BS-2790-1992-Design and Manufacture of Shell Boilers of Welded Construction PDF

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BRITISH STANDARD BS 2790:1992
Incorporating
Amendment
Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 4
Specification for
Design and
manufacture of shell
boilers of welded
construction
ICS 27.060.30
BS 2790:1992
Committees responsible for this

British Standard
The preparation of this British Standard was entrusted by the Pressure Vessel
Standards Policy Committee (PVE/-) to Technical Committee PVE/16, upon
which the following bodies were represented:
Associated Offices Technical Committee

Association of Shell Boilermakers
British Combustion Equipment Manufacturers’ Association
British Steel Industry
Department of Health
Department of the Environment (Property Services Agency)
Engineers Surveyors’ Section of the Msf
Health and Safety Executive
Independent Engineering Insurers’ Committee
Lloyd’s Register of Shipping
This British Standard, having

been prepared under the
direction of the Pressure Vessel
Standards Policy Committee,
was published under the
authority of the Standards
Board and comes
into effect on
1 January 1992
© BSI 02-2000
First published December 1956

Second edition as BS 2790-1
February 1969 and BS 2790-2 Amendments issued since publication
August 1973
Third edition August 1982 Amd. No. Date Comments
Fourth edition May 1986
Fifth edition April 1989
Sixth edition January 1992
7437 October 1992
8435 March 1995

The following BSI references
relate to the work on this 9346 December
standard:
Committee reference PVE/16
1996
9551 July 1997 Indicated by a sideline in the margin

ISBN 0 580 20075 2
BS 2790:1992
Contents
Page
Committees responsible Inside front cover
Foreword vi
Section 1. General
1.1 Scope 1
1.2 References 1
1.3 Definitions 1
1.4 Responsibilities 2
1.5 Interpretation 3
1.6 Terminology and symbols 3
1.7 Information and requirements to be agreed and to be
documented 3
Section 2. Materials
2.1 General 5
2.2 Selection of materials 5
2.3 Material specifications 5
2.4 Forming of plates 6

2.5 Elevated temperature properties 6
Section 3. Design
3.1 Design criteria 9
3.2 Cylindrical shells under internal pressure 11
3.3 Dished and flanged ends 12
3.4 Openings in cylindrical shells 15
3.5 Fillet welds attaching pads and compensating plates to
cylindrical shells 16
3.6 Openings and branches 16
3.7 Access and inspection 18
3.8 Stays, stiffeners and supported surfaces 19
3.9 Tubes and tube plates 24
3.10 Furnaces, furnace components, wet back reversal
chambers and fireboxes of cylindrical form subject to
external pressure 26
Section 4. Workmanship and construction in fabrication other than welding
4.1 Plate identification 70
4.2 Cold forming of plate 70
4.3 Cutting of forgings 70
4.4 Cylindrical shells 70
4.5 Reinforcing plates 70
4.6 End plates and tube plates 71
4.7 Plain tubes and stay tubes 71
4.8 Access and inspection openings 71
4.9 Seatings for mountings 72
4.10 Horizontal cylindrical furnaces 72
4.11 Fireboxes and reversal chambers 73
4.12 Cross tubes and stays 74
Section 5. Workmanship and construction in welding
5.1 General 75
5.2 Materials 75
5.3 Design 75
© BSI 02-2000 i
BS 2790:1992
Page
5.4 Fabrication and welding approval 76
5.5 Heat treatment 82
5.6 Non-destructive testing 85
5.7 Acceptance criteria for weld defects revealed by visual
examination and non-destructive testing 90
Section 6. Inspection and pressure testing
6.1 Inspectors 97
6.2 Inspection during construction 97
6.3 Pressure tests 97
Section 7. Documentation and marking
7.1 Drawings, documents and data sheets 99
7.2 Certificates 99
7.3 Marking 99
Section 8. Safety valves, fittings and mountings
8.1 Safety valves 100

8.2 Water-level gauges 101
8.3 Water-level alarms 101
8.4 Connecting pipes for water-level fittings 101
8.5 Pressure gauges 101
8.6 Boiler feedwater valves 101
8.7 Boiler blowdown and drain mountings 101
8.8 Boiler main stop valves 102
8.9 Vent pipes 103
Section 9. Automatic controls
9.1 General 104
9.2 Automatic controls for steam boilers 104
9.3 Automatic controls for hot water boilers 105
Appendix A Information to be supplied by the purchaser to the
manufacturer 107
Appendix B Typical examples of acceptable weld details 108
Appendix C Calculation of tube plate temperatures 139
Appendix D Boiler operation 154
Appendix E Recommendations for access and internal
inspection 156
Appendix F Example of a calculation, carried out in
accordance with Appendix G of BS 5500:1991, to determine
the shell stresses for a boiler with leg supports 157
Appendix G Calculation of sustainable pressure for “Walker”
type reversed curvature sections of non circular reversal
chambers 160
Figure 3.1(1) — Wet back boiler 30
Figure 3.1(2) — Dry back boiler 30
Figure 3.1(3) — Semi-wet back boiler 31
Figure 3.1(4) — Reverse fired boiler 31
Figure 3.1(5) — Vertical boiler 32
Figure 3.1(6) — Relationship between furnace diameter and
permissible heat input 34
Figure 3.2.5.2 — Design of saddle supports 35
Figure 3.3(1) — Typical dished ends 37
ii © BSI 02-2000
BS 2790:1992
Page
Figure 3.3(2) — Shape factor 38
Figure 3.3(3) — Openings in ends 39
Figure 3.3(4) — Limits of reinforcement 39
Figure 3.4.4 — Compensation of welded branch up
to one-third of the diameter of the boiler shell 40
Figure 3.5 — Welding of manhole frames and compensating
plates 41
Figure 3.6.2(1) — Welding detail for manhole frame in flat end
plate 42
Figure 3.6.2(2) — Compensation for elliptical manholes and
inspection openings in flat end plates 42
Figure 3.6.2(3) — Compensation for branch in flat end plate 43
Figure 3.8.1(1) — Typical arrangement of end plate on a
multitubular boiler 44
Cornish boiler 45
Lancashire boiler 46
Figure 3.8.2(1) — Use of sub-circles (twin furnace) 47
Figure 3.8.2(2) — Use of sub-circles (single furnace) 48
Figure 3.8.2(3) — Determination of factor y 49
Figure 3.8.2(4) — Example of a gusset stay that impinges on
the main circle other than at a tangent 50
Figure 3.8.2(5) — Attachment of firebox and reversal chamber
stays 51
Figure 3.8.2(6) — Attachment of bar stays with washers 52
Figure 3.8.2(7) — Access opening for wet back boilers 54
Figure 3.8.2(8) — Typical methods of fitting welded girders to
reversal chambers 55
Figure 3.8.3 — Flat end plates of a vertical boiler 58
Figure 3.8.5.1 — Bar stays for the rear plate of wet back
reversal chambers 59
Figure 3.8.8.3(1) — Attachment of welded gusset stays 60
Figure 3.8.8.3(2) — Typical details for welded and pinned
gusset stays 61
Figure 3.8.8.4 — Typical details for diagonal link stays 61
Figure 3.9.2(1) — Typical attachment of stay tubes 62
Figure 3.9.2(2) — Typical attachment of plain tubes 63
Figure 3.10.1.2 — Second moments of area I and
cross-sectional area F 64
Figure 3.10.1.9.2 — Furnace stiffeners for plain and
corrugated sections 67
Figure 3.10.1.9.3 — Bowling hoops 68
Figure 3.10.3 — Attachment of fireboxes to shells 69
Figure 5.4.6.1.3 — Cutting up of the test plate 94
Figure 5.4.7.4 — Transverse bend test specimen 94
Figure 5.4.7.5 — Side bend test specimen 95
Figure 5.4.7.7 — V-notch test piece 95
Figure 5.7.2 — Assessment of inclusions 96
© BSI 02-2000 iii

BS 2790:1992
Page
Figure B(1) — Plate preparation for butt-welded longitudinal
and circumferential seams 111
Figure B(2) — Cross seams in end plates 111
Figure B(3) — Attachment of unflanged flat end plates or tube
plates to shell 112
Figure B(4) — Attachment of end plates or tube plates to
reversal chamber or firebox wrapper plates 113
Figure B(5) — Attachment of furnaces to end plates or reversal
chamber tubeplates 115
Figure B(6) — Attachment of furnaces to flanged end plates 116
Figure B(7) — Typical method of attachment of ash drop-out
tube 117
Figure B(8) — Fusion welds of cross tubes 118
Figure B(9) — Foundation ring 118
Figure B(10) — Typical method of attachment of firehole
opening 119
Figure B(11) — Standard weld preparation details 120
Figure B(12) —  121

Figure B(13) —  122

Figure B(14) —  123
 Set-on branches
Figure B(15) —  124

Figure B(16) —  125

Figure B(17) —  126
Figure B(18) — Weld details for set-in branches 127
Figure B(19) — Set-in branches (partial penetration weld) 128
Figure B(20) —  129

Figure B(21) —  Set-in branches (full penetration weld) 130
Figure B(22) — Set-in branches (full penetration asymmetrical
welds) 131
Figure B(23) — Set-in branches (full penetration welds,
welded from one side only) 132
Figure B(24) —  133
 Forged branch connections
Figure B(25) —  134
Figure B(26) — Set-on branches with added compensation
rings 135
Figure B(27) — Set-in branches with added compensation
rings 136
Figure B(28) — Butt-welded studded connections 137
Figure B(29) — Fillet-welded studded connections 138
Figure B(30) — Oval manhole frame 138
Figure C(1) — Radiation coefficient h½R for black
exchange (F = 1) 144
Figure C(2) — Determination of overall exchange factor F 145
Figure C(3) — Ratio AR/AC for cylindrical chamber,
diameter D, length L 146
Figure C(4) — Basis convection coefficient hCO
9 147
iv © BSI 02-2000
BS 2790:1992
Page
Figure C(5) — Determination of correction factor h CO/hCO
9 148
Figure C(6) — Determination of correction factor hCE/hCO 148
Figure C(7) — Non-dimensional tube area 149
Figure C(8) — Non-dimensional plate area 150
Figure C(9) — Tube/plate area ratio 151
Figure C(10) — Factor ½ 152
Figure C(11) — Factor Ì 153
Figure C(12) — Factor ¶ 154
Figure F(1) — Assumed boiler dimensions for example of a
calculation of the shell stresses in a boiler with leg supports 159
Table 1.1.1 — Limits of application 1
Table 2.5(1) — Carbon and carbon manganese steels with
specified minimum elevated temperature properties 6
Table 2.5(2) — Carbon and carbon manganese steels without

specified elevated temperature properties 7
Table 2.5(3) — Values of Et for materials without specified
elevated temperature properties 8
Table 3.8.1.3 — Breathing space 19
Table 3.8.2.6 — Value of constant j 21
Table 3.8.8.6 — Weld attachments 23
Table 3.9.1 — Minimum thickness of tubes under external
pressure 24
Table 3.9.4.1 — Minimum thickness of straight tubes under
internal pressure 25
Table 5.4.7(1) — Number of test specimens for weld procedure
approval and production control tests 79
Table 5.4.7(2) — Bend test requirements 79
Table 5.5.1.1(1) — Recommended preheating temperatures for
thermal-cutting of plates, sections, bars and forgings 83
Table 5.5.1.1(2) — Recommended preheating temperatures for
welding of plates, sections, bars and forgings 83
Table 5.6.2.2.1 — Extent of radiographic or ultrasonic testing
for butt welds 86
Table 5.7(1) — Visual acceptance levels 91
Table 5.7(2) — Radiographic acceptance levels 92
Table 5.7(3) — Ultrasonic acceptance levels for welds of
thickness 7 mm or greater 93
Table 8.9 — Minimum open vent pipe size 103
Publications referred to 174
© BSI 02-2000 v
BS 2790:1992
Foreword
This British Standard, first published in 1956 under the title “Cylindrical land
steam boilers of welded construction”, superseded by BS 2790-1 in 1969 and
BS 2790-2 in 1973, and subsequently revised in 1982, 1986 and 1989, has been
prepared under the direction of the Pressure Vessel Standards Policy Committee.
This edition supersedes BS 2790:1989 which is withdrawn.
This 1992 edition incorporates all technical changes up to and including
Amendment No. 3 (31 October 1991) associated with the 1989 edition. Changes of
significance are to:—
a) recommend the operation of a quality system to BS 5750;
b) the tube plate metal temperature for waste heat boilers;
c) safety factors for furnaces in waste heat boilers;
d) the accumulator tests for safety valves.
This British Standard sets forth engineering requirements deemed necessary for
the design and construction of shell boilers of welded construction. The purpose
of this British Standard is unchanged from previous editions. Because of the wide
range of shell boilers that may be designed and manufactured in accordance with
this British Standard, general guidance has been given on some aspects with
specific requirements being for agreement between the parties concerned

according to the particular design and manufacturing details.
The user is cautioned that this British Standard is not a design and
manufacturing handbook. It has been assumed, therefore, that the execution of
its provisions is entrusted to appropriately qualified and experienced people.
Purchasers ordering to this British Standard are recommended to specify in their
purchasing contract that the manufacturer operates a quality system in
compliance with the appropriate Part of BS 5750 to assure consistency in quality
management.
As with previous editions the loose-leaf format adopted will facilitate amendment
and the standard will be kept up to date by the issue from time to time of
replacement pages, or additional pages when necessary. Each replacement or
added page will carry an issue number (with date) indicating its relationship to
the original issue of this standard, the pages of which are marked “Issue 1”.
For example,
Issue 1 will indicate an original page or one that has been added to the
original standard and has not been amended since insertion;
Issue 2 will indicate a first amendment of either an original page or an added
page;
Issue 3 will indicate either an original page amended for the second time since
publication or an added page amended for the second time since insertion.
Side-lining on replacement pages will indicate that changes of technical or of
reference significance have been made at that point.
This standard may be referred to by the UK Health and Safety Executive (HSE)1)
when giving guidance.
1) Health and Safety Executive, Rose Court, 2 Southwark Bridge, London SE1 9HS.
vi © BSI 02-2000
BS 2790:1992
A British Standard does not purport to include all the necessary provisions of a
contract. Users of British Standards are responsible for their correct application.
Compliance with a British Standard does not of itself confer immunity
from legal obligations.
Summary of pages
This document comprises a front cover, an inside front cover, pages i to viii,
pages 1 to 174, an inside back cover and a back cover.
This standard has been updated (see copyright date) and may have had
amendments incorporated. This will be indicated in the amendment table on the
inside front cover.
© BSI 02-2000 vii

viii
blank
BS 2790:1992
Section 1. General
1.1 Scope 1.1.3 Design and construction of superheaters,

economizers, air pre-heaters, mechanical stokers,
1.1.1 This British Standard specifies requirements
gas or oil-burning equipment, forced or induced
for the design and the construction, including
draught equipment or other ancillary equipment
materials, workmanship, inspection, testing,
which may be required by the purchaser are not
documentation and marking, of directly fired and within the scope of this standard and are matters for
waste heat shell boilers. The boilers dealt with are mutual arrangement between the purchaser and
of cylindrical design, either horizontal or vertical,
the manufacturer. For specifications for such
constructed from carbon or carbon manganese steels
ancillary equipment, reference should be made to
by fusion welding to class I, class II or class III
the appropriate British Standard (e.g. BS 1113 for
classifications, for which the limits of application
superheaters, BS 759-1 and BS 6759-1 for boiler
are given in Table 1.1.1. mountings).
They are intended for land use to provide steam or 1.1.4 This standard does not cover the design and
hot water. This standard does not apply to
construction of brickwork setting, insulation,
water-tube boilers (see BS 1113) nor to boilers of the
furnace fittings or the design of boiler mountings.
locomotive type.
1.1.5 Requirements for the repair or modification of
Additionally requirements relevant to safe
in-service boilers are outside the scope of this
operation are specified for the installation of
standard.
associated safety valves, fittings, mountings and
automatic control equipment. 1.2 References
Table 1.1.1 — Limits of application
The titles of the publications referred to in this
Classification Limits of application standard are listed on page 174.
Class I If either or both of the NOTE Attention is drawn to the additional bibliographical lists
following apply: in C.4 and D.4.
(a) design pressure 1.3 Definitions

> 0.725 N/mm2
For the purposes of this British Standard, the
(b) design pressure (in N/mm2) definitions given in BS 499-1 apply, together with
multiplied by the mean the following.
diameter of the boiler shell in
1.3.1
millimetres > 920
purchaser
Class II If neither of the following
the individual or organization that buys the
limits apply:
completed boiler from the manufacturer
(a) design pressure 1.3.2
> 0.725 N/mm2 designer
(b) design pressure (in N/mm2) the individual or organization that determines the
multiplied by the mean shape, dimensions and thickness of the boiler, and
diameter of the boiler shell in selects the materials and the details and methods of
millimetres > 920 construction and testing
Class III If neither of the following 1.3.3
limits apply: manufacturer
(a) design pressure the individual or organization that fabricates, or
> 0.38 N/mm2 assumes responsibility for the fabrication of, the
(b) design pressure (in N/mm2) boiler or any component thereof
multiplied by the mean 1.3.4
diameter of the boiler shell in material supplier
millimetres > 480 the individual or organization, other than a
producer, that supplies material or prefabricated
1.1.2 In addition to the definitive requirements, this
standardized parts to be used in the construction of
standard also requires the items detailed in 1.7 to
the boiler or any component thereof
be documented. For compliance with this standard,
both the definitive requirements and the
documented items have to be satisfied.
© BSI 02-2000 1
BS 2790:1992
1.3.5 1.4.2 Responsibilities of the manufacturer.

producer of the supplied construction Prior to the construction of a boiler or a series of
material or material producer boilers, the manufacturer of the boiler shall supply
the individual or organization that produces the Inspecting Authority with a list of materials,
materials for the fabrication of the boiler, for the calculations for major design details and fully
components or for the prefabricated standardized dimensioned sectional drawings showing in full
parts thereof detail the construction of all the pressure parts of
the boiler, including weld details (see Appendix B).
1.3.6 The manufacturer is also required to furnish
regulating authority documentation and certificates in accordance
the authority in the country of installation that is with 7.1 and 7.2.
legally charged with the enforcement of the Where alternative methods of manufacture or
requirements of the laws and regulations of that testing are permitted by this standard, the
country relating to boilers manufacturer shall disclose to the purchaser or the
1.3.7 Inspecting Authority or both the procedure selected
inspecting authority by him before putting the work in hand.
the independent body or association acting on behalf In cases where the design and fabrication functions
of: are carried out by separate organizations, the

manufacturer’s responsibilities as laid down in this
a) the purchaser or owner, and/or
standard shall be discharged in a manner agreed
b) the Regulating Authority between the parties concerned (see 1.7.2.2 and 7.2).
that checks that the design, materials and Examinations carried out by the Inspecting
construction comply with the requirements of this Authority shall not absolve the manufacturer from
standard (see also 6.1) his responsibility for compliance with the applicable
1.3.8 requirements of this standard.
inspector The boiler manufacturer shall supply the purchaser
a person employed and trained by an Inspecting with recommendations for operation and
Authority to carry out the functions of that maintenance appropriate to the boiler plant
Inspecting Authority as indicated supplied and recognizing the measures necessary to
in 1.3.7 (see also 6.1) ensure in-service safety, including, where
applicable, those discussed in Appendix D.
1.4 Responsibilities 1.4.3 Responsibilities of the Inspecting
1.4.1 Responsibilities of the purchaser. The Authority. The Inspecting Authority shall be
purchaser shall be responsible for furnishing the responsible for checking that the design of the boiler
manufacturer with the information required complies with this standard and that all inspections
by 1.7.1 and Appendix A. and tests required during the manufacture of the
boiler are carried out.
Where the Inspecting Authority is nominated by the
purchaser, the purchaser shall be responsible for
ensuring that any information which the
manufacturer is required to supply, as specified in
this standard, is made available to the Inspecting
Authority.
Where necessary, it shall be the responsibility of the
purchaser to ensure that the Inspecting Authority is
acceptable to the Regulating Authority.
NOTE This should be done at the time of the order.
The purchaser shall be responsible for ensuring that
the boiler plant as supplied will be operated and
maintained by properly trained staff of adequate
competence, and to instructions which duly
recognise the manufacturers recommendations.
2 © BSI 02-2000
BS 2790:1992
1.5 Interpretation 1.7 Information and requirements to

