The RELICT HOMINOID INQUIRY 4:53-66 (2015)

Research Article

WILDMEN IN MYANMAR: A COMPENDIUM OF PUBLISHED

ACCOUNTS AND REVIEW OF THE EVIDENCE

Steven G. Platt1, Thomas R. Rainwater2*

1 Wildlife Conservation Society-Myanmar Program, Office Block C-1, Aye Yeik Mon 1st Street,
Hlaing Township, Yangon, Myanmar
2
Baruch Institute of Coastal Ecology and Forest Science, Clemson University, P.O. Box 596,
Georgetown, SC 29442, USA
ABSTRACT. In contrast to other countries in Asia, little is known concerning the possible occurrence of
undescribed Hominoidea (i.e., wildmen) in Myanmar (Burma). We here present six accounts from Myanmar
describing wildmen or their sign published between 1910 and 1972; three of these reports antedate popularization of
wildmen (e.g., yeti and sasquatch) in the global media. Most reports emanate from mountainous regions of northern
Myanmar (primarily Kachin State) where wildmen appear to inhabit montane forests. Wildman tracks are described
as superficially similar to human (Homo sapiens) footprints, and about the same size to almost twice the size of
human tracks. Presumptive pressure ridges were described in one set of wildman tracks. Accounts suggest wildmen
are bipedal, 120-245 cm in height, and covered in longish pale to orange-red hair with a head-neck ruff. Wildmen
are said to utter distinctive vocalizations, emit strong odors, and sometimes behave aggressively towards humans.
Published accounts of wildmen in Myanmar are largely based on narratives provided by indigenous informants. We
found nothing to indicate informants were attempting to beguile investigators, and consider it unlikely that wildmen
might be confused with other large mammals native to the region. Supernatural status for wildmen seems precluded
by the lack of mythical elements in indigenous narratives. Collectively this evidence suggests that a scientifically
undescribed bipedal primate may occur in the mountains of northern Myanmar and warrants further investigation.
An interview survey of indigenous people in this region would go far towards establishing a basis for future field
research.

KEY WORDS: Hominoidea, pressure ridge, tracks, traditional ecological knowledge, yeti, yeren, sasquatch

INTRODUCTION 1988), Peninsular Malaysia (Heuvelmans,

1965; Shuttleworth, 1965; Forth, 2008),
Taxonomically undescribed Hominoidea Borneo (MacKinnon, 1974; McNeely and
(hereafter wildmen sensu Forth, 2008) have Wachtel, 1988), Sumatra (Heuvelmans, 1965;
long been reported from various regions of Freeman, 2011), and several Indonesian
Asia, including the Himalayas of India, Nepal, islands (Forth, 2008). In contrast to other
Bhutan, and Tibet (Shipton, 1952; Sanderson, countries within the region, remarkably little
1961; Napier, 1973; McNeely et al., 1978), is known concerning the possible occurrence
central China (Zhou, 1982; Meldrum and of wildmen in Myanmar (formerly Burma).
Guoxing, 2012), Mongolia (Shackley, 1983), Indeed, in a comprehensive review of
Vietnam (McNeely and Wachtel, 1988; Forth, wildman records from throughout Southeast
2008), Thailand (McNeely and Wachtel, Asia, Forth (2008) gives only a single account

*Correspondence to: Thomas R. Rainwater, Email: [email protected]. Telephone/Fax: 806-239-5472

© RHI
 STEVEN G. PLATT & THOMAS R. RAINWATER 54

from Myanmar, that of Blanford (1891:9-10) our review to the area encompassed within the
who described a “tailless ape” standing modern political boundaries of Myanmar (Fig.
approximately 1.2 m tall reputed to inhabit the 1). We use "Myanmar" and "Burma" inter-
forests around Mount Muleyit in the changeably throughout the text. Because many
Tenasserim (now Tanintharyi) Region of place names have been changed since
southern Myanmar. publication of the original accounts, we
In an attempt to redress this deficiency, we provide both former and new names (when
here present additional published accounts of known) in the text. Finally, it should be noted
wildmen in Myanmar gleaned from a variety that even today there is no official government
of hitherto over-looked and generally obscure gazetteer available and confusion surrounds
sources. We present these accounts in the correct Anglicized spelling of many place
chronological order of publication and place names within Myanmar.
each within a specific geographical context.
We then summarize and discuss biologically WILDMAN NARRATIVES
relevant details and synthesize this
information into a composite overview of The earliest wildman narrative from Myanmar
morphology and natural history. Lastly we of which we are aware (excepting Blanford,
compare our findings to what is known about 1891) is that of Wilson (1910:207). In a book
wildmen in Asia (particularly the Himalayan primarily devoted to big game hunting in
ecoregion, but also central China) and North colonial Burma, Wilson writes that a “Mr.
America. Bruce” (Deputy Conservator of Forests and
deemed a “completely credible observer”) and
METHODS his retinue of camp followers were attacked by
a “big ape” while working in the forests along
We conducted a wide-ranging search of peer- the upper Chindwin River of western
reviewed scientific sources, popular books and Myanmar. Although hesitant to do so, Bruce
articles, travelogues, and gray literature to shot and killed the large primate to “save
locate information on wildmen in Myanmar. human life”. Bruce then laid out the corpse,
Our search proceeded by what Murphy and finding “it a little smaller than the orang-
Henderson (1997:2-3) describe as a "hit-and- outang” [sic] (an adult orangutan [Pongo
miss method with a…snowballing effect," i.e., pygmaeus] measures 120-150 cm in length
one literature source often led to several and weighs 35-100 kg, depending on sex, with
additional sources. Much of our review males being larger than females; Francis,
focused on literature of the British Colonial 2001). Local villagers professed great
Era, now largely forgotten, but nonetheless a familiarity with the animal and according to
rich source of natural history information Wilson, the vernacular name (not given)
(e.g., Thorbjarnarson et al., 2000, 2006). translates as “wild man of the woods”.
Although our search was primarily confined to [Authors note – "Orangutan" is a Malay word
English-language sources, in several in- meaning "Man of the Forest" (Swindler,
stances, Burmese articles were translated by a 1998). We are unaware of any Burmese
native Burmese speaker who is fluent in language descriptor for wildmen that can be
English. Our review eventually included 150- translated as "Man of the Forest".]
200 sources; however, this effort should be Brief reference to an undescribed bipedal
considered incomplete because some primate is made by Dawson (1912:11-12)
references proved unobtainable and others writing in the Burma Gazetteer, a series of
were undoubtedly over-looked. We confined informational volumes published by the
 WILDMEN IN MYANMAR 55

