Programming

Learn The Fundamentals Of Computer Programming Languages

By: Marc Rawen

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Introduction

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Chapter 1: An Introduction To Programming

Chapter 2: Go Old School With C And C++

Chapter 3: Enjoy The Versatility Of Java

Chapter 4: Build The Web With JavaScript

Chapter 5: Learn The Incredible Language Of Python

Chapter 6: Enjoy The Ease Of Ruby

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Introduction
Since you have bought this book, I must say, ‘Welcome to the wonderful world of
programming!’ You see, programming is not just an activity but an entire world on its and by
learning a language, you will be taking your first steps into this brave new world. After all,
computers and computing technologies are everywhere, and a programming language is a
foundation on which all of them are made possible.

Now, you may be interested in learning a programming language for a career in one of the
many tech careers or simply as a hobby. Whatever be your reason, the fact is that you need
to choose the right programming language to start with. You should learn some of the
easiest programming languages to build up a strong base before proceeding further.

As such, this book deals with some of the best programming languages that a beginner
should learn first before moving on to the harder ones. In this book, you will be learning the
basics of Java, C, C++, Python, JavaScript and Ruby. You will certainly be discovering the
specialties of this language and the areas they excel in. At the same time, you will be getting
a comprehensive introduction to them so that you can jump in and start learning the
language.

Before proceeding, you should remember that programming, even in the easy languages, can
be difficult for the beginner. As such, you need to be patient and be ready to put in some
effort so that you can succeed. As you learn, you will start finding it easier and finally make
your own unique programs.

Let’s us now start on the journey of programming.

Chapter 1: An Introduction To Programming
Before you start learning a particular language, you should have a proper understanding of
programming. The absolute basics of programming are a must. It will help you in
understanding the fundamentals of any language better.

Binary Numbers
Computers and nearly all computer based devices use the binary numeral system in their
functioning. This system comprises of only two numbers, 1 and 0. Each of them is referred to
as a bit. All computer programs can be simplified down to this system. In fact, the binary
system has a key role in how computers store information and data of all kinds.

At the fundamental level, computers simply switch from 1 to 0 for all of their functions, no
matter how simple or complex. Any data, including text and images, are stored in the
computer in the form of a series of 1s and 0s. You see, computers are electrical circuits. In a
circuit, an electrical current either flows in a specific line or it does. Therefore, the state can
be defined as either a 1 or a 0. In other words, it is a binary situation.

Once you understand this concept, you will realize why the binary system is such basic
computers. In all computers programs and situations, a problem can always be simplified
down to a binary choice. As such, all computers process information using the binary system.

What is a Program?
Let us first analyze the function of a computer. Its primary function is to solve a problem.
Now, how does it solve it? It does so with the help of a program. Computer programs are
sequences of instructions which perform a specific task when they are executed by the
computer.

No matter what the computer is, it will remain completely useless it has the right set of
programs. If you are reading this book on a computer-based device, it is only because the
device has a program that allows it do so.

What is a Programming Language?

As the name suggests, a programming language is a specialized language that is used for
programming.
Now, there is a native programming language that all computers have and understand. This
is referred to as machine code. Unfortunately, machine code can be extremely difficult for
people to understand. Among other things, machine code is nearly always expressed in the
binary system. Moreover, the machine code is unique to specific computer architecture. As a
result, it is possible for two computers to use two variants of machine code.

Therefore, you need some way to communicate with the computers. This is why other
programming languages exist. They act as an interface between people and the computer.
With them, programs can be expressed in languages which can be understood by people
easily. At the same time, the language will be common to different computer architectures.
More importantly, the programs can be translated to machine code easily.

To make sure that this happens, a computer has to interpret or compile the program written
in a programming language so that the program is executed. You need to understand
compilation and interpretation with respect to computer programming.

For a compiled program, a complier has to be used so that the program can be translated
into machine code for the computer to use. However, the source code will not be run by the
computer in the case of an interpreted program. Instead, an interpreter reads each line of
the program as it is running and modifies it into the machine code. Once modified, the
computer executes that line of the program.

Programming languages can use either one of these approaches or both. Each of them has
its own advantages when it comes to programming and software development. Generally,
compiled programs can take longer to develop, but they can run faster. After all, the
computer will execute a program that has already been translated. Interpreted programs
take longer to run as they need to be translated every time they are executed. However,
they can be written faster as the languages are generally simpler. At the same time, the
entire program will not to be compiled after every modification or bug test.

Tips for Programming

When you are programming, you will be learning a lot of new things. As such, things can get
confusing very quickly unless you can keep a track. In many cases, learners even forget a few
basic principles about programming. Remember these details to ensure that you don’t feel
that you are getting in way over your head.