If any ambiguity is found or doubt arises as to the be agreed and to be documented
meaning or effect of any part of this standard or as 1.7.1 Information to be supplied by the
to whether anything ought to be done or omitted in purchaser. The following information shall be
order to comply with this standard in full, the supplied by the purchaser and shall be fully
question shall be referred to the Shell Boilers documented (see 1.4.1). Both the definitive
Technical Committee (PVE/16) of the British requirements specified throughout the standard
Standards Institution whose interpretation of the and the following items a) to d) shall be satisfied
requirements of this standard upon the matter at before a claim of compliance with the standard can
issue will be given free of charge and shall be be made and verified.
accepted as final and conclusive. Parties adopting a) A specification of the working conditions of the
this standard for the purposes of any contract shall boiler, together with details of any transient
be deemed to have accepted this provision unless by and/or adverse conditions under which the boiler
their contract they either expressly exclude it or else is required to operate and of any special
include an arbitration provision extending the requirements for in-service inspection (see 3.1.1).
interpretation of this standard; however, this
provision shall be limited to interpretation and shall b) The name of the Inspecting Authority to be
commissioned by the purchaser.
not confer on the committee any power or

jurisdiction to adjudicate upon the contractual c) Any special statutory or other regulations with
rights or duties of any person under a contract which the finished boiler is required to comply
except in so far as they may necessarily be affected (e.g. boiler laws in countries other than that of
by the interpretations arrived at by the committee. manufacture).
Findings or rulings of the committee upon all d) The name of the Regulating Authority (if any).
enquiries, including matters of interpretation, that 1.7.2 Requirements to be agreed and
are of sufficient importance for both enquiries and documented
replies to be made public as soon as possible will be
published in an enquiry-reply form for inclusion in 1.7.2.1 General. The items listed in 1.7.2.2
the BS 2790 ring binder as Enquiry Cases. Their and 1.7.2.3 to be agreed, as appropriate, between
availability will be notified in BSI News. the parties concerned, which are specified in the
clauses referred to, shall be fully documented. Both
After taking into account any public comment the definitive requirements specified throughout
thereon, Enquiry Cases will be incorporated, if this standard and the documented items shall be
appropriate, into the standard either by amendment satisfied before a claim of compliance with this
or in the course of the next convenient annual standard can be made and verified.
updating.
NOTE Users of this standard should appreciate that a number
of items of agreement, i.e. those listed under 1.7.2.3, cannot be
1.6 Terminology and symbols agreed/documented at the time of placing the contract or order for
the boiler and do not necessarily apply in every case; they make
At appropriate places in this standard, symbols provisions for individual agreements that may be necessary
used in the text concerned are defined. In some during the manufacturer’s operations to deal with certain
clauses of section three the same symbol is used in practical eventualities (see also 1.4.2). It is important to
distinguish these items (1.7.2.3) from that in 1.7.2.2, which does
different formulae to represent different terms. need to be agreed and documented when the contract or order is
However, in all such cases the special meaning of placed.
each symbol is indicated for each formula. 1.7.2.2 Requirement to be agreed and documented at
the contract or order stage. The manner in which the
manufacturer’s responsibilities are to be discharged
in cases where the design, fabrication and erection
functions are carried out by separate organizations
shall be agreed and documented (see 1.4.2 and 7.2).
© BSI 02-2000 3
BS 2790:1992
1.7.2.3 Requirements to be agreed and documented

during the manufacturer’s operations. The following
items, as appropriate, shall be agreed and
documented (see also 1.4.2).
a) The use, for pressure parts, of materials other
than those covered by the British Standards
referred to in Table 2.5(1) and Table 2.5(2)
(see 2.2.2).
b) The heat treatment condition of plates
supplied for forming (see 2.4).
c) Methods of tube attachment other than those
shown in Figure 3.9.2(1) and Figure 3.9.2(2)
[see 3.1.3.2 e)].
d) The method of reinforcement of openings
(see 3.4.4).
e) The use of an alternative heat treatment to
normalizing, after the forming of plates that have
been dished or flanged at non-uniform

temperatures or have been locally heated
(see 4.6.1).
f) The requirements for welding consumables, in
the absence of a relevant British Standard
(see 5.2).
g) The heat treatment to be applied after the cold
forming of welded plates where the inside radius
of curvature after forming is less than 10 times
the plate thickness [see 5.4.14.4 c)].
h) In the event that weld defects in a continuous
line are revealed by radiographic examination,
whether the defective part of the weld is to be
repaired or the entire weld is to be removed and
rewelded (see 5.4.15.1).
i) If furnace atmosphere temperatures are to be
used to indicate metal temperatures during post
weld heat treatment, the limits within which the
furnace atmosphere temperatures are to
correspond with the metal temperatures
[see 5.5.2.3 f)].
j) For parts not formed within the appropriate
temperature range the heat treatments, if other
than normalizing, to be carried out before or after
welding (see 5.5.4.1).
k) Acceptance criteria for weld defects in welded
joints, other than the main constructional welds
of boilers, revealed by visual examination and
non-destructive testing (see 5.7.1).
4 © BSI 02-2000
BS 2790:1992
Section 2. Materials
2.1 General ReH is the upper yield stress;

This section deals with the selection of materials ReL is the lower yield stress at elevated
and the property values to be used in the temperature;
determination of design stresses. Only carbon or Rm is the room temperature tensile strength;
carbon manganese steels shall be used. Rp0.2 is the 0.2 % proof stress at elevated
temperature;
2.2 Selection of materials
Rt0.5 is the 0.5 % proof stress (total elongation);
2.2.1 The materials used in the manufacture of
So is the original cross section of the test piece
pressure parts shall comply with either the
subjected to a tensile test.
appropriate British Standard referred to in
Table 2.5(1) or Table 2.5(2) or with the other 2.3.2 The material specification (see 2.2.2) shall
appropriate requirements specified in this section. specify the steelmaking process, compositional
Plain tubes and stay tubes which are to be expanded limits for all constituents, deoxidation practice, heat
shall be either seamless or electric resistance treatment and appropriate mechanical properties
welded and shall meet the flattening and drift for acceptance and other purposes.
expanding test requirements of BS 3059. 2.3.3 The upper limit of the carbon range in the
ladle analysis shall not exceed 0.25 %. The
Cross tubes shall be seamless.

maximum allowable phosphorous and sulphur
Welding consumables shall comply with 5.2 of this
content shall not exceed 0.05 % each in the ladle
standard.
analysis.
Studs, bolts and nuts shall comply with the material
2.3.4 The deoxidation practice shall be appropriate
specifications listed in BS 4882.
to the type of steel ordered, particularly where it can
2.2.2 If other materials are used for pressure parts influence the level of elevated temperature
by express agreement between the purchaser, properties. Fully-killed steel shall be used except in
manufacturer and Inspecting Authority the following circumstances.
[see 1.7.2.3 a)], then:
a) Semi-killed steel may be used for plates and
a) they shall be of boiler quality; seamless and welded tubes with an upper limit on
b) they shall comply with the requirements of 2.3 the specified tensile strength range of 640 N/mm2
and shall be covered by a written specification at b) Rimming steel may be used for electric
least as comprehensive as the equivalent British resistance-welded or induction-welded tubes with
Standard listed in Table 2.5(1) or Table 2.5(2) as an upper limit on the specified tensile strength
appropriate; and range of 490 N/mm2 for design temperatures not
c) they shall be of the same type and grade as the exceeding 400 °C.
equivalent material listed in Table 2.5(1) or 2.3.5 Mechanical properties at room temperature
Table 2.5(2), as appropriate. shall be specified for acceptance tests in accordance
2.2.3 Materials for lugs, brackets, casings and with BS EN 10002-1 which deals with the following:
similar non-pressure parts welded to boilers shall be Tensile strength, Rm
of established identity and shall be compatible with
the material to which they are attached. Yield stress, Re
Percentage elongation
2.3 Material specifications at fracture, A
For materials other than those listed in Table 2.5(1) The specified minimum percentage elongation at
and Table 2.5(2), the general requirements given fracture referred to a gauge length of 5.65ÆSo shall
in 2.3.2 to 2.3.7 shall apply. be appropriate to the type of steel, with a lower limit
2.3.1 Notation of 20 %.
2.3.6 The minimum value of the lower yield stress,
A is the percentage elongation at fracture; ReL, or the minimum value of the 0.2 % proof stress,
Et is the value of elevated temperature yield Rp0.2, at the appropriate elevated temperature,
stress or 0.2 % proof stress to be used for related to tests in accordance with BS EN 10002-5,
deriving the design stress (see 3.1.4) shall be specified for materials equivalent to those
Re is the room temperature yield stress listed in Table 2.5(1).
determined either as the upper yield stress 2.3.7 Materials shall be supplied in the heat treated
(ReH) or the 0.5 % proof stress (total condition required by the equivalent British
elongation) (Rt0.5); Standard.
© BSI 02-2000 5
BS 2790:1992
2.4 Forming of plates Table 2.5(1) — Carbon and carbon manganese

steels with specified minimum elevated
The condition of plates supplied for forming shall be
temperature properties
appropriate to the forming process used and shall be
agreed between the manufacturer and the material Product
BS number Designation Grade
form
supplier [see 1.7.2.3 b)].
Plate BS EN 10028-2 P235 GH
2.5 Elevated temperature properties P265 GH
P295 GH
2.5.1 If materials are supplied in accordance with a P355 GH
British Standard listed in Table 2.5(1) or an
equivalent specification giving elevated 1501-1 151 400 B
temperature lower yield stress or 0.2 % proof stress (withdrawn) 430 B
values which do not exceed the values specified in 161 400 B
the British Standard, then either the lower yield 430 B
stress value or the 0.2 % proof stress value specified
164 400 B
in the British Standard or in the equivalent
specification respectively shall be used as the value 223 460 B
of Et in the determination of design stress values 490 B
(see 3.1.4.4) without verification. Tube 3059-2 S1, S2 or 360

2.5.2 If materials are supplied in accordance with a ERW 440
specification which gives elevated temperature
3602-1 HFS, CFS, 360
lower yield stress or 0.2 % proof stress values
ERW or 430
greater than those specified in the British Standard
CEW 500 Nb
for an equivalent material listed in Table 2.5(1),
such values shall only be used as the value of Et in 3602-2 LAW 430
the determination of design stress values 490
(see 3.1.4.4) provided they have been verified by Forgings 1503 164 490 E
acceptance tests or were derived and verified in
accordance with the procedure specified in BS 3920. 221 or 223 410 E
430 E
2.5.3 If materials are supplied in accordance with a 460 E
standard which does not specify elevated 490 E
temperature lower yield stress or 0.2 % proof stress
values, i.e. either a British Standard material listed NOTE BS 1501-1 was withdrawn on 15 February 1993 in
favour of BS EN 10028-1, BS EN 10028-2 and BS EN 10028-3.
in Table 2.5(2) or its equivalent, then the value of Et The BS 1501 materials are regarded as obsolescent, but their use
to be used in the determination of the design stress may be continued for as long as they are available.
values shall be determined from Table 2.5(3). These
values are not subject to verification.
6 © BSI 02-2000
BS 2790:1992
Table 2.5(2) — Carbon and carbon manganese

steels without specified elevated temperature
properties
Product
BS number Designation Grade
form
Plate 1501-1 151 400 A
(withdrawn) 430 A
161 400 A
430 A
164 400 A
223 460 A
490 A
Tube 3059-2 HFS, CFS or 320
ERW
3601 S or ERW 320
ERW or CEW 360

430
Sections 1502 151, 161, 211 430
and bars or 221
Forgings 1503 164 490
221 or 223 410
430
460
490
NOTE BS 1501-1 was withdrawn on 15 February 1993 in
favour of BS EN 10028-1, BS EN 10028-2 and BS EN 10028-3.
The BS 1501 materials are regarded as obsolescent, but their
use may be continued for as long as they are available.
© BSI 02-2000 7
BS 2790:1992
Table 2.5(3) — Values of Et for materials without specified elevated temperature properties
Product Thickness or Values of Et at design temperature shown
BS no. Designation Grade
form diameter 250 °C 300 °C 350 °C 400 °C
2 2 2
mm N/mm N/mm N/mm N/mm2
Plate 1501-1 151 and 161 400 A u 16 163 
(withdrawn) > 16 u 40 155 
> 40 u 63 152  136 128 125

> 63 u 100 147 
430 A u 16 180 
> 16 u 40 170 
> 40 u 63 167  151 143 139

> 63 u 100 161 
164 400 A u 63 171 152 143 134
223 460 A u 63 213 195 184 172
490 A u 63 225 206 193 183
Tube 3059-1 HFS —

CFS
 —
 320 125 100 91 88
ERW  —
3601 S  320 — 125 100 91 88

ERW  360 — 145 122 111 109

430 — 170 154 142 134
Sections 1502 151, 161 430 u 16 180 
and bars 211 and 221 > 16 u 40 170 
> 40 u 63 167  151 143 139
> 63 u 100 161 

Forgings 1503 164 490 u 100 200 180 171 162
221 410 u 100 157 141 133 129
430 u 100 167 150 144 139
460 u 100 188 165 157 152
490 u 100 197 180 172 166
223 410 u 100 169 149 139 129
430 u 100 180 160 150 141
460 u 100 197 178 167 157
490 u 100 214 195 184 172
NOTE 1 Intermediate values of Et are determined by linear interpolation.
NOTE 2 BS 1501-1 was withdrawn on 15 February 1993 in favour of BS EN 10028-1, BS EN 10028-2 and BS EN 10028-3. The
BS 1501 materials are regarded as obsolescent, but their use may be continued for as long as they are available.
8 © BSI 02-2000
BS 2790:1992
Section 3. Design
3.1 Design criteria The design pressure shall be not less than the
highest pressure at which any safety valve is to be
3.1.1 General. The formulae dealing with the
set to lift. It is desirable that there should be a
calculation of scantlings apply to boilers that are
margin between the actual pressure at which the
constructed throughout under the conditions
boiler is to operate and the lowest pressure at which
required by this standard and that are operated any safety valve is set to lift, to prevent unnecessary
with adequate supervision taking account of the lifting of the safety valves. Safety valves shall be
parameters discussed in Appendix D. It is intended
capable of preventing the boiler pressure from
that boilers designed in accordance with this
increasing to more than 110 % of the design
standard should be operated under conditions free
pressure.
from internal scale. This requires feed water of a
suitable quality. 3.1.3 Design temperature
CAUTION. If a risk of abnormal working conditions is foreseen, 3.1.3.1 Notation
the scantlings, etc. established by calculation from the given
formulae should receive special consideration [see 1.7.1 a)]. A is the effective radiant heating surface (in m2)
In the case of hot water boilers, the position of flow [see Figure 3.1(1) to Figure 3.1(5)];
openings shall be such that air cannot be retained in
the boiler shell or waterways. e1 is the nominal tube thickness (in mm);
is the nominal plate thickness (in mm);
Typical boilers and component terminology are e2

given in Figure 3.1(1), Figure 3.1(2), H is the net heat input in watts (the maximum
Figure 3.1(3), Figure 3.1(4), and Figure 3.1(5). burner heat release rate based on the net
For hot water boilers, the water differential calorific value of the fuel);
temperature, within the boiler shell, shall be limited t is the design temperature (in °C);
to 50 K. If the difference between the water flow tG is the true gas entry temperature (in °C);
temperature (outlet) and the water return ts is the saturation temperature of water (in °C)
temperature (inlet) is greater than 50 K, then at the design pressure, for both steam and hot
internal and/or external mixing devices shall be water boilers.
used to limit the effective differential temperature
within the boiler shell to 50 K. 3.1.3.2 Determination of metal temperature.
Combustion shall be completed in the furnace. In
To allow for increased thermally induced relative
order to ensure safe burner/boiler combinations, the
displacements due to large temperature differences
maximum net heat input for a given furnace
in hot water boilers, breathing spaces (see 3.8.1)
diameter shall be in accordance with Figure 3.1(6).
shall be increased by 50 %, and the maximum net
On/off burners shall not be used for heat inputs
heat input given in Figure 3.1(6) shall be reduced
exceeding 1 MW. A sampling point shall be provided
by 20 %, if the difference between the saturation
so that gas analysis and gas temperature in the
temperature corresponding to the maximum total
reversal chamber may be determined.
working pressure, and the water flow (outlet)
temperature exceeds 80° K. The design temperature t used to evaluate the
design stress shall be the mean metal temperature
The return water entering the boiler shall not
expected under operating conditions for the part
impinge directly on the furnace tube.
considered at the coincident pressure which shall be
3.1.2 Design pressure. The design pressure P is taken as not less than 250 °C.
the pressure to be used in the formulae given in this
The design temperature for the various components
section for the calculation of pressure parts.
of the boiler shall be determined as follows.
If applicable, the hydrostatic head and, for hot water
a) For shells and other components not designed
boilers, the flash margin, shall be taken into
for heat transfer purposes, the design
consideration when determining the design
temperature may be taken as the maximum
pressure. The hydrostatic head need not be
temperature of the contained water.
considered when it is less than 10 % of the boiler
working pressure. b) For smoke tubes, the design temperature shall
be determined in accordance with the following
equations.
t = (ts + 2e1), or
t = (ts + 25), whichever be the greater.
© BSI 02-2000 9
BS 2790:1992
c) The design temperature for plain plates not In order to determine the required thickness of
swept by flame, for tube plates where the gas refractory, it shall be assumed that the hot face
entry temperature is not greater than 800 °C and temperature of the refractoy is equal to the gas
for reversal chamber wrapper plates, shall be temperature tG and the tube plate waterside
determined in accordance with the following temperature is equal to ts. The tube plate
equations. temperature t, at the interface, shall be
t = (ts + 2e2), or determined by the use of simple heat convection
formula, taking into account the thickness of the
t = (ts + 50), whichever be the greater.
refractory and tube plate, and their individual
d) For tube plates in directly fired boilers where conductivities.
the true gas entry temperature tG exceeds 800 °C,
g) The design metal temperature for furnaces and
the design temperature and the maximum metal
fireboxes shall be determined in accordance with
temperature shall be determined in accordance
the following equation.
with Appendix C, using the data for natural gas
and tG as determined from the following equation. t = ts + 4e2 + 15
3.1.4 Design stress
3.1.4.1 Notation
For tube plates in waste heat boilers, the design Et is the value of elevated temperature yield
temperature and maximum metal temperature stress or 0.2 % proof stress at design
shall be determined in accordance with temperature t (see 2.5);
Appendix C using the specified gas entry f is the design stress (in N/mm2);
temperature where this exceeds 800 °C.
Rm is the room temperature tensile strength
e) The maximum metal temperature as (in N/mm2);
determined in accordance with Appendix C shall
t is the design temperature (in °C).
not exceed 420 °C except where tubes produced
from rimming steel are fitted, in which case the 3.1.4.2 The term “design stress”, designated by the
maximum metal temperature shall not symbol f, is the stress to be used in the formulae in
exceed 380 °C. this standard for the calculation of pressure parts.
These requirements apply to the methods of tube The detailed design rules in this section will
attachment shown in Figure 3.9.2(1) and maintain the actual maximum stresses within
Figure 3.9.2(2) where the methods of acceptable limits for the type of loading considered.
construction ensure good thermal contact 3.1.4.3 The designer shall determine the design
between tube and tubeplate. Other constructions stress f from the material properties as defined in
which do not ensure good thermal contact shall section 2 and the factors given in 3.1.4.4.
be used only with the agreement of the
For the steels concerned, it may be assumed that
manufacturer and the Inspecting Authority
post weld heat treatment will not affect the strength
[see 1.7.2.3 c)].
values to be used for calculation purposes.
f) In the case of tube plates of waste heat boilers NOTE Any reduction in the properties of such steels is regarded
where the specified gas entry temperature as being consistent with the overall benefit obtained by stress
exceeds 800 °C and where the maximum metal relief of the structure. However, post weld heat treatment in this
temperature determined in accordance with context means heat treatment within the limits given in 5.5.2. In
designs where slight deformation is important, plate that will
Appendix C would exceed the limits in e), it is meet the minimum specified property values in the normalized
permissible to line the tube plate with plus simulated (3 h) post weld heat treated condition should be
permanently and securely installed refractory specified. See 19.4.3 of BS 1501-1:1980.
and to provide protective ferrules in the tube 3.1.4.4 The design stress f shall be the lower of
entries to reduce the metal temperature. E Rm
In such cases the requirements of c) shall be -------t- and --------
1.5 2.4
applied subject to the thickness of refractory
NOTE For design temperatures other than the temperatures at
being such as to ensure that the design which values of Et are stated in the material specifications,
temperature so determined is not exceeded. intermediate values are determined by linear interpolation.
10 © BSI 02-2000
BS 2790:1992
3.2 Cylindrical shells under internal 3.2.3 Applicability of the formulae in 3.2.2.
pressure The formulae given in 3.2.2 apply only if the
following conditions are fulfilled:
3.2.1 Notation
a) The ratio of the outside radius to the inside
radius does not exceed 1.5.
C is the corrosion allowance, to be taken
as 0.75 mm unless a higher figure is agreed to b) In the case of welded shells, the mid-thickness
take account of adverse conditions; lines are an extension of each other at each
longitudinal joint.
D is the inside diameter of the shell (in mm);
e is the minimum shell thickness; Deviations of alignment due to manufacturing
imperfections shall not exceed the values
f is the design stress (in N/mm2) (see 3.1.4); indicated in 5.4.10 and 5.4.11.
P is the design pressure (in N/mm2); c) In the calculation of the thickness of cylindrical
Ri is the inside radius of the shell (in mm); shells, stresses due to out-of-roundness up to the
Z is a stress reduction factor maximum limits indicated below need not be
= 1.0 for class I boilers or for seamless shells, taken into consideration, and cylindrical shells
shall conform to the tolerances given in 4.4.2.
= 0.85 for class II boilers,
1.5 % for a ratio of e/D < 0.01,
= 0.65 for class III boilers.

