost
sensitive balance (by Salvatore Previtera)
http://userpages.prexar.com/dwilliamsmaine/scale/scale.html A
Home-made Balance Scale (by Dan Williams)
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6 - Other method to measure the surface tension. To measure

the surface tension of liquids, you can use a metal wire ring of the
diameter comprised between 3 and 4 cm, instead of the "U" frame we
have described. This wire should be made of platinum, anyway, as
this material is costly and not easy to find, use a stainless steel wire
which you can buy in a welding shop or in a hardware store. If you
have difficulty finding a wire of this material, use an iron wire. Its
diameter should be of 1 - 2 mm. Even in this case you should use an
analytical balance.
Dip the ring just under the surface of the liquid of which you want
determine the surface tension. Level the balance in these conditions.
Add some masses on the opposite arm until the ring detaches from
the liquid. The surface tension (T) of the liquid will be given by the
detachment force (F) you have measured divided by two times the
mean circumference (crf) of the ring: T = F/2crf. This factor 2 takes
into account the two surfaces of liquid: the internal one and the
external one to the ring (figure 8). For reasons of clarity, in the figure
the ring has been drawn with the diameter greater than the actual
diameter.
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http://www.tensiometry.com/STMethods.htm Other methods to

measure the surface tension.
7 - With distilled water, verify the good working order of your

experimental system.
8 - Determine the surface tension of the tap water.
9 - Determine the surface tension of the tap water to which you have
added a little detergent. You will notice that small amounts of
surfactants are sufficient to lower the surface tension of the water a
lot.
10 - Relationship between the weight of the drops and the

surface tension. By a dropper, slowly drop some water of the test 8
and determine the mass of a certain number of drops (ie 30). Do the
same thing with the water of the experiment n° 9. Verify if there is a
relationship between the mass of the drops and the surface tension of
the solutions. Answer: The mass of the drops is proportional to the
surface tension of the liquid: M = T/K, where K is a constant which
you can determine using distilled water at 20°C of which you know
the surface tension. This constant is valuable only for this dropper.
Determine the mass of a given number of drops is a method to
measure the surface tension of a liquid. In these tests, to obtain a
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better precision, calculate the mean of a series of measures. Verify if

the following relationships are valuable: T1:M1 = T2:M2.
11 - Surfactant
powered boats. From a
thin wooden or cardboard
sheet, cut three little
"boats" like those
indicated in the figure 9.
They must have an
opening with a seat for a
bit of soap. Place a bit of
soap in the seat of a boat
and put it in a small basin
with water. You will see
the boat move quickly
forward. With the opening on a side or off-center, the boat will turn.
The movement of the boat can be explained by the quick scatter of
surfactant molecules on the water surface, so this little boat would
move by reaction. Another explanation recalls Marangoni's effect,
according to which, in case of a gradient of surface tension from one
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zone of a liquid to another, there will be established a flow from the

zone of low surface tension toward the one of high surface tension. In
this case, the boat will be dragged by the movement of the water
surface. This amusing experiment can also be done using substances
other than soap, provided they have surface active properties. For
example, you could place a little drop of detergent on the carving. If
you will use a bit of camphor, your boat will sail more quickly and
longer. If the stretch of water in which the boat moves is small, like a
dish or a small basin, quickly the water surface will be covered by a
layer of surfactant molecules and the boat will stop and you will need
to change the water to restart the boat. If instead you do these
experiments in a pond, you will not have this problem. Try different
shapes of boat and of carving, try hot and cold water, different types
of soap, etc. The water will quickly soak through the wood or
especially the cardboard of your boat and will disable it. Some boards
will even sink. To save your fleet, make the little boats waterproof
with acrylic paint or flatting. When the paint dries, you will be able to
restart the races.
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/surten.html Surface
Tension ***
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http://teachers.net/lessons/posts/224.html Surface tension on coins

http://www.online-tensiometer.com/oberfl/ Some experiments on
the surface tension
http://www.biologylessons.sdsu.edu/ta/classes/lab1/TG.html
Properties of Water
http://www.ed.gov/pubs/parents/Science/soap.html Have you ever
tried using soap to power a boat?
Internet keywords: surface tension, surface phenomena, surface
tension boat, soap boat.
WETTABILITY
Why does one fabric absorb water well while another seems to refuse
it? Why does water collect into large drops on a greasy surface and
instead form an adherent film on a clean surface? According to the
nature of the liquid and the solid, a drop of liquid placed on a solid
surface will adhere to it more or less. To understand this phenomenon
it is necessary to take into account the fact that molecules of a liquid
are subject to a cohesive force which keeps them united to one
another, but there is also an adhesive force which is the force with
which the molecules of the liquid adhere to the surface of materials
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that they contact. When the forces of adhesion are greater than the
forces of cohesion, the liquid tends to wet the surface, when instead
the forces of adhesion are less by comparison to those of cohesion,
the liquid tends to "refuse" the surface. In this people speak of
wettability between liquids and solids. For example, water wets clean
glass, but it does not wet wax.
1 - Measuring the contact angle. Place a drop of a liquid on a

smooth surface of a solid. According to the wettability of the liquid in
relationship to this solid, the drop will make a certain angle of contact
with the solid. With reference to the figure 10, if the contact angle is
lower than 90°, the solid is called wettable, if the contact angle is
wider than 90°, the solid is named non-wettable. A contact angle
equal to zero indicates complete wettability. To measure the contact
angle use a protractor and a ruler. Taking a picture of the outline of
the drop will make easier and more exact the measurement.
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2 - Prominent drops, flat drops. Lay a water drop on a dirty glass

plate. For example a glass with a lot of fingerprints. Measure the
contact angle. Now wash the plate with water and detergent, then
rinse it with care and dry it. Make the test again and compare the
contact angle in the two cases.
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3 - Misted plate. Breathe on a glass plate which has been washed,

but not very well. You will see the plate become misted, this is due to
the formation of a myriad of tiny water drops on the surface of the
glass.
4 - Water film. With water and detergent, wash a plate of glass well,
then rinse it a first time with tap water and then with distilled water
and leave it to dry in a place devoid of dust. Now, breathe on it. If the
plate of glass is very clean, it will not mist because the water will
arrange on the surface as a thin and continuous film of water. This
happens because the water has complete wettability toward a clean
glass. If the cleaning method above has not cleaned the plate well
enough, wipe it with a cotton cloth with some pure acetone in it. Use
caution because acetone is inflammable and toxic, so do this
operation outdoors and with care.
By studying plants, a German scientist discovered a method to keep

surfaces clean or to clean them with less water. You have to cover the
surface with a thin layer of wax. This substance has a very low
wettability toward the water. It tends to keep clean and it is
commonly used to enhance the cleanliness and appearance of
buildings and vehicles.
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http://www.fys.uio.no/~eaker/thesis/node9.html Wettability
http://www.ksvinc.com/contact_angle.htm Contact Angles
Internet keywords: wettability, interfacial tension, IFT, contact angle
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1 - The rise of water along a capillary. Immerse a capillary in a

glass containing tap water and measure the height (h) of the water
column inside it.
2 - Effect of the surfactants. Add a few drops of detergent to the

water and measure again. Compare the variation in the height of the
water column. You will be able to notice that even small amounts of
surfactants produce important effects on the level reached by the
water in the capillary.
3 - Effect of the diameter of the capillary. With a tube of glass