• When you are trying to develop a program, you should ensure that it can fulfill the need
for which it is being created in the first place.
• You should also make sure that your program can be easily used by other people.
• You must be ready to invest a significant amount of time while learning programming.
• On the other hand, you need to make sure that your program can be understood,
improved and fixed in a short period of time.
• Before starting a program, check out the other programs that are similar to what you
want to create. Understand those programs and find out what their strong and weak points
are. You should think of ways through which the program can be improved.
• You need to plan what you want your program to be capable of before you start writing
it. You can create a flowchart of the functions and features of the program beforehand.
• If possible, try to discover some good source code for programs that are similar to yours.
Make sure of the quality of the code.
• When writing a program, you need to maximize the functionality while decreasing the
complexity. This is the way you create a truly effective program.
• You should develop your program in such a way that it is possible to understand what is
happening by simply taking a look at the source code.
• You should add comments whenever you are attempting the complicated of the
program. This can be helpful for you in the long run.
• When defining variables, you must always use names that are easily understood and
simple. This helps you to keep track of them and the functions that they will be used in.

You should now have an idea of what programming is like. Now, it is time to select which
programming language you should try out.
Chapter 2: Go Old School With C And C++
Both C and C++ have a rich history as programming languages. C was developed in the early
1970s, and it has gone from strength to strength while C++ came about later in the 1980s.

You need to remember that both of these languages have been present in the early days of
computer programming. As such, they are considered among the most foundational
programming languages in the world. Therefore, you are sure to benefit greatly by learning
them even if you do not use them later. In fact, learning them is like gaining an invaluable
insight into the very beginnings of computer programming.

There are advantages and disadvantages to each language certainly. Nonetheless, you will
gain a better understanding of programming in general. In fact, you may even find it easier
to start learning other programming languages such as Java. After all, the features of C and
C++ have served as an inspiration for quite a few languages.

Of course, there is a question of choice between C and C++. Now, C is the older of the two
and C++ is considered to be a subset of the earlier language. C++ is also considered to be the
easier of the two by many programmers. On the other hand, knowledge of C can prove to be
helpful if you are hoping to become a professional programmer. Nonetheless, it is quite
possible to learn C after learning C++ and vice versa.

The Design of C
C is a procedural programming language, and it was designed so as to be compiled with a
relatively straightforward compiler. Its design also provides language constructs that can be
mapped efficiently to machine instructions. The runtime support required is also minimal.
These features enabled C to become useful for a variety of applications which had to be
coded with assembly language previously.

In spite of the low-level capabilities of C, this programming language was meant to

encourage programming on a cross-platform level. It is possible to compile a C program for a
range of operating systems and computer platforms along as it is portably written and is
standards-compliant.

A Simple Program in C
In order to illustrate the programming language of C, it helps if you have an example to look
at. Here is a simple ‘Hello World’ program written in this language.
#include <stdio.h>

int main ()
{
Printf ("Hello world\n");
Return 0;
}

To better understand what is happening in the program, it helps to break it up into different
sections and tackle them one by one.

#include<stdio.h>
This code tells the program to include a file named ‘stdio.h’ which stands for Standard
Input/ Output header file. With it, it is possible to use specific commands for input or output
in the program. In this example, it allows us to output a message and print it on the screen.

Int main ()
The int is known as the return value, and it is of the type integer in this example. The next
part is the main () which is the main function. Every program in C has to have only one main
function, and it is also the starting point for all programs.

Printf (“Hello World\n”);

The printf command is used when things need to be printed on the screen which is ‘Hello
World’ in this program. The data which is going to be printed have to place inside round
brackets. In this case, ‘Hello World’ is placed inside inverted commas as it is a string and
strings have to be placed inside inverted commas. The last part of the command is \n and it
is known as an escape sequence. The \n symbolizes a newline character, and it allows the
next output to be printed on the next line. There are other kinds of escape sequences which
you will learn during C programming.

Return 0;
In the second line of the program, ‘int main ()’ was written to denote that the main function
has to return an integer. By using the ‘return 0’ command, the value null will be returned to
the operating system. By returning a zero, you are simply telling the OS that no errors
occurred when running the program.
Based on this example, there are a few things you should know about programming in this
language.

• All programs written should have a single main function.

• The execution of the program will always start from the main function.
• The execution of the program will always start at the opening brace of the function and
stop at the closing brace. Braces can be used to group together statements.
• Typically, all statements are written in lowercase letters in C.
• Uppercase letters are reserved for messages, output strings, and symbolic names
• You must declare a variable with the right data type before using it.
• All statements in C have to end with a semicolon.

Data Types in C
In C, you will find a standard set of fundamental data types. Due to their simplicity, they are
often referred to as primitive data types. However, it is possible to develop a range of
complex data structures from them. There are a total of four basic data types:
• Character - char
• Integer - int
• Floating-point - float
• double floating-point - double

The actual range and size of the data types may vary among compiles and processor types. It
is possible to modify the behavior of the variable type to which they are applied with the
help of data type qualifiers. There are a few qualifiers in C.

Size qualifiers can change the size of the data type. Two size qualifiers are present in C. They
are ‘short’ and ‘long’. They simply change the size of the declared variable.