1 % for a ratio of e/D W 0.01.
3.2.2 Minimum thickness for pressure loading
3.2.4 Additional loads. No combination of stresses
only. The minimum thickness for pressure loading
due to loads on the boiler shell shall exceed the
only shall be calculated from the following formula,
limits given in Appendix A of BS 5500:1991
but in no case shall it be less than 6 mm for shells
having an outside diameter greater than 1 000 mm 3.2.5 Boiler supports
or less than 4 mm for shells having an outside 3.2.5.1 Leg supports. If boilers with a shell outside
diameter equal to or less than 1 000 mm. diameter of less than 1 500 mm are supported on
legs, the shell thickness shall be calculated using a
stress reduction factor not greater
than 0.85 (see 3.2.1) unless, in the case of class I
Where set-in end plates are used [as in boilers, the stresses in the shell calculated in
Figure B(3)(a) and Figure B(3)(b)] the thickness of accordance with Appendix G of BS 5500:1991 are
the shell plate within a distance of 250 mm of the within the acceptable limits given in BS 5500.
end plate shall be the greater of e obtained from the If boilers with a shell outside diameter of 1 500 mm
above formula and ei obtained from the following or greater are supported on legs, the stresses in the
formula. shell, calculated in accordance with Appendix G of
ei = ecs + C BS 5500:1991 shall not exceed the acceptable limits
given in BS 5500.
where
In calculating the stresses all boilers shall be
considered fully flooded at the design temperature
which shall be not less than 250 °C.
X is a factor found from the following table. NOTE An example of a calculation, in accordance with
Appendix G of BS 5500:1991, to determine the shell stresses for
X Ratio ecp/ecs a boiler with leg supports is given in Appendix F.
0.8 W 1.4 3.2.5.2 Saddle supports
1.0 u 1.0 3.2.5.2.1 General. When boilers are supported on
ecp is the thickness of end plate at the junction saddles, the subtended angle Ú
[see Figure 3.2.5.2(a)] shall be not less than 60° for
with the shell.
boilers with a shell outside diameter of less
For intermediate values of ecp/ecs the values of X than 1 500 mm and not less than 90° for boilers
shall be found by linear interpolation. with a shell outside diameter equal to or greater
than 1 500 mm.
When Ú is less than 90° in boilers with a shell
outside diameter less than 1 500 mm the shell
thickness shall be calculated using a stress
reduction factor not greater than 0.85 (see 3.2.1).
© BSI 02-2000 11
BS 2790:1992
When boilers with a shell outside diameter equal to 3.3.2 Torispherical, semi-ellipsoidal and
or greater than 1 500 mm are supported on saddles hemispherical unstayed ends, dished from
the circumferential combined stress in the shell plate, having pressure on the concave side
shall be in accordance with the following 3.3.2.1 Torispherical ends. Torispherical ends shall
requirements. comply with the following dimensional relationships
In calculating the stresses all boilers shall be [see Figure 3.3(1)(a)]:
considered fully flooded at the design temperature
which shall be not less than 250 °C. 0.005 Do u e u 0.08 Do
3.2.5.2.2 Notation (see Figure 3.2.5.2) Ri u Do
A is the distance from boiler end plate to centre ri W 0.1 Do
of saddle (in mm); ri W 2e
B is the width of saddle top plate (in mm) (W 10e);
H W 0.18 Do
ec is the nominal shell thickness minus corrosion
allowance (in mm); 3.3.2.2 Semi-ellipsoidal ends. Semi-ellipsoidal ends
shall comply with the following dimensional
k is the coefficient obtained from
Figure 3.2.5.2(b); relationships [see Figure 3.3(1)(b)]:
L is the length of boiler shell between end plates 0.005 Do u e u 0.08 Do

(in mm); H W 0.18 Do
P is the boiler design pressure (in N/mm2); 3.3.2.3 Hemispherical ends. Hemispherical ends
Q is the force on saddle (in N); shall comply with the following dimensional
R is the mean radius of the cylindrical shell relationship:
(in mm); 0.005 Do u e u 0.16 Do
Ú is the angle subtended at the shell axis by the
horns of the saddle (in degrees). 3.3.3 Thickness
3.3.3.1 Notation
3.2.5.2.3 Determination of circumferential combined
stress. The circumferential combined stress, Ö, due C is the corrosion allowance to be taken
to primary general membrane stress plus primary as 0.75 mm unless a higher figure is agreed to
local membrane stress plus primary bending stress take account of adverse conditions;
at the inner surface of the shell, obtained from the
e is the thickness of the end plate, after dishing
following shall not exceed 1.5f.
(in mm);
f is the design stress (in N/mm2) (see 3.1.4);
K is the shape factor (see 3.3.3.3);
P is the design pressure (in N/mm2).
3.3.3.2 Subject to the limitations given in 3.3.2 the
thickness of any of the three forms of end shall be
calculated from the following formula.
The minimum thickness e shall in no circumstances

be less than 6.0 mm.
3.3 Dished and flanged ends 3.3.3.3 The shape factor K used in 3.3.3.2 is
3.3.1 Notation obtained from the series of curves in Figure 3.3(2)
and depends on the ratio of height to diameter H/Do.
Do is the outside diameter of the end The curve drawn with a full line in the series
plate (in mm); provides the factor K for plain (i.e. unpierced) ends.
e is the thickness of the end plate (in mm); Where the value of H/Do is lower than 0.25 the value
H is the external height of dishing (in mm); of K depends on the ratio of thickness to
ri is the internal corner radius (in mm); diameter e/Do as well as on the ratio H/Do and a trial
Ri is the internal radius of dishing (in mm). calculation may be necessary to arrive at the correct
value of K.
12 © BSI 02-2000
BS 2790:1992
3.3.4 Openings in dished ends 3.3.4.3 The rules in 3.3.4.2 apply equally to flanged
3.3.4.1 Notation [see Figure 3.3(3) and openings and to unflanged openings simply cut in
Figure 3.3(4)] the plate of an end. No reduction shall be made in
end plate thickness on account of flanging.
A is the effective cross-sectional area of
reinforcement (in mm2) [twice the area shown If openings are flanged the radius rm of the flanging
shaded in Figure 3.3(4)]; shall be not less than 25 mm [see Figure 3.3(1) and
Figure 3.3(3)].
d is the diameter of the largest opening in the
end plate (in mm) [see Figure 3.3(3)] (in the 3.3.4.4 Unreinforced and flanged openings in dished
case of an elliptical opening, the major axis of ends shall be so arranged that the distance from the
the ellipse); edge of the hole to the outside edge of the plate and
the distance between openings are not less than
d1 is the diameter of the smaller hole in
those shown in Figure 3.3(3).
Figure 3.3(3) (in mm);
3.3.4.5 Reinforced openings. Where it is desired to
do is the internal diameter of the reinforcing ring
use a large opening on a dished end of less thickness
(in mm) [see Figure 3.3(4)];
than would be required by the application described
Do is the outside diameter of the dished in 3.3.4.2, reinforcement of the end shall be
end (in mm); provided. Reinforcement may consist of a ring or
e is the actual thickness of the end standpipe welded into the hole, or of reinforcing
plate (in mm); plates welded to the outside and/or the inside of the
l1 is the effective width of the reinforcement end plate in the region of the hole [see Figure 3.3(4)]
(in mm) [see Figure 3.3(4)]; or a combination of both methods.
l2 is the effective length of the reinforcing ring Account shall only be taken of added reinforcing
(in mm) [see Figure 3.3(4)]; material as effective reinforcement up to the
lt is the actual thickness of the reinforcing ring following limits:
(in mm); a) the effective width l1 of reinforcement shall not
rm is the radius of flanging of the flanged exceed Æ2Rie or do/2, whichever is the less;
openings (in mm). b) the effective length l2 of a reinforcing ring shall
Ri is the internal radius of the spherical part of a not exceed dolt.
torispherical end (in mm), or for an ellipsoidal The dimensions l1 and l2 are shown in Figure 3.3(4).
end, the internal radius of the meridian of the The shape factor K for a dished end having a
ellipse at the centre of the opening (in mm). reinforced opening can be read from Figure 3.3(2) by
3.3.4.2 Unreinforced openings. Openings in dished substituting
ends may be circular or approximately elliptical.
The curves drawn with broken lines in Figure 3.3(2)
provide values of K to be used in 3.3.3.2 for ends
with unreinforced openings (e.g. manholes or tube
holes). The selection of the correct curve depends on The shaded area shown in Figure 3.3(4) shall be
the value of d/Æ(Doe). calculated as follows.
Trial calculation is necessary in order to select the a) Calculate the sectional area of reinforcement
correct curve. The following requirements shall be both inside and outside the end plate within the
satisfied in all cases. length l1;
e
------- shall not exceed 0.1. b) add to it the full sectional area of that part of
Do the stem of the nozzle which projects inside the
d
end plate up to the distance l2;
------- shall not exceed 0.5.
Do c) add to it the full sectional area of that part of
NOTE It will be seen from Figure 3.3(2) that for any selected
the stern of the nozzle which projects outside the
ratio of H/Do the curve for unpierced ends indicates a value internal surface of the end plate up to the
for d/Æ(Doe) as well as a value for K. distance l2 and deduct from it the sectional area
Holes giving a value of d/Æ(Doe) not greater than the which the stem would have if its thickness were
value so obtained may thus be cut in an end calculated in accordance with equation 3.9.4.1
designed to be unpierced without any increase in disregarding the minimum thickness from
thickness. Table 3.9.4.1.
© BSI 02-2000 13
BS 2790:1992
If the material of the ring or of the reinforcing plates 3.3.6 Dished and flanged crowns for vertical
has an allowable stress lower than that of the end boilers
plate, then the effective cross section A must be 3.3.6.1 Notation
reduced below that calculated in proportion to the
difference in the allowable stresses for the C is the corrosion allowance, to be taken
materials. As in 3.3.4.2, trial calculation is as 0.75 mm unless a higher figure is agreed to
necessary in order to select the correct curve. take account of adverse conditions;
No allowance shall be made for the additional e is the thickness of the crown plate (in mm);
strength of material having a higher stress value
than that in the end plate.
f2 = 0.65f;
3.3.5 Dished and flanged ends for Cornish and
Lancashire boilers f3 = 0.5f;
3.3.5.1 Notation f4 = 0.3f;
hf is the total depth of the manhole flange
C is the corrosion allowance, to be taken (in mm);
as 0.75 mm unless a higher figure is agreed to P is the design pressure (in N/mm2);
take account of adverse conditions;
Ri is the internal radius of curvature of the crown

e is the thickness of the end plate (in mm); plate (in mm).
3.3.6.2 The minimum thickness of dished and
f1 = 0.8f;
flanged crowns for vertical boilers which are subject
hf is the overall depth of the compensating flange to pressure on the concave side and are supported by
(in mm); central uptakes shall be determined from the
P is the design pressure (in N/mm2); following formula.
Ri is the internal radius of curvature of the end
plate (in mm);
w is the minor axis of the manhole (in mm).
The inside radius to which a crown plate is dished
3.3.5.2 The minimum thickness of dished ends shall be not greater than the external diameter of
formed in one piece with external or internal flanges the cylinder to which it is attached.
for furnaces without stays shall be determined from The inside radius of the flange to the shell or firebox
the following formula. shall be not less than four times the thickness of the
crown plate, and in no case less than 64 mm.
The inside radius of curvature of flanges to the
uptake shall be not less than twice the thickness of
The internal radius of curvature of the end plate the crown plate, and in no case less than 25 mm.
shall not exceed 1.5 times the external diameter of 3.3.6.3 Where a dished crown has a manhole the
the shell to which it is attached. opening shall be strengthened by flanging. The total
The inside knuckle radius of the arc joining the depth hf of the flange, measured from the outer
cylindrical flange to the spherical surface of the end surface of the plate on the minor axis, shall be not
shall be not less than three times the thickness of less than that determined from 3.3.5.3.
the plate, but in no case shall it be less than 64 mm. 3.3.6.4 The minimum thickness of dished and
3.3.5.3 Where the end plate has a manhole, flanged crowns for vertical boiler fireboxes which
compensation shall be obtained by flanging the edge are subject to pressure on the convex side and are
of the opening, or by providing a stiffening ring; supported by a central uptake shall be determined
see Figure 3.6.2. In either case the total depth of from the following formula.
flanging, or ring, measured at the minor axis shall
be not less than that determined by the following
formula.
hf = Æ(ew)
The general shape and size of the corner radii shall
be the same as specified in 3.3.6.2.
14 © BSI 02-2000
BS 2790:1992
3.3.6.5 The thickness of dished and flanged crowns 3.4.4 Reinforced openings. Openings larger than
for vertical boiler fireboxes which are subject to those permitted by 3.4.2 shall be reinforced, but in
pressure on the convex side and are without support no case shall the ratio d/Do be greater
from stays of any kind shall be determined from the than 0.3 unless designed in accordance with the
following formula, but in no case shall the thickness rules for compensation of openings given in
be less than that of the firebox. BS 1113. Wherever practicable, reinforcement shall
be achieved by taking account of the cross-sectional
area of locally disposed material, including the
attachment weld(s), in excess of the minimal
requirements for plate and branch thickness as
The general shape and size of the corner radii shall shown in Figure 3.4.4, the branch thickness being
be the same as specified in 3.3.6.2. increased where required. Compensation shall be
considered adequate when the compensating
3.4 Openings in cylindrical shells area Y (see Figure 3.4.4) is equal to or greater than
3.4.1 Notation the area X requiring compensation.
Area X shall be calculated as the product of the
A see Figure 3.4.4; inside radius of the branch and the thickness A
B see Figure 3.4.4; which would be required for the shell if it were
C see Figure 3.4.4; entirely unpierced by tubes or other holes and

determined in accordance with the formula given
d is the bore of the opening (see Figure 3.4.4) or,
in 3.2.2, taking Z equal to 1.0, disregarding the
in the case of non-circular openings, d shall be
minimum thickness required by 3.2.2.
taken to be the corresponding dimension of the
major axis of the opening, except in that case Area Y shall be measured in a plane through the
in the ratio d/Do in 3.4.2 and 3.4.4, d shall be axis of the branch parallel to the longitudinal axis of
taken as the corresponding dimension of the the shell and shall be calculated as follows.
opening parallel to the longitudinal axis of the a) For that part of the branch which projects
shell; outside the shell, calculate the full sectional area
D see Figure 3.4.4; of the stem up to a distance C from the actual
outer surface of the shell plate and deduct from it
Do is the outside diameter of the shell (in mm);
the sectional area which the stem would have if
e is the actual thickness of the shell (in mm); its thickness were calculated in accordance with
ea is the actual thickness of the branch wall the formula given in 3.2.2, taking Z = 1.0,
(in mm); disregarding the minimum thickness required
er is the actual thickness of added reinforcement by 3.2.2;
on the outside of the shell (in mm); b) add to it the full sectional area of that part of
f is the design stress (in N/mm2) (see 3.1.4); the stem which projects inside the shell up to a
P distance C from the inside surface of the shell;
is the design pressure (in N/mm2);
c) add to it the sectional area of the fillet welds on
X see Figure 3.4.4;
both sides of the shell;
Y see Figure 3.4.4.
d) add to it the area obtained by multiplying the
3.4.2 Unreinforced openings. No reinforcement difference between the actual shell thickness and
is required if the following relation obtains. the unpierced shell thickness A by the length D.
If achievement of an adequate area Y is not
practicable using the above method, additional
reinforcement shall be provided in accordance with
any of the typical arrangements shown in
3.4.3 Openings in a definite pattern. Openings Figure B(26) or Figure B(27) or by using an
in a definite pattern, such as tube holes, shall be alternative method mutually agreed between the
designed in accordance with the rules for ligaments purchaser, the manufacturer and the Inspecting
given in BS 1113, provided that the diameter of the Authority [see 1.7.2.3 d)]. In this case the sectional
largest hole in the group does not exceed that area of the additional reinforcement and its
permitted by 3.4.2. attachment welds shall be taken into account within
the confines of dimensions C and D, C and D being
as shown in Figure 3.4.4.
© BSI 02-2000 15
BS 2790:1992
If material having a lower allowable stress than bo is the outer minor axis of the compensating
that of the shell is used for compensation, its plate (in mm);
effective area shall be assumed to be reduced in the Di is the diameter of the opening in the shell
ratio of the allowable stress at the design (in mm);
temperature. No allowance shall be made for the
additional strength of material having a higher Do is the diameter of the outer periphery of the
stress value than that in the shell. circular pad or compensating plate (in mm);
Li is the length of leg of the fillet weld around the
Welds attaching branches and reinforcing plates
inner periphery of the pad or compensating
shall be of sufficient dimensions to transmit the full
plate (in mm);
strength of the reinforcing area and all other
loadings to which they may he subjected. Lo is the length of leg of the fillet weld around the
outer periphery of the pad or compensating
In the case of manholes, handholes or openings not
plate (in mm);
fitted with branches attached by welding, the
foregoing method shall apply, but the radius used to X is half the cross-sectional area of the opening
determine X shall be replaced by half the maximum of diameter Di in the shell based on the shell
width of the opening in the shell on the axis parallel thickness determined in accordance with the
to the longitudinal axis of the shell. formula given in 3.2.2 taking Z = 1.0 (in mm2),
NOTE Reinforcements designed to these rules will always be disregarding the minimum thickness
adequate but may sometimes be greater than necessary because required by 3.2.2;
of the simplified nature of the design calculations. In special
cases, an alternative design method based on more detailed For elliptical compensating plates,
analyses may be employed by agreement between the
manufacturer, the purchaser and the Inspecting Authority.
3.4.5 Openings in furnaces. Reinforcement for
openings in cylindrical furnaces shall be designed in
accordance with 3.4.4 except that:
a) pad type reinforcement is not permitted; and
b) the calculation shall be made assuming an
internal pressure in the furnace equals to the
design pressure of the boiler. 3.6 Openings and branches
3.5 Fillet welds attaching pads and 3.6.1 Isolated openings in flat end plates
compensating plates to cylindrical supported by stays
shells 3.6.1 Notation
3.5.1 Leg length. The leg length of outer peripheral 3.6.1.1 Manholes, headholes and handholes
fillet welds by which pads (see Appendix B) and [see Figure 3.6.1(1) and Figure 3.6.1(2)
compensating plates [see Figure 3.5(a),
dio is half the mean of the major and minor
Figure 3.5(b) and Figure 3.5(c)] are attached to shell
semi-axes of the opening (in mm);
places shall be determined by using the following
equation, but shall in no case be less than those of D is the greater of the two values: (erep + 75) or
the inner welds nor less than the minimum plate dio (in mm);
thickness referred to in 3.2.2. ecp is the thickness of the flat end plate calculated
in accordance with 3.8.2.5 (in mm);
erep is the nominal thickness of the flat end plate
(in mm);
esr is the thickness of the ring (in mm);
3.5.2 Notation hf is the depth of the ring (in mm).
ai is the inner major axis of the compensating W is the width (in mm) of the opening measured
plate (in mm); on the minor axis.
ao is the outer major axis of the compensating
plate (in mm);
bi is the inner minor axis of the compensating
plate (in mm);
16 © BSI 02-2000
BS 2790:1992
3.6.1.1.2 Branch openings [see Figure 3.6.1(3)] d) Add to it the area obtained by multiplying the
difference between the actual flat end plate
C is the smaller of the two values: 2.5 erep thickness and its thickness calculated from
or (2.5 eb + erp) (in mm); equation 3.8.2.5 for the part of the end plate
dib is the bore of the branch opening (in mm); under consideration by the length D.
D is the greater of the two values: (erep + 75) e) Add to it the area of the compensating plate
or (dib + 4) (in mm); (if any) within the limits of reinforcement shown
in Figure 3.6.1(3).
eb is the nominal thickness of the branch wall
(in mm); Where material having a lower nominal design
ecb is the thickness of the branch wall calculated stress than that of the flat end plate is taken as
in accordance with the equation for e in 3.2.2 compensation, its effective area shall be reduced in
taking Z = 1.0 (in mm); the ratio of the nominal design stresses at the
design temperature. No credit shall be taken for the
ecp is the thickness of the flat end plate calculated additional strength of material having a higher
in accordance with 3.8.2.5 (in mm); nominal design stress than that of the flat end plate.
erep is the nominal thickness of the flat end plate
Welds attaching branches and compensating plates
(in mm);
shall be of sufficient dimensions to transmit the full
erp is the thickness of the reinforcing plate
strength of the reinforcing area and all other