and a Bunsen burner, make a series of capillary tubes having different
diameter. Verify the relationship between the height of the water
column and the internal diameter of the capillary. (Answer: the height
of the column is described by this formula h=k/r, where h is the
height of the column, k is a constant which depends on the surface
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tension of the liquid and on the contact angle between the liquid and
the wall, r is the internal radius of the capillary tube. So, with the
same liquid and material of the capillary tube, the height of the
column is in inverse proportion to the diameter of the capillary tube.
You can determine the value of k for water using distilled water at
20°C.
4 - Try other liquids. Make some other tests with liquids other than
water, such as alcohol, oil, etc. and measure the height of the liquid
column. This height depends by a number of factors such as the
surface tension of the liquid, the contact angle liquid/capillary, the
radius of the capillary, the density of the liquid, the acceleration of
gravity. In fact, the column attains the height of equilibrium between
the ascensional forces and its own weight. Oily substances tend to
contaminate inside the capillary, so when changing from one liquid to
another, clean the capillary well or replace it. The vegetable world
exploits capillarity and osmosis to bring water up to the higher parts
of plants. In this way, some trees succeed in bringing this precious
liquid up to 120 meters above the ground.
5 - An emergency plant watering system. It is summer and you

are going on vacation. You are worried about your potted plants,
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which risk to remain without water. In fact, even if you have asked
your neighbor to water them, you know by experience that after the
first day, he will forget, that's just the way he is. Then, try this
emergency watering system. It bases itself on the fact that a string is
able to carry water among its fibers by capillarity. Place a tank on
some bricks and fill it with water. Place the pots round the drum. Cut
some pieces of string long enough to reach the bottom of the tank
and to be inserted into a pot. Immerse all strings in the water to soak
them well. Tie all the strings together at one end and sink this knot to
the bottom of the drum with a stone or weight. Now, one at the time,
put the free end of each string into a different pot. Each pot has to be
served by a string. Test the system before you go on your vacation.
You have to verify if it works well, to find the suitable type of string
and to proportion the amount of water in the tank to the length of
your absence. Try strings made up of fibers of different dimension, of
different materials, even in plastic. If the string tends to become
encrusted with mineral deposits, add some vinegar to the water. Also
try to insert each string in a thin plastic tube. If the water flow is too
fast, use a thinner string. Check the effect of some drops of detergent
on the flow.
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http://www.svce.ac.in/~msubbu/FM-WebBook/Unit-I/Capillarity.htm
Capillarity
Internet keywords: capillary, capillarity.
SOAPS AND DETERGENTS

How do soaps and detergents work in removing dirt? Soaps and
detergents are formed by special molecules, which have a hydrophilic
head, which therefore loves to remain in water and a hydrophobic tail,
which avoids water and loves fat substances (figure 12 A). Because of
their hydrophobic tail, a part of the molecules of detergent collects to
the water surface forming a monomolecular layer (figure 12 B), it
lowers the surface tension of the water and makes easier its
penetration into the fabrics to be cleaned. Within the water, the
molecules of detergent collect themselves in micelles and membranes,
little aggregates of molecules united by their hydrophobic tail (figure
12 B). When they meet dirt, these molecules surround the particles
and insert their tail in them. The hydrophilic heads attract the dirt
toward water and with the agitation of the liquid they contribute to
remove the dirt from the fabric (figure 12 D). The crown of hydrophilic
heads carries the particles of dirt in the water (figure 12 D), where
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they end up in suspension and then they are rinsed away. Hence, the
dirt water contains also greasy particles which have been emulsified.
For the same reason, the detergents aid the formation of emulsions.
The substances which lower the surface tension of a liquid are called
surfactants (from: surface-active agents). The lowering of the
surface tension of the water allows the formation of soapy membranes
(figure 12 C), foam and soap bubbles. Notice the special arrangement
of the surfactant molecules in these membranes.
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The phospholipids are molecules like surfactants, they also have a

hydrophilic head and this time two hydrophobic tails. These molecules
are the main components of the membranes of cells. In fact, usually
the membranes of cells are made up of two layers of phospholipids,
with the tails turned inward, in the attempt to avoid water. As we
know, the external membrane of a cell contains all the organelles and
the cytoplasm. Liposomes are empty cells which are manufactured by
some industries. They are microscopic vesicles or containers, formed
by the membrane alone. They are widely used in the pharmaceutical
and cosmetic fields because it is possible to insert chemicals inside
them. You can use liposomes to contain hydrophobic chemicals such
as greasy or oily substances so that they can be dispersed in an
aqueous medium by virtue of the hydrophilic properties of the
membrane of the liposomes.
http://cellbio.utmb.edu/cellbio/membrane_intro.htm Membrane
Structure and Function
http://ntri.tamuk.edu/cell/membranes.html Architecture of
membranes
Internet keywords: phospholipids membrane, cell membrane
1 - Comparison of the ability of different detergents. Try the
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efficacy of different detergents for glass or dishes. Soil some

microscope slides with the same type of fat. If you do not have
microscope slides, use glasses or even ceramic dishes. Clean all the
slides with a different detergent, rinse them well and dry them. You
can check the level of cleanliness by measuring the contact angle of
water drops placed on them. Another method is to measure the
reflected light by each slide in the same conditions of illumination by
means of an exposure meter: the cleaner slide reflects less light.
http://suncitysoap.com/chemistry4.html Understanding Soaps &

Detergents
http://www.kcpc.usyd.edu.au/discovery/9.5.5-
short/9.5.5_introsurfactants.html Introduction to Surfactants ***
http://www.ilpi.com/genchem/demo/tension/ Structure and
properties of the surfactants and experiment with the sulfur powder.
http://www.ngo.grida.no/reduce/german/klaus/developm/oekonet
/p2/p02a.htm Chemical Products in the Houshold
http://www.selah.wednet.edu/SOAR/SciProj2000/LaceyT.html Which
Window Cleaner Best Removes Various Substances? A Science Fair
http://www.cem.msu.edu/~reusch/OrgPage/VirtualText/lipids.htm
Lipids: Fatty Acids, Soaps and Detergents, Fats and Oils, Waxes,
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Phospholipids, Eicosonoids, Terpenes, Steroids, Lipid Soluble Vitamins

***
http://www.surfactants.net/ The Surfactants Virtual Library. The
most comprehensive and organized source for surfactant information
on the Internet.
Internet keywords: detergents, surfactants.
SOAP BUBBLES
As long as there has been soap, making soap bubbles has been an
amusement for children. Everybody has played with soap bubbles as a
child. A straw and a glass with soapy water is all that is needed to
amuse a child for hours. One child blows bubbles and others run after
them and play with or pop them. What astonishes the children is the
spherical and perfect shape of the bubbles, their colors, their
transparency, their lightness which competes only with that of the
butterflies and fairies. By means of thin membranes of soapy water, it
is possible to do interesting experiments and amusing games, such as
to blow bubbles of different sizes, concentric bubbles, helical bubbles,
"solids" supported by frames in metal wire, it is possible to observe
and to study the coloured interference figures on the membranes of
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soapy water, to obtain membranes so thin that they lose all color and
become invisible, to obtain membranes measuring some square
meters of surface and bubbles of some cube meters of volume, so
that you can to trap a friend. And then you will learn to blow cubic
bubbles... by using a square straw, of course! No, just kidding! :)
HOW DO THE SOAP BUBBLES FORM?