British Colonial Administration describing the older porter described the creature as walking
indigenous people, geography, wildlife, and bipedally “like a man, white-skinned, naked,
natural resources in specific regions of the and with long fair hair on the shoulders, arms,
country. In a paragraph on wildlife of the and head; running at great speed over the
Bhamo District, Dawson states that “Several snow, and carrying a club.” In the end, unsure
varieties of monkeys abound in the foothills, what to make of the tracks and seeming to
including the gibbon and a mysterious dismiss the porters account out-of-hand,
creature called by the Burmans ‘luwun,’ which Kaulback concludes the tracks could only
walks upright and is covered with a coarse have been left by bears. But seemingly
tawny hair, and is possibly one of the larger uncomfortable with his conclusion, Kaulback
species of ape. It is reported to have been met states that he would like to return in the future
on the Tangte hills,” along the eastern bank of "to find out definitely what these beasts could
the Irrawaddy (now Ayeyarwady) River south have been”.
of Bhamo. Mention of an “unidentified ape” is also
Kaulback (1939: 172-173) provides the only made in the Burma Wildlife Survey, an
first-person account of an encounter with inventory commissioned by the International
wildmen in Myanmar that we have been able Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural
to locate. While traversing the mountainous Resources (IUCN) and American Committee
northeastern frontier of Burma in search of the for International Wild Life Protection to
source of the Salween (now Thanlwin) River, determine the status of wildlife and
Kaulback and four indigenous porters came conservation in post-colonial Myanmar
upon a set of five trackways at 16,000 feet (Milton and Estes, 1963: 56). The two authors
(4877 m). Kaulback describes the trackways conducted field surveys in many areas of
as “running straight down the side of the Myanmar (1959-60), including moun-tainous
valley at what seemed to be an incredible regions in the northern part of the country.
angle.” A thin layer of snow covered the According to Milton and Estes, indigenous
tracks, and although “not very clear … in size hunters in northern Burma maintained “there
and everything else they looked exactly like is another species of ape [besides]…the
the prints of a barefooted man." Kaulback gibbon, with long reddish or pale hair, found
initially attributed the tracks to a group of at high altitudes”. Hunters described the call
bears (Ursidae) moving between mountain of this primate as “quite different from the
valleys, but his porters steadfastly maintained gibbon’s [sic] and more human”. San Hta Zin,
that no bears occurred in the area. Two porters a member of parliament from Kachin State
instead suggested the tracks marked the told the authors that while traversing Chaukan
passing of a group of snow leopards (Panther Pass (high mountain pass between Myanmar
uncia), something Kaulback immediately and India) “many years ago”, he found
discounts, knowing these large cats are “manlike tracks” near three alpine pools and
solitary except when mating or with kittens. later heard a “strange cry”. Lisu tribesmen, an
The other two porters claimed the tracks had ethnic group renowned for their hunting skills
been made by “mountain men – fearsome (Diran, 2001), showed the authors a mountain
creatures who live high up in the snows.” The near Putao (formerly Fort Hertz) reputedly
porters were unanimous in their agreement inhabited by wildmen. The Lisu claimed to
that such creatures existed, and the oldest (45 hunt these primates for food, and a resident of
years old) had reportedly encountered a Putao reportedly “killed one some years ago”.
"mountain man" while hunting wild ungulates The Rawangs (another indigenous group in
in the same area some years previously. The northern Myanmar) were said to believe that
 STEVEN G. PLATT & THOMAS R. RAINWATER 56

"to look upon the ape will cause sickness or A third incident reported by Hla Aung is in
death". Milton and Estes offered a substantial our opinion, among the most interesting of
reward to anyone who could procure a wildman records from Myanmar. The in-
specimen, but when none was forthcoming cident occurred during November 1946 when
concluded “it is hard to decide whether to take a party of government officials was touring
all of these reports seriously or not from the the hinterlands beyond Putao. When
available evidence”. encamped near Konglu (1828 m; a village five
Perhaps the most comprehensive account of days walk from Putao) on a moonless night,
wildmen in Myanmar is given in a newspaper their pack animals took fright and village dogs
article published in the English-language began barking at the approach of a wild
newspaper, The Working People’s Daily by animal. Thinking a tiger (Panthera tigris) was
Colonel Hla Aung (1969), a career forest about, the party mounted a vigil and although
officer and well-known zoologist (Khin Ma unable to see anything, was “assailed” by a
Ma Thwin et al., 2011). This article was “very strong obnoxious odor” shortly
apparently the second that Hla Aung authored thereafter. On the following day the party
on wildmen in Myanmar as part a series on encountered tracks “of some mysterious
primates published by the newspaper; we have creature almost double the size of a man’s
been unable to locate the first. In the article, footprint” along a trail through the mountains.
Hla Aung describes four different encounters The tracks continued up the footpath and at an
with wildmen in the mountains of northern elevation of 2430 m veered from the trail and
Myanmar. It is unclear if the persons involved disappeared into dense jungle. Because the
directly related their experiences to Hla Aung, footpath was muddy, the tracks were “clearly
or as we consider more likely, he gleaned visible” and according to Hla Aung, the “arch
most of these accounts from secondary of the foot below the instep … was apparently
sources. The first encounter Hla Aung two inches higher than the level of the heel
describes occurred in the area of Urong Thara and toe” [italics added].
Pass (3512 m) when a wildman charged an The fourth wildman encounter described by
indigenous hunter with “fangs bared and Hla Aung occurred in January 1956 when a
hands raised." The hunter shot “many group of hill tribesmen were traveling from
poisoned arrows” into the wildman, which Putao to a Christian revival meeting near
reeled back and stumbled downhill. Hkrang Hku. While traversing the snowbound
Apparently traumatized by the experience, the Ahku Htara Pass (2743 m), the party
indigenous hunter reportedly died of “fright” inadvertently began following a lengthy
three days later. The second incident occurred trackway through deep snow thinking it had
in mid-May 1942 during the construction of a been made by fellow pilgrims. It was only
military road from Putao to Chaukan Pass in when the trackway began to descend a steep
the opening days of World War II. At 2700 m rocky slope did one of the party members
on a spur of the Chaukan Range workers suspect the tracks they were following had
drawing water from an alpine pond came upon been left by a wildman rather than a person.
fresh tracks described as “very much human, The tracks were said to be about the same size
but almost double the size”. Strange vocal- as those of a man.
izations (described as “Oo-hu-hu”) were heard The most recently published wildman
by the party when camped that night in the account is that of Morse (1974:132-134),
same area. It is possible this incident is a writing about his experiences as a Christian
variant of a similar account given earlier by missionary living among the Kachin of
Milton and Estes (1963). northern Myanmar during the 1950s and
 WILDMEN IN MYANMAR 57