(in mm). loadings to which they may be subjected.
3.6.1.2 Unreinforced openings. The maximum 3.6.1.4 Manholes, headholes and handholes. When
diameter dmax (or major axis) of an unreinforced elliptical manholes, headholes or handholes are
opening in a flat end plate shall be determined from located in flat end plates, the openings shall be
the following equation: compensated [see Figure 3.6.1(1) and
Figure 3.6.1(2)]. Weld dimensions for set-on
stiffening rings shall be as shown in Figure 3.6.1(1).
The method given in 3.6.1.3 for calculating the
required area of reinforcement shall be used where
applicable except that the width of the ring esr shall
3.6.1.3 Branch openings. Reinforcement for branch
be not less than 19 mm for manholes, 15 mm for
openings shall be achieved by taking account of
headholes and 10 mm for handholes, and in the case
locally disposed material, including the attachment
of set-in stiffening rings shown in Figure 3.6.1(1) not
welds, in excess of the minimal requirements for end
less than 0.875 erep. The depth of the ring hf shall be
plate and branch thickness as shown in
not less than Æ(esr W).
Figure 3.6.1(3), the branch thickness being
increased where required. Compensation shall be Area X shall be obtained by multiplying half the
considered adequate when the compensating area Y mean of the major and minor semi-axes of the
is equal to or greater than the area X requiring opening by the thickness of the flat end plate,
compensation. calculated from equation 3.8.2.5 for the part of the
end plate under consideration.
Area X shall be obtained by multiplying 25 % of the
inside radius of the branch by the thickness of the The full width of the flange or stiffening ring esr may
flat end plate, calculated from equation 3.8.2.5 for be used when calculating area Y.
the part of the end plate under consideration. 3.6.2 Branches
Area Y shall be measured in a plane through the 3.6.2.1 The thickness of branches shall be calculated
axis of the branch and shall be calculated as follows. in accordance with 3.9.4.1 making such additions as
a) For that part of the branch which projects may be necessary to allow for bending, static loads
outside the boiler, calculate the full sectional area and vibration.
of the branch up to a distance C from the actual In no case shall the thickness be less than that
outer surface of the flat end plate and deduct it calculated from
from the sectional area which the branch would
e = 0.015 do + 3.2
have within the same distance if its thickness
were calculated in accordance with the equation where
for e in 3.2.2, taking Z = 1.0. e is the minimum thickness (in mm);
b) Add to it the full sectional area of that part of do is the outside diameter of the standpipe or
the branch which projects inside the boiler branch (in mm).
(if any) up to a distance C from the inside surface
of the flat end plate. If a branch is connected by screwing, the thickness e
shall be measured at the root of the thread.
c) Add to it the sectional area of the fillet welds.
© BSI 02-2000 17
BS 2790:1992
3.6.2.2 Pads and bolted flanges for branches shall be 3.7.2.5 Manholes. Elliptical manholes shall be not
in accordance with BS 10, BS 1560-3.1 or smaller than 400 mm × 300 mm. Circular manholes
BS 4504-3.1, as appropriate. shall be not less than 400 mm diameter.
NOTE Section 30 of the Factories Act 1961 applies if there is a
3.7 Access and inspection likelihood of dangerous fumes being present within a boiler to
such an extent as to involve risk of persons being overcome.
3.7.1 General The relevant part of Section 30 of the Factories Act 1961 states:
3.7.1.1 All boilers shall be provided with openings “The confined space shall, unless there is other adequate
means of egress, be provided with a manhole, which may be
adequate in size and number to allow safe access for rectangular, oval or circular in shape, and shall be not less
fabrication, cleaning, internal inspection and than 18 inches long and 16 inches wide or (if circular) not
ventilation (see also Appendix E). The dimensions of less than 18 inches diameter.”
the openings shall be in accordance with 3.7.2. These sizes are equivalent to 457.2 mm × 406.4 mm
and 457.2 mm diameter respectively.
3.7.1.2 Boilers with a shell diameter of 1 500 mm or Section 30 also applies to the lack of oxygen within a confined
greater shall be designed to permit safe entry of a space. Reference may be made to sub-sections (9) and (10) of
Section 30 for the full legal requirements.
person with or without removal of internal parts of
the boiler and shall be provided with a manhole for If boilers are not provided with openings which
this purpose, except in the case of hot water boilers comply with Section 30 of the Factories Act 1961,
where the distance between the shell and furnace the manufacturer shall inform the purchaser that
would not permit safe entry even with the removal precautions need to be taken to ensure that
of tubes. In such cases access shall be provided by dangerous fumes are not liable to be present to such
means of a combination of sight holes, handholes an extent as to involve risk of persons being
and headholes in accordance with 3.7.1.1. overcome.
Boilers with a shell diameter less than 1 500 mm 3.7.2.6 Thickness of internally fitted doors. The
that are capable of being safely entered by a person minimum calculated thickness of a door of flat plate
shall be provided with a manhole. Boilers with a construction (i.e. unstiffened) made from one plate
shell diameter between 800 mm and 1 500 mm shall shall be not less than that determined by the
be provided with a headhole as a minimum following appropriate equation:
requirement.
3.7.1.3 Detachable ends or doors may replace all the
other examination holes, if by their dimensions and
position a general view of the interior is provided at
least equivalent to that obtained by the examination
holes which would otherwise be required.
3.7.1.4 The design of smoke boxes and other
attachments shall be such as to allow adequate where
access for in-service inspection of the boiler seams.
e is the minimum calculated thickness of the
3.7.2 Types and minimum dimensions of flat door at or near the centre;
access and inspection openings p is the calculation pressure (in N/mm2);
3.7.2.1 Sight holes. Sight holes shall have an inside d is the diameter of the opening to which the
diameter of at least 50 mm if the neck height does door is fitted if round (in mm);
not exceed 50 mm (otherwise see 3.7.2.4). a is the minor axis of the opening to which the
3.7.2.2 Handholes. A handhole shall have a size of at door is fitted if an ellipse (in mm);
least 80 mm × 100 mm or an inside diameter b is the major axis of the opening to which the
of 100 mm if the neck height or ring height does not door is fitted if an ellipse (in mm);
exceed 65 mm, or in the case of a conical W is the full load capacity of one stud (effective
shape 100 mm (otherwise see 3.7.2.4). If only one stud area × design stress value at design
handhole is provided, it shall not be less temperature) (in N);
than 100 mm × 120 mm. f is the maximum allowable stress in the plate
3.7.2.3 Headholes. Headhole dimensions shall be at at the design temperature (in N/mm2).
least 220 mm × 320 mm or 320 mm in inside NOTE A design stress value of 50 N/mm2 may be used for
diameter if the neck height or ring height does not carbon steel bolts of grade 4.6 or equivalent for design
temperatures not exceeding 300 °C. For other bolting
exceed 100 mm (otherwise see 3.7.2.4). materials and greater temperatures refer to BS 5500 for
3.7.2.4 If neck or ring heights exceed the limiting allowable stresses when deriving W.
values given in 3.7.2.1 to 3.7.2.3, the size of the hole 3.7.3 Minimum gasket bearing width and clearance
shall be increased to give an adequate inspection for manhole doors. See 4.8.
facility.
18 © BSI 02-2000
BS 2790:1992
3.8 Stays, stiffeners and supported Table 3.8.1.3 — Breathing space

surfaces Thickness of end 13 14 16 18 20 Over
3.8.1 Breathing space plate (in mm) 20
3.8.1.1 Arrangement of stays. Stays shall be Dimensions L 255 280 305 330 330 340
arranged to give sufficient breathing space around (in mm)
the furnace connections and tube nests [see Figure 3.8.1(3)]
[see Figure 3.8.1(1)], and shall divide the unstayed
3.8.2 Stayed flat surfaces
areas equally.
3.8.1.2 Multi-tubular boilers. For both the front and 3.8.2.1 Notation
rear attachment of furnaces, the breathing spaces
between furnace and tube nests or between furnace a is the major dimension of oval or rectangular
and shell shall be a minimum of 50 mm or 5 % of the areas (in mm) [for examples,
shell inside diameter, whichever is the larger, with see Figure 3.8.1(1), Figure 3.8.2(1) and
a maximum requirement of 100 mm. Figure 3.8.2(2)];
b is the minor dimensions of oval or rectangular
Clearances between the furnace and wet-back
areas or diameter of main circle, as appropriate
wrapper plates shall not require consideration as
(in mm) [for examples see Figure 3.8.1(1),
breathing spaces.
Figure 3.8.2(1) and Figure 3.8.2(2)];

In the case of reverse flame boilers the breathing C is the corrosion allowance, to be taken
space at the front end between furnace and tube as 0.75 mm unless a higher figure is agreed to
nests shall be not less than 50 mm. Additionally the take account of adverse conditions;
sum of this breathing space and the breathing space
e is the thickness of the flat plate (in mm);
formed by the outer annular area of the furnace rear
plate shall be not less than 50 mm or 5 % of the shell f is the design stress (in N/mm2) (see 3.1.4);
inside diameter, whichever is the larger, with a j is a constant, depending on the method of
maximum of 100 mm. support as given in 3.8.2.6;
Breathing spaces between gusset or link stays and P is the design pressure (in N/mm2);
tube ends shall be not less than 100 mm. Clearances y is a factor determined from Figure 3.8.2(3) using
between the tubes and wet-back wrapper plates the ratio b/a.
shall not require consideration as breathing spaces.
3.8.2.2 Stayed flat surfaces shall comply with the
Breathing spaces between tubes and shells shall be requirements of 3.8.2.3 to 3.8.2.5.
not less than 40 mm.
3.8.2.3 Radius of flange. If flat end plates are
Breathing spaces between gusset or link stays and flanged for connection to the shell, the inside radius
furnaces shall be not less than 200 mm except that of flanging shall be not less than twice the thickness
for shell outside diameters exceeding 1 800 mm and of the plate, with a minimum of 38 mm. If reversal
furnace lengths exceeding 6 000 mm they shall be chamber or firebox plates are flanged for connection
not less than 250 mm and for shell outside diameter to the wrapper plate, the inside radius of flanging
less than 1 400 mm and furnace lengths less shall be equal to the thickness of the plate, with a
than 3 000 mm they shall be not less than 150 mm. minimum of 25 mm.
All other breathing spaces shall be a minimum 3.8.2.4 Point of support. If the flange curvature is
of 50 mm or 3 % of the shell inside diameter, a point of support, this shall be taken at the
whichever is the larger, with a maximum commencement of curvature, or at a line 3.5 times
requirement of 100 mm [see 3.8.2.3, 3.8.2.4 and the thickness of the plate measured from the outside
Figure 3.8.1(1)]. of the plate, whichever is nearer to the flange. If a
3.8.1.3 Cornish and Lancashire boilers. In Cornish flat plate is welded directly to a shell or wrapper, the
boilers, the circle defining the breathing space shall point of support shall be taken at the inside of the
be as shown in Figure 3.8.1(2), i.e. the distance AB shell or wrapper plate.
between the centre of the stay circle and the centre 3.8.2.5 Thickness. The thickness of portions of flat
of the flue shall be not less than 3e + 63, where e is plates supported by stays shall be determined from
the thickness of the end plate in millimetres. the following formula.
For Lancashire boilers, the proportions shown in
Table 3.8.1.3 are recommended for the portion of the
end plates above the furnaces and flues. It is
recommended that the breathing space below the
When considering areas enclosed by circles which
flues be approximately one-half of the dimensions
pass through four or more evenly distributed points
given in Table 3.8.1.3.
of support, y shall be taken as 1.0.
© BSI 02-2000 19
BS 2790:1992
When considering areas enclosed by circles which where

pass through three points of support, not more than c = 1.13
two of them shall be on one side of any diameter
d is the effective depth of the girder (in mm),
and y shall be taken as not less than 1.1. When, in
i.e. the total depth less the depth of
addition to the main circle, a sub-circle of diameter
waterway, if such is provided;
equal to 0.75 times that of the main circle can be
drawn such that its centre lies outside the main e is the total thickness of the girder (in mm);
circle, y shall be determined using dimensions a f is the design stress (in N/mm2) (see 3.1.4);
and b as indicated in Figure 3.8.2(1) and L is the length of the girder (in mm) between
Figure 3.8.2(2). supports, i.e. measured between the inside of
When considering annular areas, e.g. areas the tubeplate and the firehole (or back) plate,
supported only by shell and uptake (see 3.8.3), y or between the inside of the side-plates,
shall be taken as 1.56. according to the method of support;
When considering an unstayed area of rectangular P is the design pressure (in N/mm2);
shape, the dimensions a and b shall be as indicated Si is the pitch of the girders (in mm).
in Figure 3.8.1(1).
3.8.4.2 If girders are welded to the top plate, the
If various forms of support apply to the portion of
dimensions of the welds shall be such that the
flat plate under consideration, the constant j shall

stress, calculated on an area equal to the sum of the
be the mean of the values for the respective methods
effective lengths of the welds attaching each girder
adopted.
multiplied by the effective throat thickness, shall
3.8.2.6 Value of constant j. The value of constant j in not exceed 52 N/mm2 multiplied by the appropriate
the equation in 3.8.2.5 shall be as stated in weld factor in Table 3.8.8.6 (“effective length” and
Table 3.8.2.6. “effective throat thickness” are defined in 3.8.8.6).
3.8.3 Flat end plates for vertical boilers The load on the welds shall be taken as that due to
the design pressure acting on the area LSi, where L
3.8.3.1 Support. Flat end plates shall be supported
and Si are defined in 3.8.4.1.
by the uptake or bar stays, or stay tubes or
combinations of these. 3.8.4.3 For slung girders, the proportions of slings,
3.8.3.2 Radius of flange. The inside radius of links, pins and connections to the shell shall be
curvature of the flange to the shell or firebox shall sufficient to carry the whole load that would
otherwise be carried on the toes of the girders; for
be not less than twice the thickness of the plate, and
any of the above parts in tension, a stress
in no case less than 38 mm. If the plate is flanged for
of 62 N/mm2 on the net section, or for parts in shear,
attachment to the uptake, the inside radius of
a stress of 55 N/mm2 on the net section, shall not be
curvature of the flange shall be not less than the
exceeded (see 3.8.8.5).
thickness of the plate, and in no case less
than 25 mm. 3.8.4.4 The depth of waterway, if provided, shall be
3.8.3.3 Thickness. The thickness of flat end plate not less than 38 mm [see Figure 3.8.2(8)(a) to
Figure 3.8.2(8)(d)].
shall be determined by the formula given in 3.8.2.5
(see Figure 3.8.3). 3.8.5 Stays for fireboxes and wet back reversal
chambers [See Figure 3.8.2(5)(a) and
3.8.4 Girders for wet back reversal chamber
Figure 3.8.2(5)(b).]
top plates [see Figure 3.8.2(8)(a) to
Figure 3.8.2(8)(f)]
3.8.4.1 The proportions for girders shall be
calculated from the following formula.
20 © BSI 02-2000
BS 2790:1992
Table 3.8.2.6 — Value of constant j

Form of support j
Gusset stay or link stay 0.30
Gusset stays in which the angle Ú shown in Figure 3.8.2(4) is more than 30° 0.45
Unstayed tube bank with plain tubes welded at both ends 0.30
Isolated plain bar stays [Figure 3.8.2(5)(a) and Figure 3.8.2(5)(b)] or stay tubes 0.45
[Figure 3.9.2(1)]
NOTE Stays are considered isolated if they do not form part of a regular geometric pattern and therefore may be
subject to undefined bending moments in addition to axial loads. An example of an isolated plain bar stay is given in
Figure 3.8.2(2).
Non-isolated plain bar stays [Figure 3.8.2(5)(a) and Figure 3.8.2(5)(b)] or stay tubes 0.39
[Figure 3.9.2(1)]
Bar stays with washers as shown in Figure 3.8.2(6)(a) and Figure 3.8.2(6)(b) 0.35
Bar stays with washers as shown in Figure 3.8.2(6)(c) and Figure 3.8.2(6)(d) 0.33
Reversal chamber bar stays [see Figure 3.8.2(5)(a) and Figure 3.8.2(5)(b)] 0.39
Flat end plate or tube plate attachments to shell
Flanged end plate 0.32
Set-in end plate with internal fillet weld as shown in Figure B(3)(a) and 
Figure B(3)(b) 