As Grownups, we pose questions like these: "How do soap bubbles
form? Why does soapy water produce foam while pure water does
not?". When water sprays from a tap in a small basin, you can see
bubbles form, but they burst very soon. This is due to the fact that
the surface tension of the normal water is high and it tends to draw
the water molecules into the main body of the water, to the point
where the thickness of the bubble wall is too thin to remain intact and
quickly bursts. Instead, the surface tension of the soapy water is
much lower: about a third of the pure water, so the molecules of the
bubble are less stressed and it can last longer. Soap and detergents
lower the surface tension of water and, as we have said, they are
called surfactants. As we have said in the paragraph on the soaps and
detergents, the molecules of surfactants have a hydrophilic head and
a hydrophobic tail. When these molecules are dissolved in water, they
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tend to collect on the surface with the tails outward, forming

continuous layers (figure 12 B). The membranes of soapy water are
made up by three layers: the external two are formed by surfactant
molecules and the internal layer is formed by soapy water (figure 12
C). These layers of surfactant molecules are very elastic and they
deform easily without breaking. They also slow the evaporation of the
water film and so extend the life of the bubbles.
RECIPES
Water is an important ingredient to our recipes. Usually, to produce
soap bubbles, people used a mixture of tap water and soap.
Unfortunately, the mineral salts which make hard water subtract a
part of soap with negative consequences on the formation of the
bubbles. In fact, soap reacts with the calcium and magnesium salts,
which are in the tap water, forming an insoluble precipitate which
subtracts surfactant molecules from the solution. Instead, the
detergents react with the mineral salts of the water producing soluble
compounds, so detergent are less influenced by the hardness of
water. If your tap water is soft, it is OK to use for bubbles. In any
case, you will obtain the best results with distilled water.
After the water, the most important ingredient is the base surfactant.
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There are a lot of surfactants which can be used as detergents and to

blow bubbles. Therefore, try some different brands of detergent until
you find the best one. Dawn and Joy brand liquid detergents for
dishes supplied good results, but try other products if you like.
The presence of water in a soapy film is important to make it last a

long time. As time goes by, a part of the water migrates by gravity
and reaches the bottom of the film or of the bubble and another part
evaporates. In this way, the membrane grows thin, weakens and in
the end bursts. To extend the life of bubbles, people add substances
which make the water more viscous, slowing its descent toward the
bottom. Other substances are added to slow the evaporation of the
water. Substances which have these effects are: sugar, honey,
glycerin, gelatin, arabic gum, viscous liquid soap. You will have best
results if you let the soapy solution rest for a couple of days, but if
you are impatient, you can use it immediately. A cold solution makes
longer lasting bubbles. For various bubble recipes, look at the links we
have put at the end of this section on bubbles.
44 of 98 6/16/17, 2:28 PM
1 - How to find
the basic
surfactant.
To find the main
component of your
recipe, the base
surfactant, obtain some
dishwashing detergents,
shampoo, bath soap,
etc. With water, make a
solution in the ratio of 1
to 10 for each
surfactant. In a place
without wind, blow a
bubble of about 7 cm in
diameter. Keep it on the
straw (figure 13) and
measure its duration.
Repeat the test 5 times
45 of 98 6/16/17, 2:28 PM
for each detergent so to

obtain a more reliable
mean value. Obviously,
the best detergent is the
one which produces
bubbles which last
longer.
Figure 13 - How to keep

the bubbles during the
test of duration.
2 - Adjusting the secondary ingredients. A second series of tests

will have the purpose of adjusting the recipe in its secondary
components, those destined to reduce the evaporation and the fluidity
of the water. Follow the same method as you did in point 1.
3 - Blow some bubbles. When the solution is ready, you will be

allowed to pass to the further experiments. In the meantime, blow
some bubbles and watch them fly, carried by the wind.
46 of 98 6/16/17, 2:28 PM
4 - How to make bigger bubbles. With some thick iron wire, make
a ring of about thirty cm diameter. Immerse it in bubble solution that
you have put in a small basin. Moving the ring quickly in the air, you
should be able to obtain quite large bubbles.
5 - Again on the force

of the surface tension.
Knot a heavy cotton thread
with a slipknot to the ring of
the experiment 4. After you
have wet the ring in the soapy
solution, the ring will be closed
by a film. If you burst the
membrane inside the loop, you
will see it take a circular shape
(figure 14). This happens
because of the surface tension
of the remaining part of the
soapy film.
47 of 98 6/16/17, 2:28 PM
6 - A support for bubbles. To

comfortably observe bubbles, it
is important they are steady.
With some iron wire, make
some rings on which to put the
bubbles. Leave a stem to each
ring so you can insert it into an
object or you can shape as a
pedestal. To avoid bursting the
bubbles you put on it, wet the
ring with bubble solution. Wood
or velvet can support bubbles
for a long time without bursting
them, but are harder to fashion
into a ring shape.
7 - Study the contact surface among bubbles. On a clean glass or

a rigid plastic sheet soaked with solution, place two bubbles in contact
each other. Observe the surface of contact. You will see the smaller
bubble of the two will tend to bulge into the bigger one. This happens
because of the internal pressure of the little bubble is higher than the
48 of 98 6/16/17, 2:28 PM
pressure of the large ones. This also means that two bubbles of equal
diameter have a flat contact surface. After having made some bubbles
in contact with each other, produce some foam and observe it.
Observe that sometimes the shapes of the foam bubbles are the same
as that of cells of biological tissues, in other cases the shapes of the
cells are different because they have to increase their surface of
contact or for other reasons. Note also that the crystals of metals
often have the same shape as the foam bubbles. After all, during the
solidification of a metal, they are deformable spheres very close each
other and which cannot leave empty spaces.
49 of 98 6/16/17, 2:28 PM
Figure 15 - Membranes on a Figure 16 - Membranes on a Figure 17

cubic frame. These cubic frame. The cubic central pyr
membranes do not arrange on bubble has been placed with a (tetrahed
the faces of the cube, but straw. in
they are in contact each
other.
8 - Solid figures made on suitable frames. With some frames

made with metal wire, you can create flat, helical films or with many
other forms. You can also create quite complex solids (figures 15, 16,
17, 18, 19, 20). To do this you have to dip a suitable frame into the
soapy solution. When you will have withdrawn it, you will see the
membranes. Usually, people expect these films to form on the faces
of the solid, but this does not happen because they tend to keep into
contact with each other and to form figures of minimum surface area.
Remember that soapy films tend to keep the shape of smallest
energy. So, if you will make a tube-shaped membrane, do not be
surprised if its diameter will reduce in the middle.
9 - Helical films. To obtain helical films (figure 20), make a helix

with a few coils made up of iron wire (like a normal spring), place a
50 of 98 6/16/17, 2:28 PM
piece of wire along the axis of the helix and solder it to the two
extremities of the helix.
10 - Regular polyhedral bubbles. What shape frames are necessary

to obtain central bubbles with the shape of an octahedron, a
dodecahedron, an icosahedron? It is possible fabricate them?
http://www.enchantedlearning.com/math/geometry/solids/
http://wwwalu.por.ulusiada.pt/21575200/
Internet keywords: regular polyhedra
You can bet your friends you are able to make cubic soap bubbles.
Obviously, they will not believe you. Then you can explain them that
this is possible to you by using a square straw. It is very probable
they will accept the bet. It will be easy for you to win it by making
your cubic bubble inside a cubic frame, as shown in figure 16. Before
blowing the bubble, crush the tip of a straw so to obtain a square
section. This is part of the bet, but you know that with a normal round
straw that the bubble will become cubic due to the frame, not the
straw.
51 of 98 6/16/17, 2:28 PM
Figure 20 - Helical film. Figure 21 - Frames on metal w
The figure 21 shows some frames of metal wire which can be made to
study the soap films and to measure the surface tension of liquids. To
build them, we have used galvanized iron wire, cut in segments which
52 of 98 6/16/17, 2:28 PM
then we have soldered with tin. You can also try plastic coating these
frames by dipping them into tool handle coating products which are
sold at hardware stores.
"Why are soap bubbles colored?". The membrane of the soap