1960s. Morse told of meeting a Lisu friend in

1968 who described an encounter with a DISCUSSION
wildman that occurred "about a week ago"
when he was tracking a musk deer (Moschus Our literature review found six accounts
sp.) and came upon manlike footprints. describing wildmen or their sign in Myanmar
According to the hunter, it appeared as though published between 1910 and 1974,
both he and the track maker were in pursuit of complementing the earlier report of Blanford
the same quarry. The hunter described the (1891). Although our review was wide-
tracks as “something like those of a big ranging and included a variety of sources, it
monkey … twelve to fourteen inches long [ca. was not exhaustive and other wildman reports
30-36 cm] and shaped like a man’s foot, only from Myanmar undoubtedly remain to be
narrower.” Intrigued, the hunter began uncovered. Notably, four accounts (57%)
following the tracks and after four or five (Blanford, 1891; Wilson, 1910; Dawson,
miles came upon a wildman standing 40-50 1912; Kaulback, 1939) significantly predate
feet [12-15 m] away watching as he popularization of the yeti during the 1950s
approached. The wildman was “standing on (Shipton, 1952; Izzard, 1955; Stonor, 1955)
two legs, … about seven or eight feet tall and later newspaper reports from northern
[213-243 cm], and did not look the least bit California, USA that brought sasquatch to the
human … being covered with reddish brown attention of a global audience (Meldrum,
fur with a sort of mane of longer fur on its 2006). Furthermore, at least two encounters
head, which looked bigger than a monkey’s”. with wildmen described by Hla Aung (1969)
The hunter found it amusing when the occurred during the 1940s, well before
wildman began imitating his movements – knowledge of cryptic hominoids had been
“…when I raised my hand, it raised its hand. widely disseminated. The timing of these
When I brought up my crossbow to take aim, publications is of interest because critics
it pretended to raise a bow and do likewise”. frequently contend that wildman narratives are
However, this “game came to a sudden end” merely an outgrowth of sensationalized media
when the hunter unleashed a poisoned arrow, coverage of yeti and sasquatch, all the while
which struck the wildman in the chest, but ignoring a considerable body of evidence
dropped out after failing to penetrate the antedating the popularization of these animals
sternum. At this, the wildman turned and fled (Meldrum, 2006; Bindernagel, 2010).
and the hunter immediately ran to a nearby The paucity of more recent (1980-2015)
village, and returned with a friend to assist in wildman reports is unsurprising given that
tracking the wounded animal. However, it Myanmar, long isolated under military rule
soon became obvious the wildman had not and considered among the most reclusive
received a lethal dose of arrow poison and the nations in the world (Steinberg, 2001) was 1)
search was abandoned as darkness fell. Morse for the most part closed to foreign
gave the story credence, adding that his investigators from the mid-1960s through the
brother (LaVerne Morse, also a missionary) late 1990s, 2) collaboration between Myanmar
had encountered a similar set of wildman and foreign researchers was actively
tracks in the mountains east of Putao “around discouraged by government policy during this
1955”. Morse calls the tracks “strangely period, and 3) funding was unavailable for
human” and concludes “from all reports … the government-sponsored domestic scientific
yeti does exist, but in small numbers and in research by Myanmar academics. Even now
regions so inhospitable that human beings are (2015), some areas within Myanmar remain
seldom, if ever, on hand to glimpse them." closed to scientific research owing to security
 STEVEN G. PLATT & THOMAS R. RAINWATER 58