Sign qualifiers determine what kind of numbers that the variable can hold. The ‘signed’
qualifier denotes that the variable can contain positive as well as negative numbers.
However, an ‘unsigned’ variable can only contain positive numbers. It is not necessary to
declare a variable assigned as variables are signed by default. These qualifiers can be applied
to the char and int data types.
The constant qualifier is used to declare that the value of an identifier will remain
unchanged in the program. In other words, its value is constant. The keyword for this
qualifier is ‘const’. If you want the value of a variable to be changed by external sources, you
can declare it to be ‘volatile’. This is another variable that you should become familiar with.

Variables
As you may know, variables are a specific location in the memory where data is stored by a
program. The size of the memory block depends on the type of the variable. For identifying
the memory block, you need to assign a unique name to each variable. Before variables can
be used, they need to be declared with their data type and name. The syntax for variable
declaration in C is given below.

[Storage-class] type data variable name [= initial value];

You do not have to define the initial value or the storage class for the variable if they are not
required. It is possible to declare multiple variables at the same time as long as you want
them to have the same storage class and data type. The syntax to do so is given below.

[Storage-class] type data variable name [= initial value] variable [= initial value];

Statements
In C, statements allow you to control the flow of the execution of your program. The C
programming language offers you a variety of statements. Some of the most commonly used
statements are given below.
• If statement
• go to statement
• switch statement
• while statement
• do-while statement
• For statement
As you proceed with programming in C, you will come across many other concepts such as
input and output functions, arrays, structure, pointers and so on. Once you know about
them, you can easily jump into other programming languages such as C++ and Java.
 
Chapter 3: Enjoy The Versatility Of Java
Java is one of the most influential programming languages in the world. It also remained
popular and pervasive in the computing world. You can discover Java being used on all kinds
of platforms, from the web to operating systems and even devices. You will find Java to be
filled with features. As a programming language, it is class based and object oriented. It has
been designed to be portable so that you can work on it on a wide variety of platforms. This
is why it is still popular all over the world even two decades after its initial release.

On the other hand, Java can be difficult to understand at times and hard to program
efficiently and effectively. However, its popularity means that you will not lack for resources
to help you understand or avenues to explore as a programmer. Another benefit of learning
Java is that it forces you to think analytically and logically. In other words, you will start
thinking like a programmer. You can get a better understanding of how computers process
information as well. The core concepts and fundamentals that you learn in Java will prove to
be useful when you start learning other programming languages.

The Features of Java

Java was originally developed in 1991 by Sun Microsystems Inc. Now, it is maintained by
Oracle Corporation who acquired Sun Microsystems in 2009. Its popularity hinges on its
excellent features.

• Platform Independence: Unlike some other programming languages, Java is platform

independent. As a result, you can run Java programs on all platforms no matter which
platform you compiled them on.
• Object Oriented: While Java is an object oriented programming language, it lacks some
complex features such as multiple inheritances, operator overloading, and explicit memory
allocation. As a result, it is a simple language to learn.
• Strong Language: Mishandled runtime errors and memory management are two of the
main issues that result in program failures. In Java, these issues can be efficiently taken care
of. Exception handling procedures can resolve mishandled runtime errors while garbage
collection can take care of memory management mistakes.
• Security: When writing Java programs, all codes will remain confined inside the Java
Runtime Environment. As a result, unauthorized access to the system resources is not
granted.
• Multithreading: Due to its support for multithreading, Java allows your program to
perform different tasks at the same time.

A Simple Program in Java

To gain a better understanding of what Java is like, the following example will be of help.
This is a Hello World program, a simple program that is often used for illustrating the basics
of a programming language. You will already have come across such an example in the
chapter on C and C++.

Public class Main {

Public static void main (String [] args) {
System.out.println ("Hello, World!");
}
}

Now, let us examining each section of the program to understand what the functions and
keywords are and what they do.

Public class Main {

This is the first line of the program, and it defines a class called Main. If you want a line of
code to run in a Java program, you have to place it inside a class. Here the class Main is
declared. It has been defined as public. Therefore, other classes can access it. You should
also remember that a public class must be declared inside a file which has the same name. In
this case, the name of the file should be Main.java. If you do not do so, you will get an error
during compilation.

Public static void main (String [] args) {

This is the starting point of the Java program. It is necessary for the main method to have
the exact signature shown so that the program can be run. Here are a few of the keywords
that you need to take a look into. You are already familiar with public, and the others will be
discussed shortly. ‘Main’ is, of course, the name of the method.

System.out.println ("Hello, World!");

The system is a predefined class in Java, and it contains some variables and methods which
are useful while programming. The next keyword is out, and it is a static variable from
System. It is representative of the program output. PrintIn is a method found inside out and
it is used for printing a line.