Set-on end plates as shown in Figure B(3)(c) and Figure B(3)(d)
end plate thickness divided by the shell plate thickness
u 1.4 0.33
> 1.4 u 1.6 0.36
> 1.6 u 1.8 0.39
> 1.8 0.42
Set-in end plate as shown in Figure B(3)(a) and Figure B(3)(b) with no internal fillet weld 0.45
Reversal chamber or firebox flat tube plate or end plate attachment to wrapper plates
Flanged end plate as shown in Figure B(4)(a) 0.32
Set-in tube plate or end plate as shown in Figure B(4)(b), Figure B(4)(c), 0.33
Figure B(4)(d) and Figure B(4)(e), with internal fillet weld
Set-in tube plate or end plate as shown in Figure B(4)(b), Figure B(4)(c), 0.45
Figure B(4)(d) and Figure B(4)(e), with no internal fillet weld
Flat end plate attachment to reversal chamber access tube
As shown in Figure 3.8.2(7) with internal fillet weld 0.30
As shown in Figure 3.8.2(7) with no internal fillet weld 0.45
Flat end plate attachment to furnaces
As shown in Figure B(5)(a) and Figure B(5)(b) with internal fillet weld
Plain furnace 0.30
Corrugated furnace with corrugations less than 50 mm deep 0.32
Corrugated furnace with corrugations 50 mm deep or greater
length > 4 m 0.37
length u 4 m 0.34
Bowling hoop furnaces 0.32
As shown in Figure B(5)(a) and Figure B(5)(b) with no internal fillet weld 0.45
Top plates of fireboxes or reversal chambers supported by continuously welded-on girders or 0.51
welded-on girders provided with waterways [see Figure 3.8.2(8)(a) to Figure 3.8.2(8)(f)]
Lower portion of front end plate of twin flue boilers containing the manhole, when the distance 0.27
from the edge of the manhole reinforcing ring to the edge of the furnace or shell is not more
than four times the end plate thickness
If the distance from the edge of the manhole reinforcing ring to the edge of the furnace or shell
is more than four times the end plate thickness, the manhole is ignored when determining the
constant.
In applying the formula given in 3.8.2.5, b shall be taken as the diameter (in mm) of the largest
circle which can be drawn enclosing the manhole and passing through the points of support
formed by the gusset stays and the connections to the shell and furnaces. If the circle passes
through only three of the possible five points of support mentioned, the remaining two shall be
included within the circle.
© BSI 02-2000 21
BS 2790:1992
3.8.5.1 Bar stays for flat plates. The permissible 3.8.7 Loads on stay tubes and bar stays. Stay
stress in the stays calculated on the net tubes and bar stays shall be designed to carry the
cross-sectional area determined from the nominal whole load due to the pressure on the area to be
diameter without allowance for minus supported, the area being calculated as follows.
manufacturing tolerance, shall not a) For a stay tube within the tube nest the net
exceed 70 N/mm2. The nominal diameter of any stay area to be supported shall be the product of the
shall be not less than 20 mm. horizontal and vertical pitches (in mm) of the stay
Stays in the rear plate of wet back reversal tubes, less the area of the tube holes embraced.
chambers shall comply with the following rule If the pitch of the stay tubes is irregular, the area
(see Figure 3.8.5.1). shall be taken as the square of the mean pitch of
the stay tubes (i.e. the square of one-quarter of
the sum of the four sides of any quadrilateral
bounded by four adjacent stay tubes) less the area
of the tube holes embraced.
where b) For a stay tube in the boundary row, or for a
D is the diameter of the stay (in mm); bar stay, the net area to be supported shall be the
L1 is the shortest distance from the edge of the area (in mm2) enclosed by lines bisecting at right
access opening to the centreline of the stay angles the lines joining the stay and the adjacent
furthest away from the access opening (in mm) point of support, less the area of any tubes or
or where there is no access opening half the stays embraced [see Figure 3.8.1(1)].
maximum distance between centrelines of 3.8.8 Gusset and link stays (corner stays)
stays; 3.8.8.1 General. To prevent local deformation of the
L2 is the distance between the rear plate of the shell plates in large diameter boilers with end plates
chamber and the boiler back endplate (in mm). supported by corner stays, it may be necessary to
3.8.5.2 Radial stays for fireboxes. The diameter of spread the load by using a large number of stays.
the stay shall be not less than 22 mm nor less than Therefore consideration should be given to
twice the thickness of the firebox plate, whichever is operating and inspection requirements and when
the greater. space permits longitudinal bar stays should be fitted
in preference to corner stays.
The pitch of the stays at the firebox shall not
exceed 14 times the thickness of the firebox plate. 3.8.8.2 Load on each stay. Each gusset or link stay
supporting the flat end plate of a boiler shall be
3.8.6 Longitudinal bar stays designed to carry the whole load due to pressure on
3.8.6.1 The diameter of each bar stay shall be such the area it supports. The area supported by any one
that the stress calculated on the least stay shall be obtained by considering the total area
cross-sectional area determined from the nominal to be supported and dividing this area by boundary
diameter without allowance for minus lines drawn between the stays. These boundary
manufacturing tolerance, shall not exceed the lines shall be at all points equidistant from the
specified minimum tensile strength of the material adjacent points of support in the area under
divided by 5.3. In no case shall the nominal consideration.
diameter of the stay at any point be less 3.8.8.3 Gusset stays. Gusset stays shall be so
than 25 mm. proportioned that the angle V [see Figure 3.8.8.3(1)
Supports shall be provided for longitudinal bar and Figure 3.8.8.3(2)] is not less than 60°.
stays 5 000 mm in length and longer. The thickness of the gusset stay shall be determined
3.8.6.2 If bar stays are fitted in vertical boilers, not in accordance with the following.
less than four bar stays shall be fitted to boilers The gusset shall be radiused at the attachment to
of 1 200 mm and over but under 1 500 mm in the shell and end plate as shown in
diameter; five bar stays to boilers of 1 500 mm and Figure 3.8.8.3(1).
over but under 1 800 mm in diameter; six bar stays
to boilers of 1 800 mm and over in diameter. 2F
bh = --------------
-
f sin V
e2 u b u 1.7e2
b W 0.7e1
22 © BSI 02-2000
BS 2790:1992
where c) Links, anchor plates and pins constructed from

b is the thickness of the gusset stay (in mm); material having a minimum tensile strength
of 430 N/mm2 shall be so designed that the
e1 is the end plate thickness (in mm);
crushing stress on the projected area does not
e2 is the shell plate thickness (in mm); exceed 103 N/mm2.
f is the design stress (see 3.1.4) (in N/mm2); 3.8.8.6 Weld attachments. If gusset plates are
F is the force exerted by the pressure on the welded to the shell and/or end plates, the
plate in the zone assumed to be supported by attachment shall be by means of full penetration
the gusset (in N); welds in accordance with Figure 3.8.8.3(1) or
h is the minimum width of the gusset stay Figure 3.8.8.3(2).
(in mm). If anchor plates are welded to the shell and/or end
plates, the attachment shall be by means of
The size and shape of the parts of the end plate continuous fillet welds on each side or by full
supported by each gusset stay shall be such that the penetration welds. The welds shall be of such
entire surface area of the end plate in the gusset dimensions that the stress calculated on an area
stay zone is supported. Gusset stays shall be fitted equal to the effective length of the weld multiplied
radially to the end plate and the angle between by the effective throat thickness shall not exceed
gusset stays shall be between 15° and 30°.
that permitted for the parent metal multiplied by

In positioning gusset stays consideration shall be the appropriate weld factor in Table 3.8.8.6.
given to the anticipated degree of deformation of the Care shall be taken in profiling the welds to avoid
end plate, adopting the most suitable design in the formation of notches or abrupt changes of
zones subject to the highest deformation. contour. Welds shall blend smoothly into the parent
NOTE The suitability of the design depends mainly upon two plate.
criteria: the avoidance of sudden changes of contour and the
sufficiency of the breathing space, both being in order to limit The effective length of a weld shall be taken as that
stress concentrations (see 3.8.1). length of weld which is of the specified dimensions
Welded gusset stays shall not be used if the stay throughout. For open-ended fillet welds, the
would be welded to a plate area subject to a gas effective length shall be the overall length less twice
temperature exceeding 600 °C. the throat thickness.
3.8.8.4 Link stays. Link stays shall be so arranged For the purposes of stress calculation, the effective
that the angle V (Figure 3.8.8.4) is not less than 60° throat thickness of a butt weld shall be taken as the
and the dimensions shall be such that the stress in thickness of the gusset or anchor plate, and the
the stay at its weakest part does not exceed effective throat thickness of a fillet weld shall be
one-seventh of the minimum tensile strength of the taken as 0.7 of the leg length. For compound welds
plate used. the effective throat thickness shall be the sum of the
3.8.8.5 Anchor plate, links and link pins. The constituent parts.
strength of anchor plates, and link pins calculated Table 3.8.8.6 — Weld attachments
at the weakest section shall be as follows. Form of weld Weld factor
a) Link pins shall be so designed that the shear Single J or bevel butt welds (with or
stress does not exceed 55 N/mm2, the strength of without superimposed fillets)
pins in double shear being taken as 1.875 times Unsealed 0.45
the strength of pins in single shear. Sealed 0.70
b) Anchor plates shall be so designed that the Double J or bevel butt welds (with or
calculated stress does not exceed one-seventh of without superimposed fillets) 0.80
the minimum tensile strength of the material Double fillet welds 0.65
used, but in no case shall the thickness be less
than seven-eighths of the thickness of the shell 3.8.9 A corrosion allowance shall not be required on
plate, with a minimum of 12.5 mm, nor shall the stay bars and other structural members in the
length of the portion attached to the end plate be steam or water space.
less than the distance between the lines of
end-to-shell flat plate breathing space and the
breathing space line around the flues or tube
nests.
© BSI 02-2000 23
BS 2790:1992
3.9 Tubes and tube plates For plain tubes and stay tubes exposed to flame or
gas temperatures exceeding 600 °C, the ends of
3.9.1 Thickness of tubes subject to external
welded tubes shall be dressed flush with the welds
pressure. The thickness of tubes under external
and the ends of the expanded tubes shall be as
pressure shall be calculated using the following
shown in Figure 3.9.2(2)(c) and Figure 3.9.2(2)(d). If
formula. not so exposed, the ends of welded tubes shall
e= PD
--------- + C extend a maximum of 10 mm beyond the weld or, in
2f 1 the case of expanded tubes, the tubes shall project
where beyond the tube plate up to a maximum of 15 mm.
C is the corrosion allowance, to be taken Each stay tube shall be designed to carry its due
as 0.75 mm unless a higher figure is agreed proportion of the load on the plates which it
to take account of adverse conditions; supports. The thickness of stay tubes welded into
tube plates shall be such that the axial stress on the
D is the outside diameter of the tube (in mm);
thinnest part of the tube does not exceed 70 N/mm2.
e is the minimum thickness of the tube
(in mm). 3.9.3 Pitch of tubes. The spacing of tube holes
shall be such that the minimum width in
The tube ordered may have a negative millimetres of any ligament between the tube holes
tolerance, and the calculated thickness shall
shall be not less than 0.125 Dh + 12.5 mm,

be increased to take account of this where Dh is the diameter of the tube hole in
tolerance; millimetres.
f1 = 0.8f, where f is the design stress
3.9.4 Tubes subject to internal pressure
(in N/mm2) (see 3.1.4);
3.9.4.1 The thickness of straight tubes subject to
internal pressure shall be determined by the
In no case, however, shall the thickness of tubes following formula.
under external pressure be less than the values
given in Table 3.9.1.
Table 3.9.1 — Minimum thickness of tubes
under external pressure where
Nominal outside diameter
Minimum C is the corrosion allowance, to be taken
nominal as 0.75 mm, unless a higher figure is
thickness
agreed to take account of adverse
mm mm
conditions;
Not exceeding 38 2.28
D is the outside diameter of tube (in mm);
Exceeding 38 not exceeding 51 2.81
Exceeding 51 not exceeding 70 3.12 e is the minimum thickness of the tube
(in mm).
Exceeding 70 not exceeding 76.1 3.38
Exceeding 76.1 not exceeding 88.9 3.96 The tube ordered may have a negative
Exceeding 88.9 not exceeding 101.6 4.26 tolerance, and the calculated thickness
shall be increased to take account of this
3.9.2 Stay tubes and plain tubes. Stay tubes are tolerance;
tubes having a weld depth equal to the nominal tube f is the design stress (in N/mm2) (see 3.1.4);
thickness plus 3 mm as shown typically in
Figure 3.9.2(1)(a) to Figure 3.9.2(1)(d). These stay
tubes are not required within tube nests except In no case, however, shall the thickness of tubes
when the tube nests comprise tubes which are under internal pressure be less than the values
expanded only as shown typically in Figure 3.9.2(c). given in Table 3.9.4.1.
If tube nests comprise plain tubes that are expanded
and beaded, expanded and belied [as shown
typically in Figure 3.9.2(2)(d)] or expanded and
welded [as shown typically in Figure 3.9.2(2)(a)
and Figure 3.9.2(2)(b)], welded stay tubes [as shown
typically in Figure 3.9.2(1)(a) to Figure 3.9.2(1)(d)]
shall be used in boundary rows in sufficient
numbers to carry the flat plate loadings outside the
tube area.
24 © BSI 02-2000
BS 2790:1992
Table 3.9.4.1 — Minimum thickness of straight 3.9.5 Thickness of tube plates within tube
tubes under internal pressure nests
Minimum The minimum thickness of any tube plate where
Nominal outside diameter nominal plain tubes are attached, as shown in
thickness
Figure 3.9.2(2)(a) to Figure 3.9.2(2)(d), shall
mm mm be 12.5 mm if the diameter of the tube hole does not
Not exceeding 38 1.75 exceed 50 mm, or 14 mm if the diameter of the tube
Exceeding 38 not exceeding 51 2.16 hole is greater than 50 mm.
Exceeding 51 not exceeding 70 2.40 If the tubes are attached to the tube plates by deep
Exceeding 70 not exceeding 76 2.60 welds which have an unwelded land of not more
Exceeding 76 not exceeding 95 3.05 than 3 mm, the tube plates shall be not less
Exceeding 95 not exceeding 102 3.28 than 9 mm thick.
Exceeding 102 not exceeding 127 3.50 The thickness of tube plates shall be calculated
using the formula given in 3.8.2.5, taking b as the
3.9.4.2 Where tubes are bent, the following pitch of the plain tubes and y as 1.56.
requirements shall apply. 3.9.6 Horizontal shelves of tube plates forming
a) Thinning part of the shell
1) At any location around the bend extrados 3.9.6.1 To withstand the vertical load owing to
the reduction in thickness below the calculated pressure on the boiler ends, one of the following two
minimum thickness required for the straight methods shall be used.
tube, expressed as a percentage, (see 3.9.4.1) a) If gussets or other stays are not fitted to the
shall not exceed: shelves, the strength of the parts of the
100 circumferential seams at the top and bottom of
-------------------------------
( 4R/D ) + 2 these plates from the outside of one tube plate to
the outside of the other tube plate shall be
where
sufficient to withstand the whole load on the
R is the mean radius of the bend to the boiler end. The stress on these parts of the
centre line of the tube; circumferential seams shall not exceed Rm/4.5
D is the ordered outside diameter of the (see 3.1.4).
tube. b) If the horizontal shelves of the tube plates are
2) In addition, for cold formed bends that will supported by gussets or other stays, the number
receive no post bend heat treatment, the of such gussets or stays shall be calculated as
amount of thinning at any location around the follows, using the parameter C:
bend extrados shall not exceed 20 % of the
nominal thickness of the tube on the straight.
b) Ovality. The bending process shall be where
controlled so that any distortion from a circular
A is the maximum horizontal dimension of the
cross section tends only to ovality and the ovality
shelf from the inside of the shell plate to the
measured at the bend apex shall not exceed 10 %.
outside of the tube plate (in mm);
The percentage ovality is given by: Di is the inside diameter of the boiler (in mm);
e is the thickness of the tube plate (in mm);
where Then for the combustion chamber tube plates, the

minimum number of gussets shall be as follows.
Dmax is the maximum outside diameter of the
1 gusset where C exceeds 25 000;
tube measured at the bend apex;
2 gussets where C exceeds 35 000;
Dmin is the minimum outside diameter of the
tube measured at the same cross section 3 gussets where C exceeds 42 000.
as Dmax; And for the smoke box tube plate, the minimum
D is the nominal outside diameter of the number of gussets shall be as follows.
tube. 1 gusset where C exceeds 25 000;
2 gussets where C exceeds 47 000.
© BSI 02-2000 25
BS 2790:1992
3.9.6.2 The shell plates to which the sides of the 3.10.1.2 Notation
tube plates are connected shall be not less
than 1.5 mm thicker than is required by the formula b is the pitch of the furnace corrugations
applicable to shell plates with continuous circularity (in mm);
(see 3.2.2). C is the corrosion allowance = 0.75 mm;
3.9.7 Horizontal tube nests in vertical boilers. d is the mean diameter of furnace (in mm)
If vertical boilers have a nest or nests of horizontal (see note 1);
tubes, so that there is direct tension on the tube dmax is the maximum mean diameter of the
plates due to the vertical load on the boiler ends or furnace (in mm);
to tube plates acting as horizontal ties across the dmin is the minimum mean diameter of the
shell, each alternate tube in the outer vertical rows furnace (in mm);
of tubes shall be a stay tube and the thickness of the e is the furnace plate thickness (in mm);
tube plates shall be determined by the following
E is Young’s modulus of elasticity (in N/mm2)
formula.
Et is the specified minimum elevated
temperature yield stress or the 0.2 % proof
stress at the design temperature
(see 3.1.3.2);
where
F is the cross-sectional area of a longitudinal
section of the corrugated furnace wall, of
as 0.75 mm unless a higher figure is agreed
length b and thickness (e – C) (in mm2)
to take account of adverse conditions;
[see Figure 3.10.1.2(a) to Figure 3.10.1.2(g)];
D is twice the radial distance of the centre of
I is the second moment of area of one
the outer row of tube holes from the axis of
complete corrugation about its neutral axis,
the shell (in mm);
excluding the corrosion allowance (in mm4)
e is the thickness of the tube plate (in mm);
[see Figure 3.10.1.2(a) to Figure 3.10.1.2(g)];
J is the efficiency of ligaments between tube
Is is the second moment of area of a plain
holes expressed as a fraction
stiffener section [see Figure 3.10.1.9.2(a)
( S – d) and Figure 3.10.1.9.2(b)] about its neutral
------------------
S axis, including a length of the furnace
where of 0.55Æ(de) on each side of the stiffener
S is the pitch of the tubes in the outer (in mm4)
vertical row (in mm); (see note 2);
d is the diameter of the tube holes L is the distance between the centres of two
(in mm). effective points of support (in mm)
P is the design pressure (in N/mm2); (see note 3);
Rm is the specified minimum tensile strength at P is the design pressure (in N/mm2);
room temperature (in N/mm2). S1 is the factor of safety
= 2.5 for furnaces in classes I and II directly
Tube plates between the stay tubes shall comply
fired and waste heat boilers,
with the requirements for tube plates (see 3.9.5).
= 3.5 for furnaces in class III directly fired
3.10 Furnaces, furnace components, and waste heat boilers,
wet back reversal chambers and = 2.0 for tubes not exposed to flame;
fireboxes of cylindrical form subject to S2 is the factor of safety
external pressure = 3.0 for classes I and II directly fired and
waste heat boilers,
3.10.1 Furnaces
= 3.9 for class III directly fired and waste
3.10.1.1 Maximum furnace diameter. The mean heat boilers;
diameter of furnaces shall not exceed 1 800 mm. u is the percentage out-of-roundness to be
taken as 1.5 for plain furnaces and 1.0 for
corrugated furnaces;
W is the depth of corrugation (in mm).
NOTE 1 For corrugated furnaces, mean diameter is equal to
inside diameter plus full depth of one corrugation; referring to
Figure 3.10.1.2 this is equal to the inside diameter + e + W.
26 © BSI 02-2000
BS 2790:1992
NOTE 2 When calculating Is, it is only necessary to take into 3.10.1.5 Furnace components. The thickness of
account a corrosion allowance on the furnace gas side. furnace components, e.g. ash drop-out tubes and
NOTE 3 Stiffeners complying with Figure 3.10.1.9.2 and boiler
and reversal chamber end plates are considered to be effective fuel inlet connections, shall be calculated in
points of support. accordance with 3.10.1.4, with a minimum
3.10.1.3 Evaluation of Young’s modulus at the thickness of 10 mm and a maximum thickness
design temperature. Values of E shall be obtained of 22 mm.
from the following table (by linear interpolation if Compensation for openings in furnaces shall be
required). provided in accordance with 3.4 except that the use
Design Values of E of pad reinforcement is not permitted and neither
temperature furnace nor branch shall have a thickness
°C N/mm2 × 103 exceeding 22 mm.
250 195 3.10.1.6 Corrugated furnaces. The design pressure
of corrugated furnaces shall be determined using
300 191 the following equation but the thickness shall be not
350 186 less than 10 mm and shall not exceed 22 mm.
400 181
450 178
3.10.1.4 Plain furnaces. The design pressure of