bubbles are formed by three layers. The external two are both formed
by a layer of surfactant molecules with the polar head turned inward,
the inner layer is formed by soapy water (figure 12 C). The light which
crosses a soap film is in part reflected by the front surface of the
membrane and by the back one. The waves of light reflected emerge
out of phase, they sum algebraically (interference), giving rise to
variations of color. The emerging hue depends on the thickness of the
film. These colors are very fine and create beautiful shapes formed by
the zones of different color when turbulence is present within the film.
In fact, if you gently blow on a film, you can create magnificent
designs (figures 1, 22, 23, 24). Over time, due to evaporation or the
descent of the water toward the bottom, the thickness of the
membrane will have become very thin, the two reflections will fade
completely and the bubble will become black against a black
background: it will not show colors any more and will become
invisible. In that condition, the film will be also very unstable and near
53 of 98 6/16/17, 2:28 PM
bursting.
Figure 22 - The interference fringes which Figure 23 - By gently blo

form as the water flows down by gravity. As you can create beautiful
the film gets thin at the top it becomes black which can be observed a
because its thickness is less than the on the top the black zo
wavelength of the visible light.
54 of 98 6/16/17, 2:28 PM
11 - Colors and shapes of the figures of interference on soap

films. The soap membranes are well suited to observe the colors and
the turbulences which are created by light air currents. So, by means
of a ring on iron wire, make a soap film and examine its colors. Blow
lightly on the film to observe the turbulence on its surface (figures 23
and 24). To better see the colors of the membrane, it is worthwhile to
observe it against a black background and illuminate it with bright
white light. If you keep the frame vertical, you will see the colors
change as the film grows thinner. Usually, shortly before bursting, a
part of the film will become black. Here some other figures of
interference: figure 31, figure 32.
12 - To cross a membrane without bursting it. If you touch a film

with a dry finger, the membrane will burst. If you will wet the same
finger with the soapy solution, the film will not burst and you will be
able to penetrate it.
13 - Plays on the water. Make bubbles in a small basin of water.

Look for the conditions which allow to the bubbles to bounce or to
alight on the surface without adhere to it. Place a drop of oil on the
surface of the water, which will arrange itself on the surface as a
monomolecular layer, (eg. stearic acid) and repeat the test. Also an
55 of 98 6/16/17, 2:28 PM
oily hair can deposit a thin, oily layer on the water’s surface, when
slowly immersed in it.
http://www.minnetonka.k12.mn.us/science/lessonsk1/soap.html
Creating a Soap Bubble Company (how to get ready a quality soap
solution)***
http://www.scri.fsu.edu/~dennisl/CMS/activity/bubbles.html Bubbles
***
http://members.tripod.com/sharing_science/bubbles.html Bubble
explorations ***
http://www.exploratorium.edu/ronh/bubbles/bubbles.html Bubble
formulae, Bibliography, Internet resources ***
http://www.sme.org/memb/neweek/actsoap.htm Soap Bubbles
(recipes)
http://www.freeweb.pdq.net/headstrong/bubble.htm The bubbles
page
http://www.bubbles.org/ Bubblesphere ***
http://www.bubbles.org/html/questions/color.htm Why do bubbles
have color?
http://bubblemania.com/faq/ Bubblemania
http://wwwchem.csustan.edu/chem2000/Exp5/PURPOSE.HTM
56 of 98 6/16/17, 2:28 PM
Experiments on surface tension ***

http://chemmovies.unl.edu/chemistry/beckerdemos/BD028c.html
Soap Films in Action (movies)
http://more.abcnews.go.com/sections/science/DailyNews
/soapfilm981019.html Build Your Own Soap Tunnel (study of the
vortex on the soap films)
http://eduscapes.com/42explore/bubbl.htm Internet Resouces
http://www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/rtmss/1.101.html Soap
Film and Bubbles. Bibliography.
http://www.physics.ohio-state.edu/~brent/papers/General.pdf What
makes soap films stable?
Internet keywords: soap bubbles, blowing bubbles, soap films, soapy
water, bubble solution, soap bubbles formula / composition / recipe.
57 of 98 6/16/17, 2:28 PM
OSMOSIS
If you place two
solutions of
different
concentration side
by side, keeping
them separated
only by means of a
membrane, you will
see the level of the
more concentrated
solution increase
(figure 25). This
happens because
the two solutions
try to attain the
same concentration
by diffusion. The
membrane has to
58 of 98 6/16/17, 2:28 PM
be semipermeable,
that is it has to
allow the passage
of the solvent but
not of the solute.
The molecules of
the solvent have to
be smaller than
those of the
dissolved
substance. In
practice, this
condition is very
frequent given that
the molecules of
water are very
small. It is
necessary to
remember that it is
possible to make
solutions with other
59 of 98 6/16/17, 2:28 PM
liquids also.
Osmosis is the
tendency of the
system to reach the
same concentration
in both solutions. It
is a phenomenon of
great importance in
biology and which is
also the basis of the
function of the
kidney, of the
absorption of water
by plants and which
is used by
industries to
concentrate or to
purify solutions. In
fact, applying a
pressure on the
side of the more
60 of 98 6/16/17, 2:28 PM
concentrated
solution, it is
possible to reverse
the process and
cause the solvent to
pass to the less
concentrated
solution. This is the
process of the
reverse osmosis. It
is used also to
purify water, to
concentrate
solutions, etc.
In order to do experiments with osmosis, you need to obtain a

semipermeable membrane. For this purpose, you can use cellophane,
which is a thin transparent film, essentially made up of cellulose and
which is often used to pack wrap flowers and gifts. Sometimes, florists
also use a plastic which is very like cellophane, but, instead is
completely impermeable to the water and which is not suitable for
61 of 98 6/16/17, 2:28 PM
these experiments. How can you distinguish between these two

materials? Putting some water on cellophane, you will see it soften,
dilate and even the opposite side of the sheet will become moist. This
does not happen with the transparent plastic sheet. You can obtain
cellophane in a stationery shop. Unfortunately, this material is often
covered with a thin layer of water repellent nitrocellulose which
prevent the passage of the water. This layer can be removed by
immersing the cellophane in a solvent for varnish or perhaps in
acetone. Use caution because these solvents are inflammable and
toxic.
Another possible source of semipermeable membrane can also be

found in certain plastic bags. The plastic is made from starch and is
used to produce biodegradable plastic bags for recycling. In some
European cities, these plastic bags are used to collect organic wastes.
When touched, this plastic is flabby, quite elastic and near rubbery.
You can also try the membrane of a chicken egg and other
membranes you will find or you are able to fabricate.
Water flows slowly through the membrane. If you limit yourself to

closing the bottom of a tube, it will take days to see the level of the
inner liquid increase. To accelerate the flow, it is necessary to widen
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the surface of exchange. It would be necessary to have special flared

tubes, which are difficult to find. Instead, you can use a small funnel,
which is much easier to obtain.
1 - Diffusion by osmosis. For the first experiment, use distilled