concerns and chronic, low-intensity military Kingdon-Ward (1954) classified the plant
conflicts. When researchers have taken to the communities of Kachin State along an
field the results are impressive with the elevation gradient as lowland forest (to 700
discovery of new species (Rabinowitz et al., m), subtropical hill forest (700-1700 m), warm
1999; Rappole et al., 2005; Geissman et al., temperate rainforest (1700-2700 m), cold
2011; Dever et al., 2012), rediscovery of temperate rainforest (2700-3000 m),
species believed extinct (Platt et al., 2005; Rhododendron-silver fir (Abies alba) forest
Kuchling et al., 2006; Rheindt et al., 2014), (3000-3700 m), and subalpine scrub (3700-
and significant range extensions (Rabinowitz 4000 m). The upper Chindwin River (by
and Saw Tun Khaing, 1998; S. Platt et al., convention upstream from Homalin), where a
2014), including records of many species not wildman was reportedly shot by a colonial
previously thought to occur in Myanmar forest officer (Wilson, 1910) is in Sagaing
(King et al., 2001; K. Platt et al., 2014). Division, which together with Shan State
Recently described and "rediscovered" taxa in forms the southern boundary of Kachin State.
Myanmar range in size from small amphibians Sagaing Division encompasses much of the
(Dever et al., 2012) and birds (Rappole et al., Naga Hills, a highland region (maximum
2005; Rheindt et al., 2014) to larger mammals, elevation = 3825 m) contiguous with the
including a cervid (Rabinowitz et al., 1999) mountains of Kachin State.
and primate (Geissman et al., 2011). Taken Unfortunately, little habitat-specific infor-
together, this body of research indicates the mation accompanies most wildman narratives
biodiversity of Myanmar remains incom- from Myanmar. Elevations given in descript-
pletely known with much yet to be discovered. tions of trackways and encounters range from
With two exceptions (Blanford, 1891; 1800 to 4800 m (Kaulback, 1939; Hla Aung,
Wilson, 1910), reports of Burmese wildmen 1969 Morse, 1974) strongly suggesting that if
emanate from Kachin State in northernmost such creatures exist, Burmese wildmen inhabit
Myanmar (Dawson, 1912; Kaulback, 1939; upper montane forests (warm temperate
Milton and Estes, 1963; Hla Aung, 1969; rainforest, cold temperate rainforest, and
Morse, 1974). Notably, northeastern Kachin Rhododendron-silver fir forest of Kingdon-
State is also where the recently described Ward, 1954). McNeely et al. (1978) likewise
Burmese snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus concluded that yeti are largely restricted to the
strykeri) was discovered (Geissman et al., montane forest zone (2800-4500 m) in the
2011) suggesting this area is biotically under- Himalayas, and attribute tracks found in high-
explored and might host other unknown elevation snowfields and glaciers (e.g.,
primates. Kachin State (Fig. 1) is bordered by Shipton, 1952; Cronin, 1979) to animals
India to the west and China in the north and moving between forested valleys across the
east, and considered among the most remote intervening high mountain passes. McNeely et
and least known regions of Southeast Asia al. (1978) considered the diversity of plant and
(Rabinowitz, 2001; Khin Ma Ma Thwin et al., animal resources in montane forest habitats
2011). Much of Kachin State is encompassed sufficiently ample to support large primates.
within the Himalayan Ecoregion and consists Indeed, snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus
of extremely rugged mountainous terrain spp.) inhabiting high-elevation forests have
(maximum elevation = 5710 m) characterized evolved physiological traits allowing them to
by a diverse matrix of plant communities that consume a diet of such hard-to-digest foods as
correspond to gradients in elevation, slope, leaves, bark, lichens, and Pinus seeds (Zhou et
and aspect (Rabinowitz et al., 1999; al., 2014). In Myanmar, montane forests and
Rabinowitz, 2001; Rao et al., 2011). other high elevation habitats are above the
 WILDMEN IN MYANMAR 59

upper elevational limits of shifting cultivation mention a divergent hallux (great toe) as often
(approximately 1500 m, but often lower; Platt seen in yeti tracks from the Himalayas
el al., 2013), and rarely visited by indigenous (Meldrum, 2006). To our knowledge, plaster
people except to hunt, collect non-timber casts or photographs of wildman tracks have
forest resources (particularly medicinal never been made in Myanmar, an important
plants), and graze mithun (Bos frontalis) and consideration when evaluating track evidence
mithun-yak hybrids (B. frontalis × grunniens) because the active constructional nature of the
(Robert Tizard, Wildlife Conservation human mind makes it near-certain that
Society-Myanmar Program, pers. comm.). recollections will change unless recorded in
Inaccessibility of montane habitats coupled hard form (Forman and Russell, 1983; Bates
with the reported nocturnal habits of wildmen and Byrne, 2007). Recollections are even less
(Hla Aung, 1969) make encounters with reliable when people are confronted by novel
humans (Homo sapiens) infrequent and might or threatening experiences (e.g., encountering
contribute to perceptions of rarity by large tracks of a potentially aggressive and
indigenous people (Milton and Estes, 1963; dangerous animal).
Morse, 1974). Intriguingly, Hla Aung (1969) described
Wildmen tracks are mentioned in three of what seem to be pressure ridges ("…arch of
the published accounts from Myanmar the foot below the instep…was apparently two
(Kaulback, 1939; Hla Aung, 1969; Morse, inches higher than the level of the heel and
1974). Tracks represent an important body of toe") in wildman tracks left along a muddy
scientific data that can reveal a great deal footpath. Pressure ridges are dynamic features
about the natural history of an organism to an of tracks formed when a relatively plastic
experienced observer (Stander et al., 1997) substrate (e.g., mud) is forced upwards
and provide a degree of objectivity not always proximal to the midfoot as the animal moves
attainable with other types of observational forward (Meldrum, 2004, 2006). Pressure
data (Meldrum, 2006). Wildman tracks from ridges are a consequence of the midtarsal
Myanmar are described as being superficially flexibility of the hominoid foot, which unlike
similar to human footprints (presumably that of humans lacks a fixed longitudinal arch
pentadactyl), and approximately the same size and specialized weight-bearing ball; weight is
(Kaulback, 1939) to almost twice the size of instead distributed more evenly across the
human tracks (Hla Aung, 1969). Assuming plantar surface (Meldrum, 2004, 2006).
the accounts are accurate (see below), such Midfoot or midtarsal pressure ridges are
variability is to be expected in physical considered a distinctive signature of North
attributes of any natural population American sasquatch tracks (Meldrum, 2004,
(Fahrenbach, 1998). Only Morse (1974) 2007) and were recently noted in tracks
provides a quantitative estimate of track attributed to the Chinese yeren (Meldrum and
length; at 14-16 inches (ca. 35-40 cm) these Guoxing, 2012), but to our knowledge have
tracks were larger than the footprints of most not been previously described in wildman
adult human males and similar in size to tracks from the Himalayan region. According
purported tracks of the North American to Meldrum and Guoxing (2012), the presence
sasquatch (Fahrenbach, 1998; Meldrum, 2004, of midfoot pressure ridges in hominoid tracks
2006) and Chinese yeren (Meldrum and from North America and western China
Guoxing, 2012). Morse (1974) also stated that provides independent corroboration of an
wildman tracks were narrower than human undescribed bipedal hominoid with a circum-
footprints, an attribute not mentioned in other Pacific distribution. Confirmation of similar
accounts. Nor do any accounts from Myanmar pressure ridges in hominoid tracks from
 STEVEN G. PLATT & THOMAS R. RAINWATER 60