Data types and Variables in Java

In Java, there are three kinds of variables and several data types. Understanding them is vital
when you want to write programs in this language.
Data Types
There are two kinds of data types in Java, primitive and non-primitive. Primitive data types
are predefined and provided by Java. Some examples of these in Java include Boolean, char,
int, long, short and float. On the other hand, non-primitive data types are not defined by
Java. Instead, they will be created by you, the programmer. They refer to a memory location
which is why they are sometimes known as reference variables. String and array are some of
the non-primitive data types.

Variables
In Java, there are three kinds of variables that you can use for your programs. The type
depends on how you declare the variable. Local variables are those which are declared
inside a method. On the other hand, instance variables are defined outside the method but
inside the class. Static variables are simply those variables that are declared with the static
keyword, and they cannot be local variables. You will learn about these uses when you start
programming in Java in earnest.

As with other programming languages, you need to declare a variable before it can be used.
The basic syntax for declaring a variable in Java is given below.

Data type variable [= value];

You can declare multiple variables of the same datatype in a single statement. You just need
to use a comma to separate them.

In Java, you need to take care when you are declaring variables as there are rules in place for
it. The names for variables are case-sensitive. Therefore, ‘Hi’ and ‘hi’ will be considered as
two separate variables. In fact, it is a good practice to avoid starting variable names with
capitals as such a format is usually applied to class names. You can use the ‘$’ and ‘_’ signs
but use them intelligently. Whitespace is not allowed in variable names, and you cannot
start a name with a number. Finally, you cannot use a reserved word or keyword as a
variable name.

Loops and Conditional Statements

In a program, statements and lines of codes are executed in a sequential manner. However,
it is possible to create complex execution paths to make certain programs and functions
possible. This is achieved by means of different control structures such as conditional
statements and loops.
Loops
A loop statement is used when a block of code needs to be executed multiple times. There
are different kinds of loop statements available in Java for specific situations. They are listed
as follows.

• While loop: This will cause a group of statements to be repeated as long as a given
condition remains true. Once the condition becomes false, the loop will no longer be
executed. The condition will be tested before the loop is executed.
• Do-While loop: This loop works in a similar manner to the while loop. However, it will
check the condition after the code in the loop has been executed.
• For loop: Here, a block of code will be executed a set number of times. It allows the code
which manages the variable for the loop to be shortened.

Conditional Statements
These are actually structures that are accompanied by one or multiple conditions. Those
conditions are evaluated by the program and the statements executed according to the
result of the evaluation. If the condition is true, a specific statement or set of statements will
be executed. If false, another set of statements will be executed. In other words, these
structures allow the program to make decisions. Java offers a few kinds of conditional
structures to be used.

• If statement: This contains a Boolean expression along with the statements that are to be
executed when the condition is true.
• If else statement: This is a regular if statement used alongside an else statement. If the
condition is false, the statements listed under the else statement will be executed. The code
under the if statement is executed when it returns true.
• Nested if statements: This is a special use of the if statement. It is possible to nest if
statements inside one another. It is also applicable for if else statements.
• Switch statement: This statement used to test a variable for equality against a specified
list of values. Each value will have a statement or block of code that will be executed when
the value of the variable matches it.

These are some of the basics that you should be familiar with when you are learning how to
develop programs using the Java language. As mentioned earlier, Java is an excellent
stepping stone to the world of programming. Once learned, you will find it easier to learn
other languages.
 
Chapter 4: Build The Web With JavaScript
First of all, you should confuse JavaScript with Java. They are completely separate
programming languages with no links to each other. It was originally developed in the 90s.
JavaScript is one of the most necessary technologies in the development of the web as it is in
use today. However, this programming language is also used in places other than a web
browser such as connected services and applications.

As a programming language, JavaScript is dynamic. As a result, you have the flexibility to

utilize an object-oriented programming approach or imperative and functional ones
although the language is mainly object oriented. If you are already familiar with C, you will
find JavaScript easier as much of the syntax is derived from the earlier programming
language. In fact, it is quite easy to pick up this language. At the same time, knowledge of
JavaScript can make it easier to learn Java and C.

Moreover, it is becoming very popular these days. If you are planning to become a
professional coder or build things for the internet, JavaScript is one of the best languages to
start with. You will be able to start building web programs quickly on learning this language.

The Features of JavaScript

JavaScript is capable of adding a variety of beautiful effects to a web page among other
things. When you are learning this programming language, it helps to understand what its
features are. Here are some of the most important ones.

Browser Support
JavaScript has been accepted by all browsers as a standard scripting language. As a result,
there is no need to install any plug-in to start using JavaScript in your browser, unlike Flash.
More importantly, browsers provide integrated support to this language.

Client Side and Server Side Together

JavaScript can access the Document object model of a browser. As a result, it is possible to
modify the structure of the WebPages at runtime. As a result, you can use this language for
the addition of a variety of effects to the WebPages. At the same time, it is possible to use it
on the server side. One such use is the creation of web scripts.