water, some sugar, a semipermeable membrane, a beaker, and a
support for pipettes. Obtain a flared tube of glass or transparent
plastic. Or, as an alternative, a little transparent funnel. The internal
diameter of this tube has to be at least one cm. With a rubber band or
clamp, attach a piece of membrane on the flared bottom of the tube
and then pour the concentrated solution of sugar in the tube. Insert
the tube in a beaker and put water into it until you attain the same
level of the solution in the tube. After some hours, you should see the
level of the liquid in the tube is increased (figure 25). After some
time, the level will attain a maximum. If, instead of tap water, you will
use distilled water, the phenomenon will be more evident. To render
more visible the concentrated solution, you can add a drop of ink or
some watercolor. Why does the more concentrated solution rise? As
we said, there is a tendency of the two solutions in contact via a
semipermeable membrane to reach the same concentration. The more
concentrated solution absorbs solvent from the more diluted. In these
63 of 98 6/16/17, 2:28 PM
experiments, the level of the liquid in the tube increases, but not to
infinity. It goes up until the pressure of the liquid column attains the
equilibrium with the osmotic pressure. The equilibrium pressure
between a solution and its solvent is the osmotic pressure of that
solution.
2 - Osmotic pressure and density of the solution. Determine the

osmotic pressure of some solutions. Verify if it is proportional to the
amount of molecules per volume of the solution.
3 - When the dissolved particles are very small. If, instead of the
sugar, you will use salt, the osmotic pressure will result very low. This
happens because in water the salt dissociates itself into the Na+ and
Cl- ions, which are smaller than the molecules of water and they
easily pass through the semipermeable membrane.
4 - Osmotic pressure and microorganisms. Place under the

microscope a slide with a small drop of water rich in protists, then add
a pair of drops of distilled water. At the beginning, the protists will
swell and you will see their vacuoles work very hard in the attempt to
expel the excess water from their cytoplasm, then you will see their
cellule explode, pouring their organelles outward. The cilia of the
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mouth will continue to beat for long time, even if they are not
connected to the body any more.
You can obtain some devices for these experiments on osmosis in a

store that stocks laboratory supplies for chemistry and biology.
http://www.boreal.com/osmosis.htm Osmosis
http://www.science-projects.com/Osmosis.htm An Experiment on
Osmosis
http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/2001/09/15/stories
/13151108.htm Osmosis -a different experiment
http://www.purepro.net/kemflo/What-is-RO.htm What is... Reverse
Osmosis
Internet keywords: osmosis, semipermeable membrane.
INTRODUCTION TO THE COLLOIDAL SYSTEMS

Let us leave the surface phenomena to enter into the mysterious
world of the colloids. A first example of a colloid is gelatin, a strange
substance: neither liquid nor solid. It is very elastic and if deformed it
returns to it’s previous shape. Goofy, the friend of Mickey and Donald,
65 of 98 6/16/17, 2:28 PM
learned something about it when, in the Disney film: Mickey and the
Beanstalk, he was "walking" on a pudding of the Giant. The emulsion
of oil in water is another substance with unusual properties. Unusual
are also substances such as foams, aerosols, smokes and fogs, not to
mention the solid emulsions and foams. What do all these curious
substances have in common? That is what we will see before long.
These substances are called colloids and they are in some ways
related to the solutions and to the mixtures, even if they do not
belong to the former nor latter. To understand what colloids are, it is
necessary to know what solutions and mixtures are.
SOLUTIONS
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances.
When placed in water, many substances dissolve and are called
soluble, others do not dissolve and are called insoluble. Salt and sugar
easily dissolve in water. If instead you put sand in water, you can mix
for as long as you want, but you will not succeed in dissolving the
sand. In fact, sand is insoluble in water. In a solution, the material
present in greater quantity is defined solvent and that in smaller
quantity solute. What does it mean to say that a substance is soluble
66 of 98 6/16/17, 2:28 PM
in another? It means that the molecules of the solute separate each

other and they disperse among those of the solvent. Instead, the
insoluble substances keep themselves compact and their molecules do
not disperse into the solvent. As solvent, we have used the example
of water because many solids are soluble in water, but nearly every
liquid can be a solvent. And then, why we should limit ourselves to
the liquids? Let us generalize the concept of solvent and concede to all
substances, solid or liquid or gaseous the possibility to be a solvent.
At this point, even the solutes can belong to all of these three states
of matter. For example, some solid solutions are the metal alloys such
as steel (Fe+C), brass (Cu+Zn), bronze (Cu+Sn). Finally, all gases
are completely soluble among each other. Also common are solutions
of gases in liquids. For example, carbon dioxide is added to many
beverages to make them fizz. In the water of ponds, rivers and seas,
gases like oxygen, carbon dioxide and others go into solution in a
natural way. The presence of these gases in the water make possible
the life of the aquatic organisms.
The solubility of a substance is measured as the maximum amount, in

grams, which can be dissolved in 100 g of solvent. When the solute
does not dissolve any more, but a deposit is formed on the bottom,
67 of 98 6/16/17, 2:28 PM
the solution is defined saturated.
CATEGORIES OF SOLUTIONS
SOLUTE SOLVENT EXAMPLE
air (nitrogen,
Gas Gas
oxygen, etc.)
moist air (water
Liquid Gas
vapor in air)
atmospheric
Solid Gas
dust
CO2 in water
Gas Liquid (sparkling
water)
wine (water +
Liquid Liquid
alcohol)
marine water
Solid Liquid
(salt in water)
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gas in silicates
Gas Solid
(pumice stone)
dental alloys
Liquid Solid (mercury in
cadmium)
metal alloys
Solid Solid
(steel, bronze)
1 - Saturated solution. Determine the content of salt in a saturated

solution. In order to not waste too much salt, use only a little water.
2 - To grow crystals. Determining the density of sugar in a

saturated solution is not easy because sugar continues always to
dissolve. Anyway, make a heavy sugar solution and a saturated
solution of salt in water. Put a cotton thread in each of them and wait
some days for some crystals to grow. Describe the shape of these
crystals. If you like to grow crystals, it is possible to find packets of
salts specially chosen to this purpose. Also search the Internet with
the words: growing crystals.
3 - Where does sugar go? Put a beaker on a magnetic stirrer, insert
69 of 98 6/16/17, 2:28 PM
the stir bar and fill the container with water up to the top. Slowly, add
grains of sugar so they are dissolved by the stir bar as it rotates. Note
the amount of sugar you will have put into the water before it
overflows. Do the same thing with salt and then with sand. Compare
the results and explain the different behaviors.
4 - How to separate salt from sand? Solve this problem: A day, a

child who lived on the border of the desert was sent to buy some salt.
While he was coming back and he was playing with friends of his own,
the bag broke and the sand shed on the sand. For these people the
sand was important and costly, so that child would be scold by his
parents. How would have you done to recover the precious salt,
separating it from the sand?
MIXTURES
As we have seen, by mixing sugar with water, a solution is obtained.
If instead we mix sand into water, we obtain a mixture. Also by
mixing bits of coal and iron filings we obtain a mixture. With a pair of
thin tweezers it is possible to take away sand grains from the water or
pieces of coal from the filings, but it is not possible to take away
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singly molecules of sugar from the water because they are too much
small. Hence, what distinguishes a mixture from a solution? In a
mixture the particles are enough large to be separated by mechanical
means such as tweezers or sieves, in a solution this is not possible
because the particles which form it are so small that they cannot be
seen even with an electron microscope. To separate the components
of a solution it is necessary to use physical method like distillation.
So, mixtures are formed by quite big particles, solution are formed by
very small particles.
1 - A mixture. Make a mixture, for example by using sand and wood