Myanmar would obviously lend further on input from his indigenous porters. TEK is
support to this hypothesis. defined as a cumulative body of knowledge
Although accounts vary, the composite concerning the relationship of organisms with
picture that emerges from physical one another and their environment,
descriptions of Burmese wildmen is one of a empirically acquired, and passed down by oral
bipedal hominoid standing 120-245 cm in tradition (Berkes et al., 2000; Huntington,
height, covered in longish pale-tawny-orange- 2000). For a variety of reasons science has
red hair with a prominent head-neck ruff of been slow to embrace TEK as a research
longer hair. This morphotype is reflected in methodology (Huntington 2000; Nadasdy,
the Burmese vernacular name luwun (Dawson, 2003), and folk accounts of cryptic hominoids
1912), which translates literally as "Man are usually dismissed as inaccurate
Bear" suggesting a hirsute, bipedal non-human exaggerations of credulous peoples, deliberate
primate. For the most part, descriptions of attempts to dupe investigators, or descriptions
Burmese wildmen are consistent with of imaginary, non-empirical beings (Meldrum,
accounts of the yeti (Sanderson, 1961; Napier, 2006; Forth, 2012). In short, rather than
1973), and display considerable resemblance serving as a starting point for serious enquiry,
to the Chinese yeren (Zhou, 1982; Meldrum ethnographic evidence of hominoids is
and Guoxing, 2012). Burmese wildmen are generally ignored and often trivialized by
also said to emit a pungent, noxious body odor natural scientists (Forth, 2012).
(Hla Aung, 1969), utter distinctive That said, we find nothing in Burmese
vocalizations (Milton and Estes, 1963; Hla wildman narratives to suggest indigenous
Aung, 1969), and on occasion exhibit informants were deliberately attempting to
aggressive behavior directed at humans beguile investigators. We also consider it
(Wilson, 1910; Kaulback, 1939; Hla Aung, implausible that wildmen would be confused
1969), all of which are common elements of with bears (Ursus thibetanus and U.
wildman reports from the Himalayas (Izzard, malayanus), langurs (Trachypithecus spp.) or
1955; Stonor, 1955; Sanderson, 1961; Napier, macaques (Macaca spp.) by indigenous
1973) and North America (Greenwell et al., people who regularly hunt these taxa for
1999; Meldrum, 2006). Bindernagel (1998) subsistence and commercial purposes
maintains that many behaviors attributed to (Rabinowitz et al., 1998; Rao et al., 2005).
North American sasquatch (and by extension Furthermore, while acknowledging that
to Asian hominoids) have also been observed ethnographic data should never be uncritically
in field studies of great apes. Moreover, accepted by natural scientists, we see no a
anecdotal observations and empirical studies priori reason to dismiss folk accounts simply
by primatologists suggest male orangutans and because indigenous people lack scientific
gorillas (Gorilla gorilla) are capable of training. Our view is consistent with a
emitting pungent odors when in a state of growing body of literature indicating that
excitement or agitation (Meldrum, 2006; indigenous people can be reliable observers of
Klailova and Lee, 2014). the natural world and make significant
As by now obvious, wildman reports from contributions to science and natural resource
Myanmar are overwhelmingly based on the management (Gilchrist et al., 2005; Anadón et
traditional ecological knowledge (TEK; also al., 2008; Davy et al., 2011; Meijaard et al.,
known as "folk knowledge") of indigenous 2011; Nabhan and Martinez, 2012; Cano and
informants. Kaulback (1939) appears to be Telleria 2013). Neither are we ready to ascribe
the only authority with firsthand experience of supernatural status to the Burmese wildman
wildmen and even his narrative draws heavily given that indigenous accounts contain
 WILDMEN IN MYANMAR 61

remarkably few mythical elements. to Pongo (e.g., tailless with long, deep
Moreover, the fact that wildman reports are ferruginous hair, body size consistent with
for the most part centered on a specific region female P. pygmaeus).
with distinct ecological boundaries argues for In conclusion, the wildman narratives we
the existence of a real animal rather than a review here together with the rich fossil record
cultural construct inhabiting only the ima- suggest that a bipedal primate as yet unknown
gination of informants. We contend that a to science may inhabit high-elevation forests
mythical animal, not being constrained by in the mountains of northern Myanmar.
ecological or biogeographical factors, would Although funding agencies have so far proved
be more widely reported within Myanmar. On reluctant to support research on cryptic
a continuum of scientific credibility with hominoids, scientists working in the region
imaginary beings at one end and empirical should be alert to the possibility of collecting
referents (i.e., species recognized by modern additional evidence in the form of casts or
science) at the other (Forth, 2012), the photographs of tracks, hair and fecal samples,
Burmese wildman would seem to fall or even physical remains obtained from
somewhere just short of the latter. hunters. Most importantly, indigenous peoples
In contrast to North America, where critics should be solicited for additional information
argue the dearth of fossil evidence precludes about wildmen. An in-depth interview survey
the existence of an undescribed primate such (e.g., Meijaard et al., 2011) would go far
as sasquatch (Meldrum, 2006), primates towards establishing a basis for future field
including hominoids are well-represented in research and perhaps provide tentative
the fossil record of mainland Southeast Asia answers to questions concerning the natural
and adjacent southern China (Kelley, 2002; history of undescribed hominoids in
Chaimanee et al., 2008; Jaeger et al., 2011; Myanmar.
Harrison et al., 2014; Zhang et al., 2014). Of
particular relevance to the reports of wildmen ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
in Myanmar are Gigantopithecus blacki,
which persisted until the Middle Pleistocene We thank Madeline Thompson and Deb
in southern China and possibly elsewhere Levinson (Wildlife Conservation Society-New
(Zhao and Zhang, 2013) and several species of York) for locating a number of obscure
Pongo, one (P. devosi) of which survived into references, Kyaw Zay Ya for preparing our
the Holocene on mainland Southeast Asia map, and Kalyar Platt for translating Burmese
(Delgado and van Schaik, 2000; Harrison et sources into English. We are also grateful to
al., 2014). Undiscovered relict populations of Saw Tun Khaing for bringing the newspaper
Gigantopithecus blacki in North America and article by Colonel Hla Aung to our attention
Asia have been proposed to explain sasquatch many years ago, thus sparking our interest in
and yeti, respectively (reviewed by Meldrum, Burmese wildmen. Our manuscript benefited
2006), and some elements of Burmese greatly from discussions with our Burmese
wildman narratives (e.g., large body size and colleagues, Robert Tizard, and comments by
hirsuteness) are consistent with physical Anna Nekaris and two anonymous reviewers.
reconstructions of this taxa by Ciochon et al. Support for SGP was provided by Wildlife
(1990). Conversely, the wildman described by Conservation Society-Myanmar Program.
Blanford (1891) bears a notable resemblance
 STEVEN G. PLATT & THOMAS R. RAINWATER 62