Scripting vs. Programming with JavaScript

JavaScript is often referred to as a scripting language because that is exactly what it is. It is
not exactly a programming language per se. After all, the web browser does a lot of the work
involved in the program. Since the browser does the actual work, it is possible to make
changes by writing a few lines of code, which is relatively easier. This is why JavaScript is
considered to be an easy language for beginners.

Nonetheless, there are some complicated aspects of this language. Even though it is
employed as a scripting language, JavaScript is a thorough programming language. You can
be certain write complex programs with it. Of course, this is rarely required when you are
creating WebPages.

Writing a Simple Program in JavaScript

To get a better idea of JavaScript as a language, you should start writing your very first
program in. The staple ‘Hello World’ example will be used in this case as well. The good
thing is that it is very easy to write this program in JavaScript.

Before you can start, you will need to fulfill some basic requirements. One advantage of
JavaScript is that it can be easily interpreted by the browser itself. As a result, you do not
require any additional software or compilers for writing programs in this language. The only
things you need are given below.

• Text Editor: You can use Notepad for writing the program. However, you should consider
getting Notepad++ which is an invaluable text editor for programmers. You can get this
application for free.
• Web Browser: You can choose any browser that you are comfortable with as all of them
support JavaScript.

There is one more thing you need to do before you write the actual program and that is to
create the HTML Framework. Generally, JavaScript programs will be embedded in the web
page. In other words, they are written alongside the HTML. However, it is possible to include
the programs externally. As such, a simply HTML file will have to be created for including the
JavaScript.

To do so, open the text editor of your choice and type the following lines in the file.

<! DOCTYPE HTML>

<Html>
<Head>
<Title>JavaScript Hello World</title>
</head>
<Body>
<h1>JavaScript Hello World Example</h1>
</body>
</html>

Once done, you can save this file with a name of your choice but make sure that the file type
has been designated as an HTML file. That means the file’s extension should be .html and
nothing else. You now have the basic template ready.

As such, you can insert the JavaScript code into the file now. Open it up and add the
following lines to it. Make sure that they have been mentioned after the <h1> tag.

<Script>
<alert (“Hello World!”)
<Script>

Save the file and your JavaScript program is finally ready. You can now use your web browser
to run the program. Open the file in the web browser and you will see the message, ‘Hello
World!’ being displayed.

Understanding the Syntax in JavaScript

Like all programming languages, JavaScript has its own syntax that you need to follow when
writing code with it. Here are some of the most important parts of the JavaScript syntax.

<Script>
When you want to implement statements in JavaScript, you need to apply the above tag. All
statements have to be placed between <script> and </script> in a web page for them to be
executed. It is possible to place the <script> tags with the JavaScript code anywhere you
want in a web page. However, it is a good practice to place them inside the <head> tags. The
function of the <script> tag is to alert the browser to ensure that all the text between those
tags is interpreted as a script. There are two important attributes to the <script> tag.
• Language: The language attribute will specify which scripting language is being used.
Generally, the value of this attribute is JavaScript. On the other hand, the latest versions of
HTML and XHTML have made it unnecessary to use this attribute.
• Type: Nowadays, the type attribute is recommended when you wish to mention which
scripting language is being used. You should set its value to ‘text/JavaScript’.

Line Breaks and Whitespace

Unlike other programming languages, JavaScript does not pay attention to spaces, newlines,
and tabs in its programs. Since they are ignored, you can use these breaks and white spaces
as many times as you want without breaking the program. You can freely use them to format
the programs to make the code look neat so that it can be read and understood in an easy
manner.

Semicolons are Discretional

In most programming languages such as Java and C, simple statements end with a semicolon.
This is also the case in JavaScript with a major difference. They are optional in JavaScript as
long as the statements are placed on separate lines. You must use semicolons when you are
placing two statements in one line. Be that as it may, using semicolons is a good practice for
beginners.

Case Sensitivity in JavaScript

JavaScript is sensitive to the cases of the words. In other words, ‘Hi’ and ‘hi’ will be treated
differently by the language.

Data types and Variables

Like with other programming languages, it is important to understand data types and
variables in JavaScript.

Data Types
JavaScript offers three different primitive data types. They are Numbers, Strings of text and
Boolean. The Numbers data type represents both integers and floating-point. The
programming language does not define them as separate data types. Instead, all numbers
will be represented as floating-point values.

There are also two other data types in JavaScript. They are undefined and null. Each of these
trivial data types defines a single value only. There is a composite data type in JavaScript as
well, and it is called object.

Variables
As is the case with other programming languages, there are variables in JavaScript. They
need to be declared before they can be used in the program. In JavaScript, the variables
have to be declared with the help of the ‘var’ keyword. It is possible to declare multiple
variables in a single statement with this keyword. The syntax for declaring a variable is given
below.

Var money;

Variable initialization is quite easy in JavaScript. You can store a value in a variable as soon
as it has been declared or you can do it later in the program when required. You should
remember that the ‘var’ keyword can be used only once for a specific variable in a program.