plain furnaces shall be the lower of those obtained
using equations (1) and (2) as follows, but the
thickness shall be not less than 7 mm and shall not
exceed 22 mm. 3.10.1.7 Tolerances and corrosion allowances. The
calculated wall thickness contains a fixed allowance
of 0.75 mm for corrosion and wear. For corrugated
furnaces the calculated wear thickness shall be the
(1) minimum thickness of the finished furnace. For
plain furnaces and reversal chambers, allowance
shall be made to take account of any minus
tolerances on the plate thickness.
3.10.1.8 Out-of-roundness. The percentage
out-of-roundness is as follows.
(2)
Equations (1) and (2) may be expressed in terms of

thickness using equations (3) and (4), respectively,
This shall be included in the calculation as u = 1.0
as follows, and the greater of the thicknesses
for corrugated furnaces and u = 1.5 for plain
obtained shall be used.
furnaces.
3.10.1.9 Stiffeners
(3) 3.10.1.9.1 Stiffeners shall have a second moment of
area not less than given by the following equation.
where
(4)
© BSI 02-2000 27
BS 2790:1992
3.10.1.9.2 If stiffeners are made in sections from bar 3.10.2 Reversal chambers
or plate, the abutting ends shall be prepared so as to 3.10.2.1 The thickness of wrapper plates of
ensure that full penetration welds are made. cylindrical reversal chambers of horizontal
The thickness of the stiffening ring shall be kept to multi-tubular boilers shall be calculated in
the minimum required [for limiting dimensions see accordance with the equations given in 3.10.1.4.
Figure 3.10.1.9.2(a) and Figure 3.10.1.9.2(b)]. Full Where non-circular geometry is employed using
penetration welds shall be used to attach stiffeners plates of differing radii, the thickness shall be
to furnaces. calculated using the maximum radius. Where the
3.10.1.9.3 Bowling hoops are considered as effective use of reversed curvature sections is involved, a
points of support. The minimum pitch of bowling check shall be made that the sections will sustain
hoop centres shall, for calculation purposes, be the design pressure without the design stress being
taken as not less than 500 mm. If bowling hoops are exceeded and, if necessary, the thickness
used, the furnace thickness shall be calculated appropriately increased. A suggested method is
from 3.10.1.4. The dimensions of bowling hoops given in Appendix G. The thickness shall be not
shall be in accordance with Figure 3.10.1.9.3(a), greater than 35 mm and shall be not less
Figure 3.10.1.9.3(b) and Figure 3.10.1.9.3(c) and than 10 mm.
their second moment of area, determined from the 3.10.2.2 The thickness of access tubes shall be
tables given in these figures, less shall be not than calculated in accordance with 3.10.1.4 with a
required by 3.10.1.9.1. minimum thickness of 10 mm.
3.10.1.9.4 If corrugated furnaces are equipped with 3.10.3 Fireboxes and associated components
several stiffeners, e.g. one on each corrugation or on
3.10.3.1 Fireboxes of vertical boilers. The thickness
each second corrugation, the cross-sectional area
of fireboxes shall be obtained by use of the equations
and the second moment of area of the stiffeners shall
given in 3.10.1.4, where all the symbols have the
also be taken into consideration when using the
same significance except that
equation given in 3.10.1.6. A height of not more
than six times the furnace thickness shall be used d is the mean diameter of firebox (in mm).
for the calculation. If the firebox is tapered, the diameter taken
shall be the mean of that at the top and at
3.10.1.10 Flexibility
the bottom where it meets the substantial
3.10.1.10.1 Plain furnaces shall not exceed 3 m in support from the flange or ring;
length except in the case of reverse flame boilers, L is the effective length (in mm) of the firebox
which are considered to be inherently flexible. In all as indicated in Figure 3.1(5)(b).
other cases flexibility shall be provided in the
furnace by means of corrugations or bowling hoops. In no case shall the thickness be less than 10 mm,
nor shall it exceed 22 mm, and the mean diameter of
If corrugations are used to provide flexibility, at
fireboxes shall not exceed 1 800 mm.
least one-third of the furnace length shall be
corrugated. 3.10.3.2 Uptakes. The thickness of uptakes shall be
obtained by use of the equations given in 3.10.1.4
3.10.1.10.2 If the length of the plain portion of a
using a corrosion allowance of 4 mm instead
corrugated furnace does not exceed 250 mm, it is not
of 0.75 mm.
necessary to calculate the thickness. If the length of
the plain portion of a corrugated furnace 3.10.3.3 Cross tubes. Cross tubes shall not
exceeds 250 mm, the total length of both sections exceed 300 mm internal diameter. The thickness
shall be used for calculating the thickness of the shall be determined from the equation given in 3.2.2
corrugated furnace and 1.5 times the length of the but in no case shall it be less than 10 mm.
plain sections shall be used for calculating the 3.10.3.4 Hemispherical fireboxes. The minimum
thickness of the plain section. thickness of unsupported hemispherical fireboxes
subject to pressure on the convex surface shall be
determined in accordance with 3.10.3.5 but the
thickness shall be not less than 10 mm and shall not
exceed 22 mm.
28 © BSI 02-2000
BS 2790:1992
3.10.3.5 Spherical shells under external 3.10.3.7 Ogee rings and base flanges
pressure [see Figure 3.10.3(a) and Figure 3.10.3(b)]. The
3.10.3.5.1 General. The design of spherical shells thickness of the Ogee ring or base flange which
shall be checked to ensure that neither elastic connects the bottom of the firebox to the shell of a
instability nor membrane yield occur. The allowable vertical boiler and sustains the whole vertical lead
design pressure shall be the smaller of the values on the firebox shall be determined as follows.
of P obtained in 3.10.3.5.2 and 3.10.3.5.3.
3.10.3.5.2 Calculation of elastic instability. The
design pressure P shall be determined from the
following equation. where
as 0.75 mm unless a higher figure is agreed
to take account of adverse conditions;
where do is the outside diameter of the lower part of
the firebox where it joins the Ogee ring or
e is the thickness (in mm);
base flange
E is Young’s modulus at the design (in mm);
temperature (in N/mm2);

Di is the inside diameter of the boiler shell
P is the design pressure (in N/mm2); (in mm);
Ro is the outside radius (in mm); eg is the thickness of the Ogee ring or base
3.10.3.5.3 Calculations of membrane yield. The flange
design pressure P shall be determined from the [in (mm)];
following equation. P is the design pressure (in N/mm2).
3.10.3.8 U-rings. Where a U-ring section is used as
shown in Figure 3.10.3(c) the thickness obtained
from the equation given in 3.10.3.7 shall be
where increased by 20 %.
Et is the lower yield stress or 0.2 % proof stress 3.10.3.9 Firebox plates under compression. The
at the design temperature (in N/mm2). thickness of firebox tube plates under compression
The remaining symbols are as in 3.10.3.5.2. due to the pressure on the crown plate, based on a
3.10.3.6 Dished ends having pressure on the convex compressive stress of 97 N/mm2, shall not be less
side (excluding the top end plates of vertical boiler than that given by
fireboxes); see 3.3.6.
3.10.3.6.1 Dished heads shall comply with the shape
limitations given in 3.3. Hemispherical heads shall where
be designed as spherical shells, in accordance
with 3.10.3.5. di is the internal diameter of the plain tubes
(in mm);
3.10.3.6.2 Torispherical heads shall be designed as
e is the thickness of the plate (in mm);
spherical shells as outlined in 3.10.3.5 and in
addition the thickness shall not be less l is the internal length of firebox (in mm)
than 1.2 times the thickness required for a head of measured at the top between the tube plate
the same shape subject to internal pressure. and the back plate;
3.10.3.6.3 Semi-ellipsoidal heads shall be designed P is the design pressure (in N/mm2);
as spherical shells as required by 3.10.3.5, taking V is the pitch of tubes (in mm) measured
the maximum radius of the crown as the equivalent horizontally where the tubes are chain
spherical radius, and in addition the thickness shall pitched, or diagonally where the tubes are
not be less than 1.2 times the thickness required for zig-zag pitched and the diagonal pitch is less
a head of the same shape subject to internal than the horizontal pitch.
pressure.
© BSI 02-2000 29
BS 2790:1992
NOTE The radiant heating surface consists of the furnace, the wrapper plate and the wet back rear plate.
Figure 3.1(1) — Wet back boiler
NOTE The radiant heating surface consists of the furnace.

Figure 3.1(2) — Dry back boiler
30 © BSI 02-2000
BS 2790:1992
NOTE The radiant heating surface consists of the furnace and the wrapper plate.
Figure 3.1(3) — Semi-wet back boiler
NOTE The radiant heating surface consists of the furnace.

Figure 3.1(4) — Reverse fired boiler
© BSI 02-2000 31
BS 2790:1992
NOTE The radiant heating surface consists of the firebox and the crosstubes.
(a) Part sectional view
Figure 3.1(5) — Vertical boiler
32 © BSI 02-2000
BS 2790:1992
(b) Firebox showing the effective length L for use in the equations given in 3.10.1.4
Figure 3.1(5) — Vertical boiler (concluded)
© BSI 02-2000 33
BS 2790:1992
Figure 3.1(6) — Relationship between furnace diameter and permissible heat input
34 © BSI 02-2000
© BSI 02-2000
Figure 3.2.5.2 — Design of saddle supports
35
BS 2790:1992
36
BS 2790:1992
Figure 3.2.5.2 — Design of saddle supports (concluded)
© BSI 02-2000
© BSI 02-2000
Figure 3.3(1) — Typical dished ends
37
BS 2790:1992
38
BS 2790:1992
Figure 3.3(2) — Shape factor
© BSI 02-2000
BS 2790:1992
Figure 3.3(3) — Openings in ends
Figure 3.3(4) — Limits of reinforcement
© BSI 02-2000 39
BS 2790:1992
A is the thickness calculated in accordance with the formula given in 3.2.2 taking Z equal to 1.0 and disregarding the minimum
thickness required by 3.2.2.
B is the thickness of the branch calculated in accordance with the formula given in 3.2.2 taking Z equal to 1.0 and disregarding the
minimum thickness required by 3.2.2.
C is the smaller of the two values: 2.5e or (2.5ea + er).
D is the greater of the two values: (e + 75 mm) or d/2.
X is the area requiring compensation, denoted by
Y is the compensating area, denoted by
NOTE er is to be equal to zero when there is no compensating plate on the side of the shell under consideration.
Figure 3.4.4 — Compensation of welded branch up to one-third of the diameter
of the boiler shell
40 © BSI 02-2000
BS 2790:1992
NOTE For details of the weld preparation, see the examples given in Appendix B.
Figure 3.5 — Welding of manhole frames and compensating plates
© BSI 02-2000 41
BS 2790:1992
Figure 3.6.1(1) — Welding detail for manhole frame in flat end plate
Figure 3.6.1(2) — Compensation for elliptical manholes and inspection openings

in flat end plates
42 © BSI 02-2000
© BSI 02-2000
Figure 3.6.1(3) — Compensation for branch in flat end plate
43
BS 2790:1992
44
BS 2790:1992
© BSI 02-2000
NOTE For dimensions of breathing spaces, see 3.8.1. If the furnace or end plate is flanged, the breathing space is taken from the commencement of curvature.
Figure 3.8.1(1) — Typical arrangement of end plate on a multitubular boiler
BS 2790:1992
Figure 3.8.1(2) — Typical arrangement of end plate on Cornish boiler
© BSI 02-2000 45
BS 2790:1992
Figure 3.8.1(3) — Typical arrangement of end plate on a Lancashire boiler
46 © BSI 02-2000
© BSI 02-2000
Figure 3.8.2(1) — Use of sub-circles (twin furnace)
47
BS 2790:1992
48
BS 2790:1992
Figure 3.8.2(2) — Use of sub-circles (single furnace)
© BSI 02-2000
49 © BSI 02-2000
Figure 3.8.2(3) — Determination of factory y (see 3.8.2.5)
BS 2790:1992
BS 2790:1992
Figure 3.8.2(4) — Example of a gusset stay that impinges on the main circle
other than at a tangent
50 © BSI 02-2000
BS 2790:1992
NOTE This form of attachment is also suitable for plain bar stays.
(a) (b)
All dimensions are in millimetres.
Figure 3.8.2(5) — Attachment of firebox and reversal chamber stays
© BSI 02-2000 51
52
BS 2790:1992
NOTE If ew is less than 0.35D, the form of construction shown in Figure 3.8.2(6)(a) is to
be used.
(a) (b)
© BSI 02-2000

Figure 3.8.2(6) — Attachment of bar stays with washers
© BSI 02-2000
NOTE If ew is less than 0.35D, the form of construction shown in Figure 3.8.2(6)(c) is to
BS 2790:1992
be used.
(c) (d)
Figure 3.8.2(6) — Attachment of bar stays with washers (continued)

53
BS 2790:1992
See 3.8.2.6 and B.4.4.

Figure 3.8.2(7) — Access opening for wet back boilers
54 © BSI 02-2000
BS 2790:1992
NOTE Girders may be shaped to either the full or the chain dotted lines as shown above.
(a)
Figure 3.8.2(8) — Typical methods of fitting welded girders to reversal chambers (continued)
© BSI 02-2000 55
BS 2790:1992
Figure 3.8.2(8) — Typical methods of fitting welded girders to reversal chambers (continued)
56 © BSI 02-2000
BS 2790:1992
Figure 3.8.2(8) — Typical methods of fitting welded girders to reversal chambers (concluded)
© BSI 02-2000 57
BS 2790:1992
If stays are fitted, y shall be taken as If stays are note fitted, y shall be taken as 1.56.
defined in 3.8.2.5.
Figure 3.8.3 — Flat end plates of a vertical boiler
58 © BSI 02-2000
BS 2790:1992
Figure 3.8.5.1 — Bar stays for the rear plate of wet back reversal chambers
© BSI 02-2000 59
60
BS 2790:1992
Figure 3.8.8.3(1) — Attachment of welded gusset stays
© BSI 02-2000
BS 2790:1992
Figure 3.8.8.3(2) — Typical details for welded and pinned gusset stays
NOTE Broken lines indicate stay with multiple links.

Figure 3.8.8.4 — Typical details for diagonal link stays
© BSI 02-2000 61
62
BS 2790:1992
Figure 3.9.2(1) — Typical attachment of stay tubes
© BSI 02-2000
© BSI 02-2000
Figure 3.9.2(2) — Typical attachment of plain tubes
63
BS 2790:1992
BS 2790:1992
e–C I F
mm4 × 104 mm2 × 102
8.25 13.9 11.1

9.25 15.8 12.5
10.25 17.8 13.8
11.25 19.9 15.2
12.25 22.1 16.5
13.25 24.4 17.9
(a) Fox type furnaces (115 mm corrugation and 30 mm depth)
e–C I F
mm × 10
4 4 mm2 × 102
9.25 31.9 16.1

10.25 35.7 17.9
11.25 39.6 19.6
12.25 43.6 21.4
13.25 47.8 23.1
14.25 52.1 24.9
15.25 56.6 26.6
16.25 61.2 28.4
17.25 66.0 30.1
18.25 71.0 31.8
19.25 76.2 33.6
20.25 81.6 35.3
21.25 87.3 37.1
(b) Fox type furnaces (150 mm corrugation and 38 mm depth)
e–C I F
mm × 10
4 4
mm2 × 102
9.25 37.7 16.5
10.25 42.2 18.3
11.25 46.8 20.1
12.25 51.5 21.9
13.25 56.3 23.6
14.25 61.3 25.4
15.25 66.4 27.2
16.25 71.8 29.0
17.25 77.3 30.8
(c) Fox type furnaces (150 mm corrugation and 41 mm depth) 18.25 83.0 32.6
19.25 88.9 34.3
20.25 95.0 36.1
21.25 101.4 37.9
All dimensions in millimetres.
Figure 3.10.1.2 — Second moments of area I and cross-sectional area F
64 © BSI 02-2000
BS 2790:1992
e–C I F
mm4 × 104 mm2 × 102
9.25 38.6 20.2
10.25 43.2 22.4
11.25 47.8 24.6
12.25 52.6 26.8
13.25 57.5 29.0

14.25 62.6 31.2
15.25 67.8 33.4
16.25 73.2 35.6
17.25 78.8 37.8
18.25 84.6 40.0
19.25 90.6 42.1
20.25 96.8 44.3
21.25 103.3 46.5
(d) Morrison type furnaces (200 mm corrugation and 38 mm depth)
e–C I F
mm4 × 104 mm2 × 102
9.25 45.6 20.5
10.25 50.9 22.7
11.25 56.3 25.0
12.25 61.8 27.2
13.25 67.5 29.4
14.25 73.3 31.6
15.25 79.3 33.8
16.25 85.5 36.1
17.25 91.8 38.3
18.25 98.4 40.5
19.25 105.2 42.7
20.25 112.2 44.9
21.25 119.5 47.2
(e) Morrison type furnaces (200 mm corrugation and 41 mm depth)
All dimensions are in millimitres.
Figure 3.10.1.2 — Second moments of area I and cross-sectional area F (continued)
© BSI 02-2000 65
BS 2790:1992
e–C I F
mm4 × 104 mm2 × 102
9.25 35.6 16.4

10.25 37.7 18.0
11.25 39.6 19.6
12.25 41.2 21.2
13.25 42.7 22.8
14.25 44.1 24.4
15.25 45.3 25.9
16.25 46.4 27.4
17.25 47.4 28.9
(f) Fox type furnaces (150 mm corrugation and 50 mm total depth) 18.25 48.3 30.4
19.25 49.2 31.9
20.25 50.1 33.3
21.25 51.0 34.8
e–C I F
mm4 × 104 mm2 × 102
9.25 129.4 23.3