LITERATURE CITED Fahrenbach WH (1998) Sasquatch: size, scaling, and

statistics. Cryptozoology 13:47-75.
Anadón JD, Giménez A, Ballester R, and Pérez I (2008) Forman RT and Russell EW (1983) Evaluation of
Evaluation of local knowledge as a method for historical data. Ecological Society Bulletin 64:5-7.
collecting extensive data on animal abundance. Forth G (2008) Images of the Wildman in Southeast
Conservation Biology 23:617-625. Asia: An Anthropological Perspective. New York:
Bates LA and Byrne RW (2007) Creative or created: Routledge.
using anecdotes to investigate animal cognition. Forth G (2012) Are legendary hominoids worth looking
Methods 42:12-21. for? Anthropology Today 28:13-16.
Berkes F, Colding J, and Folkes C (2000) Rediscovery Francis CM (2001) Photographic Guide to Mammals of
of traditional ecological knowledge as adaptive Thailand and South-east Asia. Bangkok: New
management. Ecological Applications 10:1251- Holland Publishers and Asia Books Company, Ltd.
1262. Freeman R (2011) Orang-pendek: In Search of
Blanford WT (1891) The Fauna of British India, Sumatra’s Forgotten Ape. North Devon: CFZ
including Ceylon and Burma. Volume 2. Press.
Mammalia. London: Taylor and Francis. Geissman T, Ngwe Lwin, Saw Soe Aung, Thet Naing
Bindernagel JA (1998) North America's Great Ape: The Aung, Zin Myo Aung, Tint Htin Hla, Grindley M,
Sasquatch. Courtenay, British Columbia: and Momberg F (2011) A new species of snub-
Beachcomber Books. nosed monkey, Genus Rhinopithecus Milne-
Bindernagel JA (2010) The Discovery of the Sasquatch: Edwards, 1872 (Primates, Colobinae), from
Reconciling Culture, History, and Science in the northern Kachin State, northwestern Myanmar.
Discovery Process. Courtenay, British Columbia: American Journal of Primatology 73:96-107.
Beachcomber Books. Gilchrist G, Mallory M, and Merkel F (2005) Can local
Cano LS and Telleria JL (2013) Local ecological ecological knowledge contribute to wildlife
knowledge as a tool for assessing the status of management? Case studies of migratory birds.
threatened vertebrates: a case study in Vietnam. Ecology and Society 10:20–31.
Oryx 47:177-183. Greenwell JR, Meldrum DJ, Slack MT, and Greenwell
Chaimanee Y, Yamee C, Tian P, Chavasseau O, and DA (1999) A Sasquatch field project in Northern
Jaeger J-J (2008) First Middle Miocene sivaladapid California: Report of the 1997 Six Rivers National
primate from Thailand. Journal of Human Forest Expedition. Cryptozoology 13:76-87.
Evolution 54:434-443. Harrison T, Jin C, Zhang Y, Wang Y, and Zhu M
Ciochon RJ, Olsen J, and James J (1990) Other (2014) Fossil Pongo from early Pleistocene
Origins: The Search for the Giant Ape in Human Gigantopithecus fauna of Chongzuo, Guangxi,
Prehistory. New York: Bantam Books. southern China. Quaternary International 354:56-
Cronin EW, Jr. (1979) The Arun: A Natural History of 67.
the World's Deepest Valley. Boston: Hiughton Heuvelmans B (1965) On the Track of Unknown
Mifflin. Animals. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.
Davy CM, Méndez de la Cruz FR, Lathrop A, and Hla Aung (1969) The Yetis or Snowmen in Burma.
Murphy RW (2011) Seri Indian traditional Rangoon: The Working People’s Daily, Sunday
knowledge and molecular biology agree: no Supplement 11 May 1969. [Copy archived in
express train for islandhopping spiny-tailed iguanas Vertebrate Collection of the Campbell Museum,
in the Sea of Cortés. Journal of Biogeography Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina].
38:272–284. Huntington HP (2000) Using traditional ecological
Dawson GW (1912) The Bhamo District. Burma knowledge in science: methods and applications.
Gazetteer. Rangoon: Government Printing Office. Ecological Applications 10:1270-1274.
Delgado R and van Schaik C (2000) The behavioral Izzard, R (1955) The Abominable Snowman Adventure.
ecology of the orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus): a tale London: Hodder and Stoughton.
of two islands. Evolutionary Anthropology 9:201- Jaeger J-J, Aung Naing Soe, Chavasseau O, Coster P,
218. Emonet E-G, Guy F, Lebrum R, Aye Maung, Aung
Dever J, Fuiton AM, Konu O, and Wilkinson JA (2012) Aung hyaw, Hla Shwe, Soe Thura Tun, Kyaw Linn
Cryptic torrent frogs of Myanmar: An examination Oo, Rugbumrung M, Bocherens H, Benammi M,
of the Amolops marmoratus species complex with Chaivanich K, Tafforeau P, and Chaimanee Y
resurrection of Amolops afghanus and the (2011) First Hominoid from Late Miocene of the
identification of a new species. Copeia 2012:57-76. Irrawaddy Formation (Myanmar). PLoS ONE
Diran RK (2001). The Vanishing Tribes of Burma. New 6(4):e17065.
York: Sterling Publishing. Kaulback R (1939) Salween. New York: Harcourt,
 WILDMEN IN MYANMAR 63