Another thing about JavaScript is that it is an untyped language. Therefore, a variable can
contain any value irrespective of its data type in JavaScript. In other words, you do not have
to inform the program what kind of data the variable can hold during its declaration.
Moreover, it is possible to change the value type of any variable later. JavaScript will
automatically handle the changes during the execution of the program.

In JavaScript, a variable can have two different scopes. The scope defines the region of a
program in which the variable is defined.
• Local Variables: A local variable will remain visible only inside the function where the
variable has been defined in. Function parameters are always kept local to that specific
function.
• Global Variables: These variables have a global scope. In other words, it can be defined
anywhere you want in the code of the program.

You should remember that a local variable will be given precedence in a function over a
global variable that has the same name. If you declare a local variable with a name inside
the body of a function that is shared by a global variable, you will be hiding the global
variable for that function.

As you keep learning JavaScript, you will be coming across various functions, loops, and
events. Once you can master this programming language, you can seek jobs as a web
developer at the very least. Alternatively, you can pick up quite a few other programming
languages more easily than before
Chapter 5: Learn The Incredible Language Of Python
Python is often mentioned as one of the best programming languages for a beginner to start
with. If you are an absolute newcomer to programming, this can be an excellent choice for
you. Python is quite an old language having been developed in the 80s. Guido van Rossum
who developed it later gave away the language as open source. It is currently taken care of
by the Python Software Foundation. Python can be used freely even for commercial
applications

This is generally used as a scripting language with which programmers can compose large
amounts of code in a very short period of time. Of course, the code will still remain
functional and easily readable. Due to its flexibility, this language is one of the most popular
of all the high-level languages in use today.

However, there is one thing you must know about Python. You are not going to be starting
at the basic level even when you are a beginner. On the other hand, you will be learning a
number of useful things such as modularity, naming conventions and indentation, all of
which can make it easier for you when you learn other programming languages. Another
advantage of this language is that the developer community is thriving allowing you to get a
range of resources to help you learn Python.

Features of Python
Python is quite a powerful object-oriented programming language. It has some excellent
features to offer to the programmer

• Ease: The ease of using Python showcases itself in multiple ways. There are fewer
keywords in this language along with a clear syntax and simple structure. As a result, it is
easy to learn it. The code here can be read quite easily as it is clearly defined.
• Portability: It is possible to run this language on a range of hardware platforms. At the
same time, it will have the same interface on all of them.
• Extendibility: It is possible to add low-level modules to the interpreter in Python. With
them, you can customize your tools or add new functions so that the tools become more
efficient.
• GUI Programming: One of the best things about Python is that it can support GUI
applications. These can be created and then ported to many windows systems and system
calls including Macintosh and UNIX’s X Window system.
• Scalability: With Python, you get a better support and structure for larger programs.
• Interactive Mode: In Python, you can get an interactive mode. It enables interactive
debugging and testing of your code snippets easily.
• Multiple Approaches: While Python is mainly an object oriented programming language,
it is possible to use other programming approaches such as structured and functional.
• Other Features: Python offers very high-level dynamic data types. Apart from supporting
dynamic type checking, it also offers automatic garbage collection. Moreover, you can
integrate Python with other programming languages such Java, C++ and C easily.

A Simple Program in Python

Before you can write a Python program, you need to install it on your computer. You will
also get a program called IDLE. This is short for Integrated Development Environment. This is
known as IDE for short in other programming languages. IDLE looks a lot similar to a basic
text editor. On opening IDLE, you need to put in the following command at the prompt.

print ("Hello, World!")

As you can see, the code for a Hello World program in Python is much shorter than the other
programming languages that you have seen so far. This is one of the reasons for the
popularity of this language. You can even easily understand what is happening in the code.

Data Types and Variables

Understanding the variables and data types will certainly help you out when you are
learning Python.

Data Types
In Python, all values have a data type. Moreover, everything is considered to be an object in
this programming language. Therefore, data types are actually considered to be classes while
variables are considered to be instances of the respective classes. Here are some of the most
important data types in Python.

• Python Numbers: In this category, you will find floating point numbers, complex
numbers, and integers. In Python, they are defined as a float, complex, and int. It is possible
to discover the class of the variable with the type () function. The instance () function can be
used to check whether an object belongs to a specified class.
• Python List: As the name suggests, List is an ordered series of items. It is one of the most
widely used data types and is rather flexible. In Python, the items of a list can belong to
different data types. The value of the items in a list can be changed as per requirements.
Therefore, the list is mutable.
• Python Tuple: Tuple is similar to a list as it also has an ordered series of items. However,
a tuple is immutable. Therefore, the values in a tuple cannot be modified once it has been
created. They are mainly used for write-protecting data.
Variables
While the function of variables in Python is the same as the other programming languages,
there is a difference in their declaration. In Python, you do not have to declare a variable
before using it. You simply need to assign a value to the variable, and it will exist. You do
not have to define the data type of the variable as well. Python will define the data type
automatically based on the value assigned to the variable.