sawdust. How could you quickly separate the two components?
2 - Sedimentation speed and size of the particles. As indicated in

the experiment on the analysis of the soil composition in the article on
the experiments on environmental education and biology, put some
water and a sample of earth in a glass or transparent plastic jar. Close
the pot and shake it until all the earth is dissolved. Place the jar at
rest and observe the different layers of materials. On the bottom,
there will be stones and gravel, then thick sand and fine sand. Silt will
require half an hour to be deposited, clay will demand 24 hours. Very
small particles will remain in suspension, some of them will deposit
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very slowly, the finest ones instead will never deposit. Some other
substances will have gone into solution. It seems the Etruscans
collected the very fine clay which deposited after some days to obtain
the black color of their earthenware.
3 - To separate particles according their grain size. If you want

to separate the thick sand from the finer sand, you can use a sieve. If
you want to clean sand from silt and clay, you can use flowing water.
With a plastic tube, make water flow into the container of the sand.
The water will carry away the smaller particles, while the larger ones
will remain in the container. This method exploits the different
sedimentation speeds to separate the particles of different grain size.
Usually, the sand destined to be put in aquariums is cleaned to avoid
water contamination. By using a sieve and with sedimentations and
cleanings, produce 100 g of thick sand, 100 g of thin sand, 100 g of
silt and 100 g of clay. Remove the water in excess and let all
components dry to obtain moist sands, soft silt and clay. Compare the
properties of these materials.
4 Observe under the microscope the finest particles. With a

microscope, try to measure the size of the particles of silt, clay and of
those which remain in suspension in water during your experiments of
72 of 98 6/16/17, 2:28 PM
sedimentation.
COLLOIDS
We have seen that in the solutions, the molecules of the solute
separate each other and disperse among those of the solvent. In the
mixtures instead, the molecules do not separate and the particles
remain compact. From the point of view of the sizes, solutions are
formed by very small particles (single molecules) and the mixtures by
quite large particles. In an intermediate position, between mixtures
and solutions, there are the colloids. They are dispersions of small
particles, but not molecule sized. What distinguishes mixtures from
colloids and from solutions is therefore the size of the particles
which form them. By convention, a colloid is a dispersion of particles
which size is comprised between 0.2 and 0.002 µm (a micrometer, or
micron, = 10-6 meters). If the particles are larger than 0.2 µm, we
have a mixture, if they are smaller than 0.002 µm, we have a
solution. In general, the components of a colloid are formed by small
aggregates of molecules, while the components of a solution are
single molecules. Anyway, if these molecules are large enough, as it is
the case of many macromolecules, their solution will give a colloid.
73 of 98 6/16/17, 2:28 PM
So, the criterion of distinction between colloids and solutions cannot

be the presence of single molecules, but as we were saying, the size
of the particles which form them.
MIXTURES COLLOIDS SOLUTIONS

mean
large
particles thin particles
particles
0.2 - 0.002 < 0.002 µm
> 0.2 µm
µm
According to the dispersing phase, colloids are distingued in gaseous,

liquid and solid suspensions. Gaseous suspensions, or aerosol, are
smokes and fogs. Smokes are suspensions of solid particles in a gas.
Fogs are suspensions of liquid particles in a gas. Sols, gels, emulsions,
foams are liquid suspensions. Oily rocks, pumice stones are solid
suspensions.
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TYPES OF COLLOIDS
DISPERSED DISPERSANT
NAME EXAMPLE
PHASE PHASE
Smoke -
Solid Gas Smoke
Aerosol
Fog -
Liquid Gas Fog
Aerosol
Paint,
Solid Liquid Sol, Gel
Gelatin
Liquid Liquid Emulsion Milk
Beer
Gas Liquid Foam
foam
Solid
Solid Solid Amethyst
suspension
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Solid
Liquid Solid Oily rocks
emulsion
Pumice
Gas Solid Solid foam
stone
The term colloid refers to substances with a glue-like consistency, in

which the dispersant phase is therefore liquid. However, do not forget
that even substances such as smokes and aerosols, in which the
dispersant phase is aeriform and which we can also call gaseous
suspensions, are colloids. Finally, even some solid substances, in
which the dispersant phase is solid and which we can also call solid
suspensions, are colloids too.
Colloids have unusual properties, for example gelatin. Colloidal

systems have a high ratio area/volume among the surface of the
particles and their volume. In other words, as in the colloids the
amount of dispersed particles is very large, their overall surface is
very large too and by consequence the interaction of the two phases
is important. For example, a cube of 1 cm a side has a surface area of
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6 cm2, the material of the same cube divided into little cubes of 0.002
µm of side, has a surface area of 3000 m2. Because of the wide
surface of contact between the two phases, often the colloids are
studied with the surface phenomena and the discipline which studies
them is called surface and colloid science.
SOL
A sol is a dispersion of very thin solid particles in a liquid. It has a
liquid consistency and resembles a true solution. An aqueous sol
appears clear, very similar to common water. Anyway, if you shine an
intense beam of light across it, a part of the light will be diffused from
the particles which are in suspension. These particles are very small,
but they are still enough large to obstruct the light and diffuse it. This
phenomenon is called Tyndall effect. You can observe it with sols, but
not with true solutions.
1 - Tyndall effect. In a transparent jar, put some clayey earth 1/4 of

the volume and water until attain 3/4 of the container. Close the jar
with its cap and shake until all the earth is "dissolved". Leave the pot
to rest for a day to allow the clay particles to settle. The liquid which
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is above the sediment should have become clear. Shining an intense

bundle of light through the jar, you should see the Tyndall effect. Do
the same thing with a glass of pure water and compare the results.
GEL
A gel is a dispersion of very thin solid particles in a liquid and it has a
gelatinous consistency. Increasing the concentration of the particles, a
sol can pass to the state of gel. On the contrary, by diluting a gel you
will obtain a sol. So, what makes a sol different from a gel is its fluid
or gelatinous consistency. Also the temperature can determine the
passage from sol to gel and vice versa. For example, broth gelatin is
gelatinous at room temperature, but it becomes liquid when it is
heated. Animal gelatin is a reversible gel because depending on the
temperature it can pass from gel to sol and vice versa The albumen of
eggs instead is not reversible because when heated it coagulates and
it does not come back to the state of sol. Silica gel absorbs moisture
and keeps its properties with broad concentrations of water. Because
its affinity for water it is used as dehumidifier. When left to rest, a sol
can spontaneously jell and come back to the state of sol simply by
mixing it (eg: aqueous suspensions of kaolin).
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1 - Making gelatin. Buy some dry gelatin. Dissolve it in warm water

and, with subsequent dilutions, determine what is the minimum
concentration of dry gelatin necessary to obtain a normal gelatin at
room temperature. Do not keep gelatins a long time because they
easily become cultures of bacteria. Store them in a refrigerator and,
after a day, throw them away.
2 - Reversibility of the gelatin. By means of the temperature,

make some gelatin pass from the gel to sol states and vice versa.
3 - Experiments with vegetable resin. Resins are gels and they

possess useful properties. Often, fruit-bearing plants produce
gelatinous spheroids which diameter can attain some centimeters.
Conifers are important producers of resins and often you can collect
drops of resin which hang from their trunk. You can also make an
incision on a trunk to obtain some resin. Canada Balsam is a very
important resin in optics and in microscopy. It is extracted from the
Abies balsamea, a conifer of North America and it is used to glue
lenses and to make permanent microscope slides. For their adhesive
properties, resins take part to the composition of paints. Collect resin
from trees, observe under the microscope the particles which are
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suspended in it. Dissolve the resin of a fruit-bearing tree in warm