Brace, and Company. Life Protection.

Kelley J (2002) The hominoid radiation in Asia. In: Morse E (1974) Exodus to a Hidden Valley. New York:
Hartwig WC, editor. The Primate Fossil Record. E.P. Dutton & Company, Inc.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 369- Murphy JC and Henderson RW (1997) Tales of Giant
384. Snakes: A Historical Natural History of Anacondas
Khin Ma Ma Thwin H, Kyi Soe Lwin, Renner SC, and and Pythons. Malabar, Florida: Krieger Publishing
Dumbacher JP (2011) Ornithology of Northern Company.
Myanmar. Ornithological Monographs 70:109- Nabhan GP and Martinez D (2012) Traditional
141. ecological knowledge and endangered species
King B, Buck H, Ferguson R, Fisher T, Goblet C, recovery: Is ethnobiology for the birds? Journal of
Nickel H, and Suter W (2001) Birds recorded Ethnobiology 32:1-5.
during two expeditions to North Myanmar Napier J (1973) Bigfoot: The Yeti and Sasquatch in
(Burma). Forktail 17:29-40. Myth and Reality. New York: E.P. Dutton &
Kingdon-Ward F (1954) Report on the forests of the Company.
North Triangle, Kachin State, North Burma. Nadasdy P (2003) Revaluating the co-management
Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society success story. Arctic 56:367-380.
52:304-320. Platt K, Platt SG, and Rainwater TR (2014) First record
Klailova M and Lee PC (2014) Wild western lowland of the spiny turtle (Heosemys spinosa) in
gorillas signal selectivity using odor. Plos One Myanmar. Chelonian Conservation and Biology
9(7):e99554. 13:257-260.
Kuchling G, Win Ko Ko, Sein Aung Min, Tint Lwin, Platt SG, Platt K, and Khin Myo Myo (2013) An
Khin Myo Myo, Thin Thin Khaing (1), Thin Thin expedition to central and western Myanmar:
Khaing (2), Win Mar Mar, and Ni Ni Win (2006) Minzontaung Wildlife Sanctuary, upper Chindwin
Two remnant populations of the roofed turtle River, and Naga Hills. Bronx, New York:
Kachuga trivittata in the upper Ayeyarwady River Unpublished Report to Wildlife Conservation
system, Myanmar. Oryx 40:176-182. Society.
MacKinnon J (1974) In Search of the Red Ape. New Platt SG, Platt K, Lay Lay Khaing, Thin Thin Yu, Me
York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. Me Soe, San San New, Thet Zaw Naing, and
McNeely JA, Cronin EW, and Emery HB (1978) The Rainwater TR (2014) Heosemys depressa in the
Yeti – not a Snowman. Oryx 12:65–73. southern Chin Hills of Myanmar: A significant
McNeely JA and Wachtel PS (1988) Soul of the Tiger: range extension and traditional ecological
Searching for Nature’s Answers in Exotic knowledge. Chelonian Conservation and Biology
Southeast Asia. New York: Doubleday. 13:252-256.
Meijaard E, Mengerson K, Buchori D, Nurchayo A, Platt SG, Win Ko Ko, Lay Lay Khaing, Khin Myo
Ancrenaz M, Wich S, Atmoko SSU, Tiju A, Myo, Kalyar, and Rainwater TR (2005)
Prasetyo D, Nardiyono, Hadiprakarsa Y, Christy L, Noteworthy records and comments on selected
Wells J, Albar G, and Marshall AJ (2011) Why species of turtles from the Ayeyarwady, Chindwin,
don't we ask? A complimentary method for and Dokhtawady rivers, Myanmar. Chelonian
assessing the status of great apes. Plos One Conservation and Biology 4:942-948.
6(3):e18008. Rabinowitz A (2001) Beyond the Last Village: A
Meldrum DJ (2004) Midfoot flexibility, fossil Journey of Discovery in Asia's Forbidden
footprints, and Sasquatch steps: new perspectives Wilderness. Washington, DC: Island Press.
on the evolution of bipedalism. Journal of Rabinowitz A and Saw Tun Khaing (1998) Status of
Scientific Exploration 18:65-79. selected mammal species in north Myanmar. Oryx
Meldrum DJ (2007) Ichnotaxonomy of giant hominoid 32:201-208.
tracks in North America. New Mexico Museum of Rabinowitz A, Than Myint, Saw Tun Khaing, and
Natural History and Science Bulletin 42:225-231. Rabinowitz S (1999) Description of the leaf deer
Meldrum, J (2006) Sasquatch: Legend Meets Science. (Muntiacus putaoensis), a new species of muntjac
New York: Tom Doherty Books. from Northern Myanmar. Journal of Zoology
Meldrum J and Guoxing Z (2012) Footprint evidence of (London) 249:427-435.
the Chinese Yeren. Relict Hominoid Inquiry 1:57- Rao M, Than Myint, Than Zaw, and Saw Htun (2005)
66. Hunting patterns in tropical forests adjoining
Milton O and Estes RD (1963) Burma Wildlife Survey HkakaboraziNational Park, north Myanmar. Oryx
(1959-1960). New York: Special Publication No. 39:292-300.
15, American Committee for International Wild Rao M, Than Zaw, Saw Htun, and Than Myint (2011)
 STEVEN G. PLATT & THOMAS R. RAINWATER 64