Naming the variables properly is essential in Python. The names can be a combination of
letters in uppercase and smaller case along with digits and underscore. However, a name
cannot start with a number. Special symbols cannot be used for naming variables. You
cannot use keywords for the names as well. These rules are also applicable when you are
writing identifiers.

Conditional Statements and Loops

Like other programming languages, Python also offers a range of conditional statements to
help your program make decisions and loops for executing a code multiple times.

Conditional Statements
There are a few conditional statements available in Python. In this programming language, a
null or a zero value is considered to be TRUE while any non-null or non-zero value is taken
to be False.

• If statements: In this conditional statement, the block of code under the statement will
be executed when the if expression returns TRUE. If FALSE, the execution of that code will be
skipped and the statement after it will be executed.
• If else statements: These statements contain an else statement after the if statement.
The block of code under the else statement will be executed when the if expression is
determined to be FALSE.
• If elif else statements: The elif statement is used to check multiple conditions and
expressions. When one of the given conditions is determined to be TRUE, a block of code
associated with that elif statement will be executed. As such, there can be multiple elif
statements following an if statement. The block of code executed corresponds to the elif
statement which was evaluated to TRUE.

Loops
Loops in Python are similar to other programming languages.

• While loop: This loop allows you to repeat the execution of a block of code as long as the
specified condition is TRUE. The condition will be tested every time before the body of the
loop is executed.
• For loop: The for loop also allows you to execute a block of code. However, it keeps the
code required for managing the loop variable short.

Like other programming languages, it is also possible to create nested loops in Python.

Learning Python can certainly open up a plethora of opportunities. More importantly, once
you become adept in Python, you will find programming easier in general.
Chapter 6: Enjoy the Ease of Ruby
Developed in the 90s, Ruby is one of the most recent programming languages in the world.
Even so, it is remarkably popular thanks to its dynamic and open-source nature. It is an
object-oriented programming language which was designed to possess an easily readable
syntax that could be written even by a beginner. There is no need to learn and memorize a
huge list of commands to get started with Ruby.

Ruby is known to be a programming language that is quite easy to learn. In fact, it is possible
to pick up the basics in less than an hour. You can find a quick start guide that will take
around 20 minutes to complete by the end of which you will be acquainted with the
fundamentals of this programming language. If you are already familiar with Python, learning
Ruby will become less of a challenge.

Another thing you need to keep in mind is the difference between Ruby on Rails and Ruby.
You see, Ruby is a programming language. On the other hand, Ruby on Rails is a framework
that has been built with Ruby. While Ruby is a general purpose scripting language, Ruby on
Rails allows the development of web applications.

The Features of Ruby

There are some excellent features in Ruby that make it a useful programming language to
learn. Here are some of the top features.

Flexibility: Although Ruby is an object-oriented programming language, it also provides

support for imperative, functional and procedural programming. As a result, it is quite
flexible for many programming requirements.
Objects: In Ruby, you will find that everything is considered to be an object. This also applies
to numeric values. This greatly simplifies programming in this language.
Blocks: One of the best features of Ruby is the blocks. These are blocks of code which can be
used as a parameter in a method. This greatly simplifies Ruby programming allowing you to
build code libraries easily. These libraries can be used to provide various functionalities to
code blocks that you build later.
Scalability: This is another excellent feature in Ruby. You can easily maintain programs
written in this language even they are quite big.

A Simple Program in Ruby

As with other programming languages, here is the basic Hello World example program
written in the Ruby language.
#! /usr/bin/ruby -w

puts "Hello, World!”

As you can see in the example, the program is incredibly simple with only a single line of
actual code. This goes on to show how easy it is to learn and write programs in this
language.

The Syntax in Ruby Programming

In any programming language, you need to pay attention to the syntax of the code.
Improper syntax can cause errors during runtime or even break the program and give results
that are different from what is expected. In Ruby, the syntax concepts are quite simple and
easy to understand. Here is some of the syntax concepts that you need to know when
programming in this language.

Whitespace
In Ruby, whitespace characters such as tabs and spaces are typically ignored by the program.
However, they will be taken into account when they are present in strings. Be that as it may,
there are certain cases in which white spaces are used for interpreting ambiguous
statements. These interpretations can produce warnings if the –w option has been enabled.

Line Endings
In Ruby, newline characters and semicolons are treated as the ending of statements.
However, if operators like backslash and + are placed at the end of a line, Ruby will treat
them as an indicator that the statement is going to be continued.

Identifiers
Identifiers are the names given to methods, constants and variables. In Ruby, identifiers are
always case sensitive. Therefore, ‘Hi’, ‘HI’ and ‘hi’ will be treated as different identifiers in
Ruby. On the other hand, you can make use of alphanumeric characters as well as the
underscore character in making your identifiers.