water and try to obtain a glue. Dissolve the resin of a conifer in
turpentine and assess their adhesive properties.
4 - Experiments with polysaccharides. Polysaccharides are

resinous gums soluble in water. They are used in the fabrication of
cosmetics, paper and in a lot of other applications. Some
polysaccharides are edible and are added in creams, yogurts and in
other foods. You can obtain some polysaccharides and experiment
with their properties. In particular, add to them some water and check
the consistency, viscosity and adhesiveness of the substance you will
obtain.
Absolutely do not eat polysaccharides, do not inhale their
powders and do not use them in recipes for food. If eaten dry,
these substances will swell and risk obstruction of the digestive tract.
If inhaled, they will swell and risk obstruction of the respiratory
airways, causing dangerous problems in breathing. Do not use them
in food recipes, but only in experiments. Keep in mind that some
polysaccharides are not edible. When hydrated, these substances
become culture medium for bacteria, so use them for a short time and
then throw them away. An adult must be always present during these
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tests.
http://saps1.plantsci.cam.ac.uk/worksheets/ssheet22.htm Some
Gum Fun (experiments with polysaccharides).
http://food.orst.edu/gums/foegeding.html Hydrocolloids, Vegetable
Gums References.
http://class.fst.ohio-state.edu/FST605/lectures/lect20.html Gums
and stabilizers (formula and other information).
Internet keywords: polysaccharides, hydrocolloids, experiments,
recipes.
5 - Making photographic gelatin. Photographic gelatins have a

suspension of silver halide salts, which are sensitive to the light. When
they are still warm, these gelatins are spread on a transparent plastic
film to obtain a photographic film, or on a card to obtain paper for
photographic prints. As shown through the history of photography,
there are many methods to produce photosensitive surfaces, and
many of them do not use silver salts. In the Internet you can find
recipes to make photosensitive films and paper by many techniques.
These preparations require the use of substances and procedures
which can be dangerous. Read information on the caution needed.
Children must be guided by an adult who is expert in chemistry.
82 of 98 6/16/17, 2:28 PM
http://www.cheresources.com/photochem.shtml Chemistry of
Photography
http://www.astro.wisc.edu/~mukluk/misc.html Miscellaneous
Photographic Formulas and Information.
http://www.tri-esssciences.com/photography_books.htm
Photography books of recipes.
William Crawford; The Keepers of Light : A History and Working Guide
to Early Photographic Processes (a book).
Internet keywords: photographic gelatin recipe / formula,
photography sensitizing processes, photography chemistry.
EMULSIONS
An emulsion is a dispersion of an insoluble liquid in another liquid. For
instance, the oil is not soluble in water. If you pour some oil in a
container with water, it will float it and keeps separate from the
water. Instead, if you vigorously shake the container, you will obtain a
dispersion of small drops of oil in water, however these drops quickly
join together, so that in a short time nearly all the oil will return as
before. To make the emulsion more stable, before shaking the
container, add some detergent. The surfactant molecules will arrange
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on the surface of the oil drops with the heads outward. As these
heads have an electrical charge and as this charge is always the
same, the oil drops will repel each other and be unable to return to
the homogeneous layer as before. So, surfactants can help you to
obtain more stable emulsions. There are special surfactants for
emulsions, endowed of a higher capability to stabilize the oil drops
than the detergents. There are also emulsifying agents for alimentary
use such as lecithin and emulsifiers for industrial purposes which are
not edible. Butter is formed by small water drops suspended in fat.
Cheese and mayonnaise too are considered emulsions. A lot of creams
used both in pharmacy and in cosmetics are emulsions. Fuels
emulsified with water have been produced. Emulsified oils are used in
machine working to make it easier to cut metals with machine tools.
In fact, metal cutting can create an intense heat, which has to be
removed if you want to avoid burning the tools. The oil and water in
the cutting fluid help remove the heat and make it possible to cut
metals efficiently. Milk is another emulsion made up by small greasy
drops in an aqueous phase.
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1 - Stability
of the
emulsions.
Fill two plastic
bottles halfway
with water, then
put 5 cc (about a
spoonful) of
vegetable oil in
each. Only in
one of these
bottles, put 0.5
cc (about 20
drops) of liquid
detergent for
dishes. Close the
bottles and
shake them for a
couple of
85 of 98 6/16/17, 2:28 PM
minutes to
emulsify the oil,
then place them
on a table and
observe them.
The drops of oil
will try to
reassemble and
to surface. By
comparing the
two emulsions,
you will see that
the one with
detergent will be
much more
stable (figure
28). In fact,
even after a
month, the white
color of this
emulsion
86 of 98 6/16/17, 2:28 PM
indicates that
there is a great
deal of small oil
drops in the
liquid, while in
the other bottle
the liquid is
become nearly
transparent, this
is a sign that
near all the oil
drops have fused
together and
surfaced.
2 - Vinegar and
vegetable oil.
Using a kitchen
whisk, emulsify a
teaspoon of
vinegar with 125
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cc of peanut oil
or olive oil. The
emulsion will
result instable.
Figure 28 - The two emulsions of the experiment 1
after 24 hours of rest. In the right bottle, some
detergent has produced a more stable emulsion.
3 - Mayonnaise. To the ingredients of the test 2, add an egg yolk

and emulsify again. The emulsion will be much more stable. Add some
salt and if you want some pepper and you will have obtained a good
mayonnaise. If you prefer, you can replace the vinegar with lemon
juice. Why is the emulsion stable with the egg yolk? This is due to the
presence of lecithin in the egg yolk. Lecithin is a surfactant and the
molecules spread on the surface of the oil drops with the hydrophilic
head outward. As these heads are electrically charged, the oil drops
will repel and their merging is prevented. Lecithin is a phospholipid
and it has a structure like that of the phospholipids which form the
membranes of cells. Another well known lecithin and which you can
find on the market is soy lecithin.
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http://www.lecithin.com/info/p2.html What is lecithin?

Internet keywords: emulsions, mayonnaise recipe, lecithin, soy
lecithin, homemade butter, handmade butter, creams
FOAMS
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90 of 98 6/16/17, 2:28 PM
Foam is a dispersion of a gas in a liquid (liquid foams) or in a solid

(solid foams). Among the liquid foams, we have the ones produced by
soaps and detergents, and various foods such as wine, beer and many
others. Among the solid foams we have Pumice stone, earthenware,
sponges, expanded plastics like expanded polystyrene and expanded
polyurethane. By dispersing helium in a liquid which produced bubbles
with very thin walls and which then solidified, some researchers
succeeded in fabricating a solid foam lighter than air.
1 - Foam and shape of the bubbles in contact. With a drop of

liquid detergent in a small basin of water, make a foam. Observe the
shape of the bubbles which are in contact each other. With a
microscope, observe a thin section of elder pith and compare it with
the foam.
2 - Make a solid foam. Beat egg whites and some sugar, then cook
it so to obtain its solidification: you will have obtained a meringue,
just an edible solid foam.
http://www.halfbakery.com/idea/Develop_20a_20lighter-
than-air_20solid Develop a lighter-than-air solid (a discussion)
91 of 98 6/16/17, 2:28 PM
http://stardust.jpl.nasa.gov/tech/aerogel.html Aerogel, a foam with

surprising properties.
OTHER EXPERIMENTS WITH SURFACTANTS AND

COLLOIDS
1 - Who can guess more colloids? List the colloids you have in your
home or which you know by experience: (milk, mayonnaise, resin,
paint, ink, expanded polystyrene, cell cytoplasm, blood serum, etc.).
2 - A half-solid fluid. Put in a cup four spoons of corn starch. Add

some water until you have obtained a creamy substance. While
mixing, you will notice that this substance has an odd property: if you
slowly mix it, it behaves like a liquid, but if you try to mix it fast, it
seems solid. By quickly lifting it on a side, you will be also able to
remove this cream from the cup, but you will have some difficulties in
keeping it in your hands because, even if it moves slowly, it will
escape from all sides like a liquid. Liquids which change viscosity with
the mixing speed are called dilatant fluids. Also wet sand behaves as
dilatant fluid. Sold in the US as a child’s toy under the name of Gak or
92 of 98 6/16/17, 2:28 PM
Goo, you can make your own by dissolving 1/2 cup of white glue with
1/2 cup of water, then adding 3 tablespoons of Borax, while stirring
well. You will obtain a substance which is apparently solid, but which
loses its shape within some minutes, becoming like a liquid puddle...
which however you will able to lift it as if it was a carpet.
ATOMIZER FOR AEROSOL