Hunting for a living: Wildlife trade, rural (2000) Conservation status of freshwater turtles in
livelihoods and declining wildlife in Hkakaborazi Meinmahla Kyun Wildlife Sanctuary and vicinity,
National Park, North Myanmar. Environmental Myanmar. Natural History Bulletin of the Siam
Management 48:158-167. Society 48:185-191.
Rappole JH, Renner SC, Shew NM, and Sweet PR Thorbjarnarson JB, Platt SG, Win Ko Ko, Khin Myo
(2005) A new species of Jabouilleia from the sub- Myo, Lay Lay Khaing, Kalyar, and Holmstrom B
Himalayan region of Myanmar. Auk 122:1064- (2006) Crocodiles in Myanmar: Species diversity,
1069. historic accounts, and current population status and
Rheindt FE, Tizard R, Nila Pwint, and Naing Lin conservation. Herpetological Natural History
(2014) Rediscovery of Myanmar's Jerdon's Babbler 10:77-89.
Chrysomma altirostre altirostre. Birding Asia Wilson D (1910) Anecdotes of Big Cats and Other
22:13-15. Beasts. London: Methuen & Company, Ltd.
Sanderson IT (1961) Abominable Snowmen: Legend Zhang Y, Jin C, Cai Y, Kono R, Wang W, Wang Y,
Come to Life. Philadelphia: Clinton Book Zhu M, and Yan Y (2014) New 400-320 ka
Company. Gigantopithecus blacki remains from Heliang
Shackley M (1983) Wildmen: Yeti, Sasquatch, and the Cavem Chongzuo City, Guangxi, South China.
Neanderthal Enigma. London: Thames and Quaternary International 354:35-45.
Hudson, Ltd. Zhao L and Zhang L (2013) New fossil evidence and
Shipton E (1952) The Mount Everest Reconnaissance diet analysis of Gigantopithecus blacki and its
Expedition. New York: E.P. Dutton. distribution and extinction in South China.
Shuttleworth C (1965) Malayan Safari. London: Quaternary International 286:69-74.
Phoenix House. Zhou G (1982) The status of Wildman research in
Stander PE, Tsisaba GD, Oma, and Ui (1997) Tracking China. Cryptozoology 1:13-23.
and the interpretation of spoor: a scientifically Zhou X, Wang B, Pan Q, Zhang J, Kumar S, Sun X,
sound method in ecology. Journal of Zoology Liu Z, Pan H, Lin Y, Liu G, Zhan W, Li M, Ren B,
(London) 242:329-341. Ma X, Ruan H, Cheng C, Wang D, Shi F, Hui Y,
Steinberg DI (2001) Burma: The State of Myanmar. Tao Y, Zhang C, Zhu P, Xiang Z, Jiang W, Chang
Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press. J, Wang H, Cao Z, Jiang Z, Li B, Yang G, Roos C,
Stonor C (1955) The Sherpa and the Snowman. Garber PA, Buford MW, Li R, Li M (2014)
London: Hollis and Carter. Whole-genome sequencing of the snub-nosed
Swindler DR (1998) Introduction to the Primates. monkey provides insights into folivory and
Seattle: University of Washington Press. evolutionary history. Nature Genetics 46:13013-
Thorbjarnarson JB, Platt SG, and Saw Tun Khaing 1310.
 WILDMEN IN MYANMAR 65

Steven G. Platt was formerly an Associate Professor in

the Biology Department at Sul Ross State University
(2006-2011), and now serves as the Regional
Conservation Herpetologist for Wildlife Conservation
Society (WCS) in Southeast Asia. He received his B.S. in
Forestry and Wildlife Management from Louisiana State
University (1985), M.S. in Biology from Southeastern
Louisiana University (1990), and Ph.D. in Zoology from
Clemson University (1996). His current focus is the
study and conservation of turtles and crocodilians in
Southeast Asia, primarily in Myanmar where, together
with his wife Kalyar Platt (Turtle Survival Alliance –
Myanmar Program), he is conducting conservation
programs for the endemic and critically endangered
Burmese Star Tortoise and Burmese Roofed Turtle.
Outside of Myanmar, Platt works closely with the WCS
Cambodia Program on Southern River Terrapin and
Siamese crocodile conservation issues, and has been
collaborating with Chinese scientists to restore Chinese
alligators to Yangtze River wetlands. Platt has co-
authored numerous scientific papers on crocodilians and turtles, and in 2014 received the Castillo
Award for crocodile conservation from the IUCN/SSC Crocodile Specialist Group.

Thomas Rainwater is formerly a Wildlife Toxicologist

for the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and is now Wildlife
Research Coordinator at the Baruch Institute of Coastal
Ecology and Forest Science with Clemson University. He
received his B.S. in Biology from Furman University
(1989), M.S. in Environmental Toxicology from Clemson
University (1994), and Ph.D. in Environmental
Toxicology from Texas Tech University (2003). For the
last 25 years, he has worked on various field projects in
the United States, Central America, and Asia focusing on
the biology, ecotoxicology, and conservation of wildlife,
particularly reptiles and birds. Much of his recent research
has focused on the impacts of environmental pollution,
habitat alteration, and over-exploitation on endangered
crocodilians and turtles. Rainwater has co-authored
numerous scientific papers on these and other topics and
currently serves as Vice Chair for North America for the
IUCN/SSC Crocodile Specialist Group.
 STEVEN G. PLATT & THOMAS R. RAINWATER 66

Figure 1. Map of Myanmar showing political boundaries of Kachin State, Shan State, and
Sagaing Division, major rivers, principal urban centers, and localities mentioned in text. Place
names in accordance with current usage.