10.25 138.9 25.7
11.25 147.7 28.0
12.25 155.9 30.4
13.25 163.5 32.6
14.25 170.5 34.9
15.25 177.0 37.1
16.25 183.0 39.4
17.25 188.5 41.5
18.25 193.6 43.7
19.25 198.4 45.8
20.25 202.8 48.0
21.25 206.9 50.0
(g) Fox type furnaces (200 mm corrugation and 75 mm total depth)
Figure 3.10.1.2 — Second moments of area I and cross-sectional area F (concluded)
66 © BSI 02-2000
BS 2790:1992
Figure 3.10.1.9.2 — Furnace stiffeners for plain and corrugated sections
© BSI 02-2000 67
BS 2790:1992
e–C I
mm4 × 106
9.25 1.9
10.25 2.11
11.25 2.32
12.25 2.53
13.25 2.74
14.25 2.96
15.25 3.18
16.25 3.40
17.25 3.62
18.25 3.85
19.25 4.08
20.25 4.31
21.25 4.55
(a)
e–C I
mm4 × 106
9.25 1.3
10.25 1.44
11.25 1.59
12.25 1.74
13.25 1.90
14.25 2.04
15.25 2.2
16.25 2.36
17.25 2.52
18.25 2.68
19.25 2.84
20.25 3.01
21.25 3.18
(b)
e–C I
mm4 × 106
9.25 1.14
10.25 1.28
11.25 1.41
12.25 1.55
13.25 1.7
14.25 1.86
15.25 2.04
16.25 2.22
17.25 2.41
18.25 2.6
19.25 2.8
20.25 3.01
21.25 3.22
(c)
Figure 3.10.1.9.3 — Bowling hoops
68 © BSI 02-2000
© BSI 02-2000
Figure 3.10.3 — Attachment of fireboxes to shells
69
BS 2790:1992
BS 2790:1992
Section 4. Workmanship and construction in

fabrication other than welding
4.1 Plate identification The allowable measured peaking $p shall be equal
to or less than the smaller of (e/4 + 0.5 mm) and the
In laying out and cutting the plates, the plate
value calculated in accordance with 4.4.2.2.1
identification mark shall be located so as to be
clearly visible after the pressure part is completed. If this limit is exceeded, the shell shall be rerolled
If the plate’s identification mark is unavoidably cut until a satisfactory result is achieved. In this case
out, it shall be transferred by the pressure part the seam shall be subjected to magnetic particle
manufacturer to another part of this component to inspection (see 4.4.2.4.)
the satisfaction of the Inspecting Authority. 4.4.2.3 Out-of-roundness. The difference between
the maximum and minimum diameter of any
4.2 Cold forming of plate section of a shell welded longitudinally shall
conform to the tolerances of 3.2.3(c) with a
If the inside radius of curvature is less than ten
maximum of (D + 1250)/200, where D is the nominal
times the plate thickness, the plate shall be
internal diameter in millimetres.
subsequently normalized.
Measurements shall be made to the surface of the
4.3 Cutting of forgings parent plate and not to a weld, fitting, or other
raised part.
Forgings shall be cut to size and shape by machining
NOTE Shell sections may be measured for out-of-roundness
and/or thermal cutting. either when lying horizontal or when set up on end.
If the shell section is checked while lying horizontal,
4.4 Cylindrical shells the maximum and minimum diameters at any cross
4.4.1 Construction. Each ring shall be formed section shall be measured. These reference
from not more than two plates, each plate being bent diameters shall be re-measured after rotating the
to the correct radius to the extreme ends, except shell through 90° about its horizontal axis.
where the design incorporates flat tube plates which The mean of the maxima and the mean of the
form part of the shell. minima from the two sets of measurements shall be
The bending shall be done entirely by machine. used in calculating the out-of-roundness.
Neither local heating nor hammering shall be used. 4.4.2.4 Cold rolling. If cold rolling of a welded shell
The longitudinal seam or seams may be placed in is used to rectify a small departure from circularity,
any suitable position(s), but the seams in successive non-destructive testing in accordance with 5.6 shall
rings shall not fall in line. be carried out after rolling.
Wherever possible, the design shall be such that the
4.5 Reinforcing plates
longitudinal seams are accessible for inspection.
Reinforcing plates shall bed closely to the plates to
4.4.2 Shell sections of completed boilers
which they are to be connected. Any welds in the
4.4.2.1 Straightness. The maximum deviation of the reinforcing plate are to be on the transverse centre
shell from a straight line shall not exceed 0.3 % of line.
the total cylindrical length and 5 mm in any 5 m
Reinforcing plates and saddles of nozzles attached
length. Measurements shall be made to the surface
to the outside of a boiler shall be provided with at
of the parent plate and not to a weld, fitting or other
least one telltale hole. If reinforcing plates are
raised part.
attached to the inside of the shell, tell-tale holes
4.4.2.2 Irregularities in profile shall be drilled in the shell [see Figure 3.5(b)].
4.4.2.2.1 Gradual local departures from circularity.
Irregularities in profile (checked by a 20° gauge or a
needle gauge) shall not exceed 5 % of the nominal
shell plate thickness e plus 3 mm.
This maximum value may be increased by 25 % if
the length of the irregularities does not exceed 1 m.
4.4.2.2.2 Peaking at welded seams. Where any local
departure from circularity is due, either wholly or in
part, to the presence of flats adjacent to a welded
seam, the peaking shall be measured in accordance
with 4.4.2.2.1. Where a profile gauge is used, its
chord shall extend beyond the flats.
70 © BSI 02-2000
BS 2790:1992
4.6 End plates and tube plates The extension of tube ends beyond the tube plate
shall be in accordance with 3.9.2. If tubes are
4.6.1 Flat or dished ends shall be made in one piece,
welded to the tube plate in accordance with
except that if the diameter is so large that this is
Figure 3.9.2(1)(a), Figure 3.9.2(1)(b) or
impracticable, flat ends shall be made from two
Figure 3.9.2(1)(c) or Figure 3.9.2(2)(a) or
plates butt-welded together [see 5.4.11.3 and Figure 3.9.2(2)(b), the unwelded portion of the tube
Figure B(2)]. The weld shall be located preferably within the tube hole shall be in full contact with the
between two rows of bar stays or, if there is only one
tube place except that stay tubes more than 6 mm
row of bar stays, between this row and the top row
thick may be welded only, provided that the length
of tubes. Dishing and peripheral flanging of end
of the unwelded land does not exceed four times the
plates shall be done by machine. Such flanging
tube wall thickness.
should preferably be done in one operation, but, if
NOTE Tubes may be welded after stress relief of the boiler.
this is impracticable, creep machine flanging may
be permitted provided that the plate is worked at a 4.7.2 Plain tubes. If tubes are expanded only, the
suitable temperature and heated to an adequate process shall be carried out with roller expanders,
and the expanded portion of the tube shall be
distance beyond the portion under immediate
parallel through the full thickness of the tube plate.
treatment. Care shall be taken to see that the
In addition to expanding, tubes may be belied or
flanges are cylindrical, of good surface, and free
beaded (see 3.9.2).
from local irregularities. Plates which have been

dished or flanged at non-uniform temperatures or 4.7.3 Stay tubes. Examples of stay tube welding
which have been locally heated shall be normalized attachments are shown in Figure 3.9.2(1)(a),
after forming unless otherwise agreed between the Figure 3.9.2(1)(b), Figure 3.9.2(1)(c) and
manufacturer and the Inspecting Authority Figure 3.9.2(1)(d).
[see 1.7.2.3 e)].
4.6.2 If hemispherical shell top end plates are
4.8 Access and inspection openings
pressed from one plate, they shall be pressed to form 4.8.1 Materials. Frames and doors shall be of steel
by machine in progressive stages without thinning complying with the requirements of section 2.
below the calculated end thickness and shall be 4.8.2 Location. In no case shall the major axis of
normalized on completion, except that normalizing any opening exceed twice the minor axis of the
may be omitted in the case of hot formed ends when opening.
the forming process is completed at temperatures NOTE Oval openings should preferably be arranged with the
within the normalizing range. minor axis parallel with the longitudinal centreline of the boiler.
4.6.3 If dished ends or firebox top end plates are If the manhole is located in or between tube nests in
used, they shall be flanged for connection to the multi-tubular boilers or below the furnaces of twin
shell or the cylindrical portion of the firebox. Flat furnace boilers, the stay tubes in the boundary rows,
shell and firebox top end plates of vertical boilers or gusset stays, as applicable, shall be arranged as
shall also be flanged for connection to the cylindrical close as practicable to the manhole.
portions of the shell or firebox. 4.8.3 Frames. Oval frames of the flanged type shall
4.6.4 The opening in the firebox top end plate of a be formed to fit closely to the shell and provide a
vertical boiler for the uptake shall be flanged and mating surface for the door joint. Where practicable,
the connection to the uptake made by means of a such frames shall be attached to the inside of the
circumferential butt weld shell with the shorter axis parallel to the
[see Figure B(1)(a), Figure B(1)(b), Figure B(1)(c) longitudinal centreline of the boiler.
and Figure B(1)(d)]. Oval frames shall be either formed in one piece
without welding, or formed from a suitable rolled
4.7 Plain tubes and stay tubes section fabricated by fusion welding. Welds in
4.7.1 General. Tubes shall be welded or expanded fabricated manhole frames shall be positioned so
into the tube plate or secured by a combination of that they are in a plane at right angles to the
both methods. longitudinal axis of the boiler.
The joint face of manhole frames shall be not less
than 17.5 mm wide.
A typical form of manhole frame and attachment is
shown in Figure B(30).
4.8.4 Jointing flanges. Faces for gaskets shall be
machined on doors and frames. Bearing faces shall
be machined for nuts and bolt heads.
© BSI 02-2000 71
BS 2790:1992
4.8.5 Internal doors 4.9.1.2 If flanged mountings up to and

4.8.5.1 Doors shall be formed to fit closely to the including 75 mm bore are to be attached to flat
internal joint surface and shall be fitted with studs, plates, they shall be either carried on seatings as
nuts and cross bars. described in 4.9.1.1 or attached directly to the flat
plate and secured by studs. If the studs are screwed
4.8.5.2 Doors for openings larger through the plate, nuts of full thickness shall be
than 250 mm × 175 mm shall have two studs. For fitted on the inside of the boiler.
openings of 250 mm × 175 mm or less, either one or
two studs shall be fitted. 4.9.1.3 If seatings are fabricated by fusion welding
and require stress-relieving in accordance
NOTE Doors for openings not larger than 125 mm × 90 mm
with one stud may have the stud forged integrally with the door. with 5.5, they shall be stress-relieved before
4.8.5.3 Door studs shall be of welding quality steel attachment unless the whole boiler is to be heat
treated on completion.
having a minimum specified tensile strength of not
less than 360 N/mm2, and those for manholes shall 4.9.1.4 If flanged nozzles or branches are used, the
be not less than 30 mm diameter. They shall be flanges shall be machined or thermal cut by
attached to the door by one of the following methods: machine on the edges and shall be machined on the
a) screwed through the plate and fillet-welded on jointing and bolting surfaces.
the inside; or 4.9.1.5 If pads are used, the jointing surfaces shall
be machined. The pads shall have sufficient

b) fillet-welded each side of the plate with a leg
thickness to allow drilling of the stud holes for
length of not less than 10 mm; or
mountings without the inner surface being pierced
c) attached to the door by an intermediate plate or and the length of the screwed portion of the stud in
lugs so that the strength of the attachment is not the pad shall be not less than the diameter of the
less than the strength of the stud, and the studs stud.
are prevented from turning.
4.9.2 Screwed mountings directly connected to
4.8.5.4 The spigot part or recess of internal the boiler shell or end plates. Mountings with
manhole, headhole, handhole and sighthole doors screwed ends shall be used only where the internal
shall be as neat a fit as practicable and the spigot diameter does not exceed 25 mm and where the
depth shall be sufficient to trap the gasket and to design pressure does not exceed 1.2 N/mm2. The
ensure that the spigot enters the opening before the screwed portion of any such mounting shall be an
gasket comes under compression. The total integral part of it. The mountings shall be screwed
clearance between the frame and the spigot or directly into the plate, with nuts on the water side.
recess of such doors shall not exceed 3 mm,
i.e. 1.5 mm all round. 4.9.3 Screwed mountings fitted to screwed
branches
4.8.5.5 Nuts shall comply with appropriate British
Standards and shall be machined on the seating Screwed mountings not exceeding 80 mm bore shall
surface. be fitted to suitably screwed branches welded to the
boiler. The screwed portion of the mounting shall
4.8.5.6 Cross bars shall be of steel (see section 2) and
comply with BS 21. The mounting shall be suitable
shall be forged or cut from plate having a minimum
for the operating pressure and temperature of the
specified tensile strength of 360 N/mm2. The seating
boiler.
surface shall be flat.
4.9.4 Bolts and nuts. All bolt and stud holes shall
be drilled. Bolts and nuts shall be machined where
in contact with flanges.
4.9 Seatings for mountings
4.9.1 Flanged mountings, bolted or studded 4.10 Horizontal cylindrical furnaces
4.9.1.1 Except as stated in 4.9.1.2, flanged 4.10.1 Horizontal cylindrical furnaces shall be
mountings shall be carried on suitable forged, cast constructed in one of the following ways.
or fabricated steel seatings in the form of short a) In sections from not more than two plates, in
nozzles, branches, forged pads or pads cut from which case the longitudinal seam shall be
plate or round bar. Typical examples of the butt-welded in accordance with section 5.
attachment of seatings to boiler plates are shown
in Appendix B. b) From carbon steel pipes complying with the
requirements of the following British Standards.
BS 3602-1: HFS or CFS, grade 430
BS 3602-2: LAW, grade 430 and 490
BS 3601: S, grade 430
72 © BSI 02-2000
BS 2790:1992
The tensile strength and minus tolerances on The method of welding shall be in accordance
thickness given in those standards shall be taken with section 5.
into account. If LAW pipe is used, the longitudinal Flats formed in the firebox for the insertion of water
seam shall be non-destructively tested in tubes shall have an ample radius at the junction of
accordance with 5.6.2.2.1. the flat and the curved surfaces and shall be free
4.10.2 Out-of-roundness as defined in 3.10.1.8 shall from sharp corners or tool marks. The plate shall
not exceed 1.0 % for corrugated furnaces or 1.5 % for not be thinned below the calculated thickness.
plain furnaces with a maximum variation in An ogee flange, whether integral with the firebox or
diameter of any cross section of 6.5 mm or half the made as a separate ring, shall preferably be formed
thickness, whichever is the greater. Any departure at one heat by suitable machinery and shall be
from circularity shall be gradual. allowed to cool gradually to avoid internal stresses.
4.10.3 The longitudinal welds shall break joint in Rings for firehole openings or foundation rings shall
successive sections by at least 150 mm. be made of steel in accordance with the
4.10.4 If the furnace sections are flanged hot for requirements specified in section 2. Z sections shall
circumferential joints, the flanging shall be carried not be used for foundation rings.
out at one heat. Subsequently, sections shall be Methods of attachment of the firebox to the shell
normalized unless flanging be carried out within the shall be in accordance with Figure 3.10.3(a),
normalizing temperature range. If the furnace Figure 3.10.3(b) or Figure 3.10.3(c). Typical
sections are flanged cold, they shall be subsequently methods of attachment of firehole openings are
normalized and the flanges shall be subjected to shown in Figure B(10).
surface crack detection on both sides of the plate by 4.11.2 Hemispherical fireboxes. Hemispherical
the magnetic particle method. Cold spinning of fireboxes shall meet the requirements of 4.6.2.
furnace sections is not permitted.
4.11.3 Water-cooled reversal chambers. Where
4.10.5 Edges of all furnace flanges shall be reversal chamber tube plates or end plates are
machined or thermal-cut by machine. flanged for attachment to wrapper plates the
4.10.6 If stiffeners are required, they shall be cylindrical portion shall be not less than 2e
attached by means of continuous full penetration or 38 mm long, whichever is greater. Flat plates
welding in accordance with Figure 3.10.1.9.2. connected to wrapper plates shall have an internal
4.10.7 The projection of furnace plates beyond end fillet weld with a minimum leg length of 6 mm
plates or reversal chamber tube plates shall not (see 5.3.2.4). Typical examples of connections are
exceed 3 mm. The end of the furnace plate corner shown in Figure B(4)(a) to Figure B(4)(e).
exposed to flame or hot gas shall be ground to Access opening frames shall be attached as shown
produce a radius of not less than e/2. The cylindrical in Figure 3.8.2(7).
portion of the flanged end plates connected to 4.11.4 Uptakes. Uptakes shall be formed from
furnace plates shall be not less than 50 mm long. seamless or longitudinally welded tube, or
Typical examples of connections are shown butt-welded plate, and shall be butt-welded to the
in Figure B(5), Figure B(5)(a), Figure B(5)(b), upward flange of the opening in the firebox top end
Figure B(5)(c) or Figure B(6). plate.
The depth of the flange of the firebox top end plate
4.11 Fireboxes and reversal chambers
opening from the commencement of the curvature of
4.11.1 Plain circular fireboxes. The cylindrical the flange shall be not less than twice the plate
portion shall preferably be formed from one plate in thickness with a minimum of 25 mm.
a similar manner to the shell plates. The maximum The uptake shall be attached to the shell top end
permissible variation in diameter at any cross plate as indicated in Figure B(5)(a), Figure B(5)(b),
section shall not exceed 6.5 mm for fireboxes up Figure B(5)(c) or Figure B(6).
to 900 mm diameter, or 9.5 mm for fireboxes
over 900 mm diameter, or half the thickness of If the vertical seam of the uptake is butt-welded the
the plate, whichever is the greater. welding shall comply with the requirements of
section 5 and the weld shall be arranged so that it is
Vertical fireboxes shall preferably be tapered, a directly facing the manhole.
taper of 1 in 8 on diameter being recommended.
NOTE The uptake should be fitted with an internal cast iron
The water space at the bottom between the firebox liner extending below the low-water level.
and the shell shall be not less than 50 mm for
boilers up to and including 750 mm diameter and
not less than 63 mm for boilers over 750 mm
diameter.
© BSI 02-2000 73
BS 2790:1992
4.12 Cross tubes and stays Clearance holes shall be cylindrical having a
diameter not exceeding that of the bar stay by more
4.12.1 Cross tubes. Cross tubes shall be made from
than 3 mm.
seamless steel tubes (see section 2). The tube shall
be fusion-welded in position as shown typically in 4.12.4 Firebox stays. Firebox stays shall be
Figure B(8). secured to the plates which they support by welding
[see Figure 3.8.2(5)(a) and Figure 3.8.2(5)(b)].
4.12.2 Stays. All bar stays or firebox stays shall be
made from solid rolled bar without welds in the 4.12.5 Gusset stays. Gusset stays shall be flat and
length, except those attaching them to the plates perpendicular to the end plates.
they support. Bar stays which have been hot-worked 4.12.6 Girder stays. The attachment of girder
shall be subsequently normalized. stays welded directly to the crown plates shall be by
NOTE 1 When a stay is in position in the boiler, its axis should means of full penetration welds, and shall comply
be normal to the plate it supports. with the details shown in Figure 3.8.2(8)(a) to
A tell-tale hole shall be drilled along the axis of all Figure 3.8.2(8)(f). Each girder shall be of sufficient
bar and firebox stays. strength to support its due proportion of the load on
NOTE 2 The diameter of the holes should not exceed 5 mm and the top end plate independently of the crown plate,
the drilling should extend 13 mm beyond the water surface of the and the attachment welds shall have sufficient
plate. cross-sectional area to carry the applied load
4.12.3 Bar stays. Bar stays shall be secured to the (see 3.8.8.6)
plates they support by one of the following methods.
a) Plain bars passing through clearance holes in
the plates and welded [see Figure 3.8.2(5)(a)
and Figure 3.8.2(5)(b)].
b) Plain bars passing through clearance holes in
the plates and fitted with washers on the outside,
the stay and washers being welded to the plates
in accordance with any one of the methods shown
in Figure 3.8.2(6)(a) to Figure 3.8.2(6)(d).
74 © BSI 02-2000
BS 2790:1992
Section 5. Workmanship and construction in welding
5.1 General 5.3.2 Design of welded joints