BEGIN and END Statements in Ruby

These are two important statements in Ruby. You are certain to come across situations
where you need to use these statements as you program in this language.
The BEGIN Statement
This statement allows the code under it to be declared before the actual program is
executed. Therefore, the code in the BEGIN statement will be the first to be executed. You
can use multiple BEGIN statements, and they will be executed in the order they appear in
the program. The basic syntax of this statement is given below.

BEGIN {
#code
}

The END Statement

This is the opposite of the BEGIN statement as the code it declares will be executed at the
end of the program. The syntax for this statement is given below.

END {
#code
}

Variables in Ruby
There are four different kinds of variables in Ruby. Understanding them is vital to Ruby
programming. Here is a short introduction to these variables.

Class Variables: As the name suggests, these variables belong to a specific class and are
available to the different objects in that class. It is also a characteristic of that class. They will
be shared among the descendants of the module or the class in which they were defined.
You need to initialize them before you can use them in method definitions. If the -w option
is used then; warnings will be produced when the class variable is overridden. All class
variables have to start with @@.
Instance Variables: These variables will be available for different methods for a specific
object or instance. Therefore, instance variables will be different for different objects. If
uninitialized, the instance variable will have the value of nil and it will cause warnings if the -
w option has been used. All instance variables will have to start to @.
Local Variables: The scope of these variables range from the start of a block of code to its
end. In other words, it exists between the braces. They are not available outside the
method. If you reference an uninitialized local variable, Ruby will consider it to be a call to a
method which has no arguments. It is possible to declare local variables by assigning to
uninitialized local variables. All local variables have to start with either an underscore or
with a lowercase letter.
Global Variables: These variables are used when you need to have a variable that can exist
for all classes. By assigning to global variables, you can change the global status. As such,
their usage is not recommended unless absolutely necessary. They can complicate the
program. Uninitialized global variables will have the value of nil. With the -w option, they
can cause warnings. All global variables need to start with the ‘$’ character.

Conditional Structures in Ruby

There are quite a few conditional structures available in Ruby, most of which are common to
other programming languages. Therefore, you should not have a problem if you are familiar
with other languages. Even if you do not, it will not be difficult for you to learn.

• If statement: This statement is used to execute a block of code when a condition is

determined to be true. The execution of the code will be skipped when the condition returns
false.
• Else statement: The else statement is used with the if statement. It provides an alternate
block of code to be executed when the condition is evaluated false.
• Elsif statement: The elsif statement is used with the if and else statements and is put
between the two. It is possible to add as many elsif statements as required. This statement
is used when you need multiple conditions to be checked. The elsif statement which returns
true for the condition will have its block of code executed.
• Unless statement: The unless statement is the opposite of the if statement. It used when
you want a block of code to be executed when the condition returns false.
• Case when statement: Using the if-elsif-else conditional structure can get quite
complicated when you need to evaluate a lot of options. In these situations, you can apply
the case when statement. The code under the when statement will be executed when the
condition returns the right value. Multiple when statements can be applied to a case
statement. It is also possible to use the else statement with this conditional structure. The
else statement will give a block of code to be executed when the condition does not return
any value acceptable to the when statements.

Loop Statements in Ruby

Loops are also available in Ruby. As you already know, loops allow you to execute a certain
block of code several times. Here is a short introduction on the loops available in Ruby.
• While loop: The while loop allows the code to be executed as long as the condition is
true. Once it turns false, the execution is stopped, and the program heads over to the next
statement.
• Until loop: This is the reverse of the while loop. The until loop will keep being executed
as long as the condition is false. It will stop when the condition becomes true.
• For loop: While Ruby offers a for loop, it is not similar to the for loops available in other
programming languages. Instead, the for loop in Ruby functions more like the for each loop
in other programming languages. As a result, it will execute the code as long as there are
elements to consider in a given expression.

You should be now familiar with the basics of programming in Ruby. Of course, there are still
a lot left to go, but these details should help you prepare for the difficult parts.
Conclusion
With the end of this book on programming languages, I hope that it has proven to be useful
for you. You should now know about the easiest programming languages for beginners to
start with.

Of course, the introduction to programming should have familiarized you with the
fundamentals of the activity in general. After all, there are quite a few things that are similar
to all languages. One of them is that all languages require you to adopt the mentality of a
programmer. Once you do so, you will find programming relatively easier.

As you will have noticed in the book, five languages have been chosen: C, Java, JavaScript,
Python and Ruby. These were chosen not only because they are easy to learn but also
because they introduce you to the world of programming in a way few other languages can.
They are versatile, and you will find it easier to learn other more advanced programming
languages.

You should now be familiar with the features of each of the programming languages and
know how to write the basic Hello World program for each. You will have also learned some
of the basics for all of these languages.

I wish you all the best for your future in programming. With a bit of perseverance and hard
work, you will find yourself writing complex code in no time.

Before you jump on your computer, I would like you to post an

HONEST REVIEW on amazon.com in order to improve the quality of
the book.
Thank you.

Also, dont forget to download your Free Python Language Ebook here:
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