How do atomizers work? There are many models of atomizers or of
sprayers like those of pressurized spray paint cans, or those provided
with a small pump that you press with a finger, those that work by
mean of a rubber syringe or, for industrial uses, by a compressor.
93 of 98 6/16/17, 2:28 PM
1 - Anato
atomizer
Disassembl
bottle. Oft
breaks so,
them brok
try to unde
not work a
repair it.
http://www
/question67
spray bottle
2 - Build
build a sm
two thin str
shown in fi
of the horiz
plug with a
diameter.
94 of 98 6/16/17, 2:28 PM
straw, mo
with water
force in th
The air jet
the hole w
low pressur
can which
water up th
away atom
an air jet,
rubber syr
type of at
perfumes,
also to hum
house plan
INTERNET RESOURCES
http://www.encyclopedia.com/printablenew/02932.html A short
introduction to the colloids.
95 of 98 6/16/17, 2:28 PM
http://dwb.unl.edu/Teacher/NSF/C01/C01Content.html A lot of
experiments on water, solutions, etc.
http://www.eduplace.com/science/profdev/handbook/solutions.html
Recipes: Solutions and Materials
http://www2.ncsu.edu/ncsu/pams/science_house/learn/CountertopChem
/index.html The Science House. Also experiments on colloids and surface
tension.
http://www.synthashield.net/vault/colloids.html What are Colloids &
Colloidal Suspension? Definition and history of the colloids.
http://www.acs.ucalgary.ca/~schramm/ Laurie's Colloid & Interface
Science Page. A lot of useful information and a good bibliography.
http://www.webcrawler.com/education/science_and_nature/chemistry
/disciplines/ Interesting links of chemistry and polymers.
http://www.ch.kcl.ac.uk/kclchem/staff/arr/gloss.htm Hypertext Guide to
Terms in Colloid and Polymer Science
http://www.solgel.com/educational/glossary.htm Terms and words
frequently used in the Sol-Gel area.
http://www.luxurylane.com/thelibrary/index.htm Toiletries Listservice.
Making your own Lotions, Creams, Soaps, Personal Care Products, and
related subjects. Recipes to make cosmetic products.
http://alex.edfac.usyd.edu.au/methods/science/studentwork
/Lifestyle_Chemistry.html Lifestyle Chemistry
Google, Excite, Yahoo With these or other search engines, look for these
96 of 98 6/16/17, 2:28 PM
terms: colloids, colloidal systems, solutions, mixtures, sol, gel, gelatin,

emulsion, foam. You will find a deal of interesting information.
CONCLUSION
Surface phenomena and colloids concern many objects, products and
events of our everyday life, which are not immediately explainable
with the physics we usually study at school. Having introduced some
principles, and suggested some experiments in this field which until
now may have been quite mysterious seemed to us useful and
important. Not only, but you have also noticed how fascinating these
topics are and how amusing is to do laboratory activities with them.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
http://surfactants.net/bookstore/ Books on surfactants and colloids.
R. Aveyard, D. A. Haidon: "An Introduction to the Principles of Surface
Chemistry", Cambridge Chemistry Texts
C. C. Miller, P. Neogi: "Interfacial Phenomena", Marcel Dekker inc.,
N.Y. (1985).
97 of 98 6/16/17, 2:28 PM
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Experiments on Surface Phenomena and Colloids http://www.funsci.com/fun3_en/exper2/exper2.

Giorgio Carboni, march 2002

As the explanations are short, we have often supplied links to Internet

WARNING: Some of these experiments can be dangerous. When

Have a good time!

INTRODUCTION TO SURFACE PHENOMENA

way to make it easier to

2 - Make sulfur powder sink. Sprinkle some sulfur powder over a

hydrophobic enough to float on the water. Add a drop of detergent

5 - Measuring the surface tension. In order to measure the surface

experiment, the balance should have an accuracy of a hundredth of a

6 - Other method to measure the surface tension. To measure

http://www.tensiometry.com/STMethods.htm Other methods to

7 - With distilled water, verify the good working order of your

10 - Relationship between the weight of the drops and the

better precision, calculate the mean of a series of measures. Verify if

zone of a liquid to another, there will be established a flow from the

http://teachers.net/lessons/posts/224.html Surface tension on coins

1 - Measuring the contact angle. Place a drop of a liquid on a

2 - Prominent drops, flat drops. Lay a water drop on a dirty glass

3 - Misted plate. Breathe on a glass plate which has been washed,

By studying plants, a German scientist discovered a method to keep

1 - The rise of water along a capillary. Immerse a capillary in a

2 - Effect of the surfactants. Add a few drops of detergent to the

3 - Effect of the diameter of the capillary. With a tube of glass

5 - An emergency plant watering system. It is summer and you

SOAPS AND DETERGENTS

The phospholipids are molecules like surfactants, they also have a

1 - Comparison of the ability of different detergents. Try the

efficacy of different detergents for glass or dishes. Soil some

http://suncitysoap.com/chemistry4.html Understanding Soaps &

Phospholipids, Eicosonoids, Terpenes, Steroids, Lipid Soluble Vitamins

HOW DO THE SOAP BUBBLES FORM?

tend to collect on the surface with the tails outward, forming

There are a lot of surfactants which can be used as detergents and to

The presence of water in a soapy film is important to make it last a

for each detergent so to

Figure 13 - How to keep

2 - Adjusting the secondary ingredients. A second series of tests

3 - Blow some bubbles. When the solution is ready, you will be

5 - Again on the force

6 - A support for bubbles. To

7 - Study the contact surface among bubbles. On a clean glass or

Figure 15 - Membranes on a Figure 16 - Membranes on a Figure 17

8 - Solid figures made on suitable frames. With some frames

9 - Helical films. To obtain helical films (figure 20), make a helix

10 - Regular polyhedral bubbles. What shape frames are necessary

Figure 20 - Helical film. Figure 21 - Frames on metal w

"Why are soap bubbles colored?". The membrane of the soap

Figure 22 - The interference fringes which Figure 23 - By gently blo

11 - Colors and shapes of the figures of interference on soap

12 - To cross a membrane without bursting it. If you touch a film

13 - Plays on the water. Make bubbles in a small basin of water.

Experiments on surface tension ***

In order to do experiments with osmosis, you need to obtain a

these experiments. How can you distinguish between these two

Another possible source of semipermeable membrane can also be

Water flows slowly through the membrane. If you limit yourself to