5.1.1 The rules in this section are applicable to 5.3.2.1 The design of welded joints shall provide
boilers and boiler parts that are fabricated by access for the deposition of weld metal adequate to
welding and shall be used in conjunction with the comply with the requirements of this standard.
specific requirements that pertain to the class of 5.3.2.2 Joints where more than two welded seams
materials used. meet shall be avoided.
5.1.2 The welding shall be executed in conformity 5.3.2.3 Where practicable, non-pressure parts shall
with the approved welding procedure in accordance not be attached by welds which cross existing main
with 5.4.3. welds or nozzle welds, nor shall they be attached
5.1.3 The welder shall be approved in conformity such that the minimum nominal distance between
with the welder’s competence tests as specified the edge of the attachment weld and the edge of
in 5.4.4. existing main welds or nozzle welds is less than
twice the thickness of the pressure part or 40 mm
5.1.4 The manufacturer of a boiler or boiler part
(whichever is the smaller).
constructed in accordance with this clause shall be
responsible for the welding done for this purpose by If such welds cannot be avoided, they shall cross the
his workmen. He shall conduct the tests required to main weld completely rather than stopping abruptly
near the main or nozzle weld, in order to avoid
approve the welding procedure he uses and the

competence of the welders who apply this procedure. stress concentrations in these areas.
No production work shall be undertaken until both 5.3.2.4 Only full penetration butt welds are
the welding procedure and the welders have been acceptable for longitudinal and circumferential
approved. main seams.
5.1.5 The manufacturer shall maintain a record of Where temporary backing is used to facilitate
the results obtained in welding procedure approvals welding seams of shells from one side of the plate
and competence tests, which shall be witnessed by only, it shall be removed after welding and before
an Inspecting Authority. These records shall be any non-destructive testing. The surfaces exposed
certified by him and give an accurate description of by the removal of the backing shall be dressed
all the particulars of the materials and procedure smooth and shall be free from cracks or other defects
concerned and shall be accessible to the inspecting as determined by a suitable inspection method,
authority. e.g. magnetic particle inspection.
5.1.6 Each weld shall be identified with the welder Circumferential main seams other than butt welds,
by means of a stamp showing the welder’s identity as indicated in Appendix B, are permitted for
or else some other appropriate record shall be made. shell-to-flat end and shell-to-tube plate connections.
If hard stamping is employed only low stress stamps Flat plates attached to reversal chambers of firebox
shall be used. (Low stress stamps have radiused wrapper plates, as shown typically in Figure B(4)(a)
edges or are made of a series of dots.) to Figure B(4)(e), shall have reverse side fillet welds,
with a minimum leg length of 6 mm, inserted for the
5.2 Materials full circumference of the seam. Flat plates attached
The welding consumables to be used shall either: to shells and furnace, as shown typically
a) comply with the requirements of the British in Figure B(3)(a) and Figure B(3)(b) and
Standard for the consumables; or Figure B(5)(a) and Figure B(5)(b), shall have
reverse side fillet welds, with a minimum length
b) in the absence of a relevant British Standard, of 6 mm, inserted for the full circumference of the
be agreed between the purchaser, the seam, except in the following cases.
manufacturer and the Inspecting and/or
Regulating Authority [see 1.7.2.3 f)]. a) Shell-to-end plate seams. The reverse side fillet
weld may be omitted when the shell outside
5.3 Design diameter is less than 1 800 mm.
b) Furnace-to-end plate and reversal chamber
5.3.1 General. The requirements of 5.3 apply to the
tubeplate seams. The reverse side fillet weld may
design of boilers and boiler parts that are
be omitted when the furnace is less than 750 mm
manufactured by welding and shall be used in
outside diameter and the seam is protected by a
conjunction with section 3 of this standard. refractory lining.
NOTE Typical examples of acceptable details of welded
connections are indicated in Appendix B.
© BSI 02-2000 75
BS 2790:1992
NOTE The above requirements for reverse side fillet welds ere 5.3.2.9 Fillet welds shall only be employed as
dictated by consideration of accessibility for welding but strength welds for pressure parts within the
whenever it is reasonably practicable to insert a fillet weld of the
requisite quality then the weld should be inserted for the full limitations recommended in Appendix B. Complete
circumference of the seam. It is preferable to complete the fillet fusion at the root of the fillet welds shall be ensured
weld before welding from the other side whenever it is practicable by taking particular care in the lay-out of joints with
to do so [see 5.6.2.2.2 d)].
fillet welds.
In cases where the reverse side fillet weld is omitted
from flat plate attachment welds to shells, furnaces 5.4 Fabrication and welding approval
or reversal chamber access tubes, special
consideration of the welding technique is required to 5.4.1 General. The methods of welding main seams
ensure sound root conditions. Slight lack of root shall provide full penetration and it shall be
penetration up to a maximum of 2.5 mm shall not be demonstrated by approval tests that the welding
cause for rejection. method can produce a weld that is free from
significant defects as described in BS EN 288-3 as
5.3.2.5 If a cylindrical shell is constructed with
supplemented by the requirements of Table 5.4.7(1).
plates of different thicknesses, the plates shall be
NOTE Existing procedures to BS 4870-1 are considered
arranged so that their centrelines form a continuous technically equivalent to BS EN 288-3, when similar types of
circle. The thicker plate shall be equally chamfered tests have been carried out. Thus, the bend tests in BS 4870-1
inside and outside over a circumferential distance are considered equivalent to those in BS EN 288-3 even though
not less than twice the difference in the thicknesses the exact number and bend angle differ. Similarly, visual,
radiographic, ultrasonic, surface crack detection, transverse
so that the plates are of equal thickness at the tensile, hardness, macro-examination and impact tests are
longitudinal weld. considered equivalent.
For a circumferential seam, where the difference in 5.4.2 Welding processes. Any process used shall
the thickness is the same throughout the produce satisfactory results when tested in
circumference, the thicker plate shall be reduced in accordance with the procedure approval tests.
thickness by machining to a taper for a distance not NOTE Details of welding processes are not defined in this
less than three times the offset. standard.
(See also 5.4.10 and 5.4.11.) 5.4.3 Welding procedure approval
NOTE The width of the weld may be included as part of 5.4.3.1 If a manufacturing firm can furnish proof,
the taper of the thicker plate.
satisfactory to the purchaser in conjunction with the
5.3.2.6 When welding ash drop-out tubes to Inspecting Authority, that it has previously made
furnaces and shells from one side where the other successful procedure approval tests or successfully
side is inaccessible for welding, lack of root undertaken the manufacture of boiler components
penetration or root concavity shall not exceed 3 mm in respect of method, parent metal, filler metal and
and the opening in the shell shall be reinforced with thickness, within a period of three years in
pad-type compensation [see Figure B(7)]. accordance with the requirements of BS EN 288-3,
5.3.2.7 Corner joints with fillet welds only shall not such a firm shall be deemed exempt from the
be used. necessity of being re-approved under the
5.3.2.8 Where practicable, openings in or near requirements of this standard within the range
welded seams shall be avoided, especially when the covered by the previous tests.
seam is not stress-relieved. The minimum distance If a firm has not had its procedure so approved or
from the centreline of the welded seam to the proof is not available, it shall prove by a welding
nearest point of the weld of the connection or edge of procedure approval test that its organization is
the opening shall be 60 mm or four times the shell capable of welding the materials to be used.
plate thickness (whichever is the larger). 5.4.3.2 Approval testing of welding procedures is to
If this is not possible, the opening shall cross the be carried out in accordance with BS EN 288-3,
welded seam completely and in such a manner that except as otherwise stated in 5.4.7.
the tangent at the point where the axis of the seam
meets the edge of the opening makes an angle with
this axis as close as possible to 90°. In this case, the
welded seam shall be non-destructively tested for a
length of 60 mm or four times the shell plate
thickness (whichever is the larger) at each side of
the opening.
76 © BSI 02-2000
BS 2790:1992
5.4.4 Welder’s competence approvals. If a 5.4.5.2.2 The manufacturer shall make available to
manufacturing firm can furnish proof, satisfactory the inspector a certified copy of the record of the
to the purchaser in conjunction with the inspecting approval tests of each welder.
authority, that any welder assigned to manual or The inspector has the right to witness the approval
machine welding on boilers has previously made test of any welder. Subsequently, in case of doubt,
competence approval tests for the type of work and he has the right to request re-approval of any
procedure concerned, and has been successfully welder.
engaged in the manufacture of boiler components
within a period of six months, both in accordance 5.4.6 Welded production test plates
with BS EN 287-1, then any such welder shall be 5.4.6.1 Test specimens
exempt from the necessity of being re-approved NOTE The number of test specimens should be
under the requirements of this standard so long as to Table 5.4.7(1).
the welder remains in the employment of the same 5.4.6.1.1 Production test plates are required to
manufacturer. represent all butt-welded main seams in boiler
If such proof is not forthcoming, welders assigned to cylindrical components, i.e. shells, furnaces and
manual or machine welding on boilers shall be reversal chambers. If the main longitudinal and
required to pass approval tests carried out in circumferential butt-welded seams in a component
accordance with BS EN 287-1, except as otherwise are welded within the essential variables of the
stated in 5.4.7. same welding procedure, production test plates

NOTE Approval testing of welders should be carried out in welded as a continuation of longitudinal seams shall
accordance with BS EN 287-1. Welders who previously held be provided.
approvals to BS 4871-1 are considered to be approved to work
with the following provisos.
If more than one seam in the same boiler is welded
i) the range of approval of the welder is in accordance with within the limits of the essential variables of the
BS EN 287-1. welding procedure, one test plate can represent
ii) Welder approval tests to BS 4871-1 are considered more than one seam. A test plate is required for
technically equivalent to BS EN 287-1 except that for all MIG each 10 m length of longitudinal weld taken from
and MAG welding, bend tests should have been carried out. If
bend tests for these processes have not been carried out different seams and a further test plate for any
during the BS 4871-1 test, re-approval to BS EN 287-1 should additional length less than 10 m, with a minimum
be performed. of at least one test plate per boiler (except as
iii) The prolongation of a BS 4871-1 approval test can be made required by 5.4.6.1.2).
at 6-monthly intervals by the employer/manufacturer, in
accordance with 10.1 of BS EN 287-1:1992, for the period of If there are only circumferential seams, or if the
two years from the date of effect of EN 287-1, i.e. from 1st method of welding the circumferential seams differs
May, 1992.
iv) The prolongation of a BS 4871-1 approval test in excess of
from that employed for the longitudinal seams, a
the initial two years from 1st May, 1992 has to be made in production test plate shall be welded separately in
accordance with 10.2 of EN 287-1:1992 in conjunction with an accordance with the procedure for the
Inspecting Authority. circumferential seams. A production test plate is
5.4.5 Acceptance of welding procedures and required for each 30 m of circumferential weld and
welders a further test plate for any additional length less
5.4.5.1 Welding procedures. The inspector shall than 30 m, with a minimum of at least one test plate
satisfy himself that the welding procedures per boiler (except as required by 5.4.6.1.2).
employed in the construction of a boiler have been 5.4.6.1.2 For boilers which comply with the
approved in compliance with the requirements following conditions, a reduction in the number of
of 5.4.3. welded production test plates specified in 5.4.6.1.1,
5.4.5.2 Welders shall be permitted.
a) Sufficient boilers shall have been constructed
5.4.5.2.1 The manufacturer shall certify that the
within the range of the same welding procedure
welding on a boiler has been carried out only by
to result in at least 20 production test plates
welders who have been approved under the
complying with 5.4.6.1.1.
requirements of 5.4.4, and the inspector shall
satisfy himself that only approved welders have b) The boilers shall be of a similar type and
been used. manufactured in the same shop and by the same
method of construction.
c) Production welding and construction shall be
reasonably continuous.
d) Plate thickness, details of welds and
attachments shall be within the limits covered by
the welding procedure approval tests.
© BSI 02-2000 77
BS 2790:1992
In that case the requirements of 10 m and 30 m 5.4.7 Destructive tests for procedure, welder
in 5.4.6.1.1 shall be revised to 30 m and 90 m and production control testing
respectively with a minimum of one test plate every 5.4.7.1 Test method. The tests shall be carried out in
three months. accordance with BS EN 287-1 or BS EN 288-3 and
5.4.6.1.3 The material used for the test plates shall Table 5.4.7(1) as appropriate, except where
comply with the same specification as that used in otherwise stated in 5.4.7.
the construction of the boiler and shall be 5.4.7.2 Test temperatures. The tests shall be
manufactured by the same steel making process. conducted at room temperature.
The plates shall be of the same nominal thickness as
the components represented and preferably selected 5.4.7.3 All-weld tensile test
from the same batch of material as that used in 5.4.7.3.1 The all-weld tensile strength R obtained
manufacturing the boiler. shall be not less than the minimum specified tensile
The dimensions of a welded test plate shall be strength of the plate material. The elongation A %
sufficient to take out the required test specimens for obtained shall be at least equal to that given by the
testing and any necessary retesting following equation:
(see Figure 5.4.6.1.3). A = 45 – 0.046 R
5.4.6.1.4 If weld test plates are provided at both where
ends of a longitudinal seam, the dimensions of the R is the tensile strength (in N/mm2).
test plates shall be sufficient to take the required
test specimens from one of them and the specimens In addition, this elongation shall be not less
for any necessary retesting from the other. than 80 % of the equivalent elongation specified for
the parent material.
5.4.6.1.5 The test plates shall be supported or
reinforced during welding in order to prevent undue 5.4.7.3.2 The reduction in area shall be not less
distortion. than 35 %.
The test plates shall be subjected to the same heat 5.4.7.4 Transverse bend test (for plate u 10 mm
treatment as required for the work piece to which thick) [see Figure 5.4.7.4 and Table 5.4.7(2)]. Face
they belong. bend tests shall be conducted with the surface of the
test plate corresponding to the outer surface of the
If it is desired to straighten test plates that have boiler in tension. Root bend tests shall be conducted
become distorted during welding, this shall be done with the surface of the test plate corresponding to
at a temperature below the temperature of heat the inner surface of the boiler in tension.
treatment of the shell to which they belong and On completion of the test, no crack or other defect at
before final heat treatment. the outer surface of the test specimen shall have a
5.4.6.2 Non-destructive testing. The welds in dimension greater than 1.5 mm. Slight tearing at
production test plates shall be subjected to the same the edges of the test specimen shall not constitute
non-destructive testing procedure (see 5.6) and failure to comply with this standard.
acceptance criteria (see 5.7) as for the seam they 5.4.7.5 Side bend test (for plate exceeding 10 mm
represent. thick) [see Figure 5.4.7.5 and Table 5.4.7(2)]. On
If any defects in the weld of a test plate are revealed completion of the test, no crack or other defect at the
by non-destructive testing, their position shall be outer surface of the test specimen shall have a
clearly marked on the plate and test specimens shall dimension greater than 3 mm Slight tearing at the
be selected from such other parts of the test plate as edge of the test specimen shall not constitute failure
may be agreed upon between the manufacturer and to comply with this standard.
the Inspecting Authority.
The cause of such defects in the production test
plate shall be ascertained.
78 © BSI 02-2000
BS 2790:1992
Table 5.4.7(1) — Number of test specimens for weld procedure approval and
production control tests
Test specimen
Branch
see Figure 5.4.6.1.3, Double-sided Single-sided Fillet welds
attachment
Figure 5.4.7.4, Figure 5.4.7.5 and butt joints butt joints in plate
Figure 5.4.7.7) welds
Macro-examination 1 2 2 4
Hardness survey 1 1 1 1
Transverse tensile  1 2 — —
 see BS 709
All-weld tensile  1 1 — —
Root bend  1 3 — —
 for plate u 10 mm thick
Face bend  1 1 — —
Side bend (for material > 10 mm thick) 2 1 — —
Fillet weld fracture — — 3 —
Impact tests (class I boilers only) 3 3 — —

NOTE 1 When more than one specimen of a particular type is required the specimens are to be taken as far apart as possible.
NOTE 2 The hardness survey is to be made on a macro-examination test specimen.
NOTE 3 For plates having a thickness exceeding 10 mm, side bend tests are to be substituted for root and face bends.
NOTE 4 Rout bend tests are always required when testing single-sided welds.
NOTE 5 For welder approval testing, see BS EN 287-1.
Table 5.4.7(2) — Bend test requirements 5.4.7.7 Impact tests (class I boilers only)
Free space (see Figure 5.4.7.7)
Diameter between 5.4.7.7.1 Three notched bar impact test specimens
Steel
of former supports at
end of test shall be taken transversely to the weld parallel to
the plate surface and as near as possible to the face
Carbon steels 2e 4.2e side of the last pass of the weld with the axis of the
Rm < 430 N/mm2 notch perpendicular to the surface of the plate. The
Carbon steels 3e 5.2e impact tests shall be carried out by the Charpy
Rm = 430 to 530 N/mm2 V-notch method and where the thickness of the
Carbon-manganese steels 4e 6.2e material permits, the dimensions of the specimens,
Rm > 530 N/mm2 each of square section 10 mm × 10 mm, shall be in
accordance with BS EN 10045-1. Where the
NOTE e is the thickness of the test specimen (see BS 709). thickness of the material does not permit the
Bending angle required = 180°.
preparation of 10 mm wide test pieces the width
5.4.7.6 Macro-examination. The specimen for (along the notch) shall be machined to 7.5 mm
macro-examination shall be taken from material or 5 mm as appropriate. The greatest width of test
that has not been affected by flame cutting piece that can be obtained from the section of the
operations. The weld shall be sound, i.e. free from material shall be selected.
cracks and substantially free from discontinuities 5.4.7.7.2 The average value obtained from the three
such as slag inclusions and porosity, to an extent impact test specimens shall be not less than 27 J
equivalent to that given in BS EN 288-3 for for 10 mm × 10 mm specimens, 21.5 J
procedure tests, BS EN 287-1 for welder test and 5.7 for 10 mm × 7.5 mm specimens and 19 J
for production control tests. If there is any doubt as for 10 mm × 5 mm specimens (see 5.4.7.2).
to the condition of a weld as shown by macro One individual value may be below the specified
etching, the area concerned shall be examined value provided that it is not less than 70 % of that
microscopically. value.
5.4.7.8 Retests
5.4.7.8.1 Tensile tests. Where a tensile test specimen
fails to meet the requirements, two retests shall be
made.
5.4.7.8.2 Bend tests. Where a bend test specimen
fails to meet the requirements, two retests shall be
made.
© BSI 02-2000 79
BS 2790:1992
5.4.7.8.3 Impact tests. If the average of the three 5.4.8.3 Fitting and alignment
impact values is less than the specified value or if 5.4.8.3.1 Plates that are being welded shall be
any one value is lower than 70 % of the specified fitted, aligned and retained in position during the
value, three additional test pieces shall be taken welding operation.
from the same sample and tested. The average value
of the six test results shall be not less than the 5.4.8.3.2 Bars, jacks, clamps, tack welds, or other
specified value. Not more than two of the individual appropriate means may be used to hold the edges to
values shall be lower than the specified value and be welded in line. Tack welds shall be removed
not more than one may be lower than 70 % of this unless they are to be completely fused into the weld.
value. 5.4.8.3.3 The edges of butt joints shall be held
5.4.7.8.4 Failure of retest specimens. If any of the during welding so that the tolerances of 5.4.10
retest specimens fail to meet the specified and 5.4.11 are not exceeded in the completed joint.
requirements, the welded seams represented by If fitted circumferential joints have deviations
these tests shall be deemed not to comply with the exceeding the permitted tolerances, the head or
requirements of this standard. If any retest shell ring, whichever is out-of-true, shall be
specimen fails during weld procedure approval tests adjusted until the errors are within the limits
then the cause of failure shall be established and the specified. If fillet welds are used, the pieces shall fit
whole procedure test shall be repeated. closely.
5.4.8.3.4 Correction of irregularities shall not be

5.4.8 Cutting, fitting and alignment prior to
carried out by hammering.
welding
5.4.9 Surface condition before welding
5.4.8.1 Cutting. Plates shall be cut to size and shape
by thermal cutting and/or machining, or, for plates 5.4.9.1 Cleaning of surfaces to be welded. The
not greater than 15 mm in thickness, cold shearing. surfaces to be welded shall be clean and free from
If cold shearing is used, the edges shall be examined foreign material such as grease, oil, lubricants, and
(visually or otherwise) and found suitable for marking paints, for a distance of at least 25 mm
welding. from the welding edge.
Preheating may be required particularly in the case Oxide shall be removed from the weld metal fusion
of thick steel plates, in order to ensure satisfactory area. If weld metal is to be deposited over a
results when thermal-cutting. previously welded surface, all slag shall be removed
Any material damaged in the process of cutting by a roughing tool, chisel, air chipping hammer, or
plates to size or forming the edge or end preparation other suitable means so as to prevent inclusion of
shall be removed by machining, grinding, chipping impurities in the weld metal.
or thermal-cutting back to sound metal. Surfaces 5.4.9.2 Assembly alignment tolerance. Before any
that have been thermal-cut shall be cut back by welding is commenced, it shall be ascertained that
machining or grinding so as to remove all burnt the edges prepared are aligned in accordance with
metal, harmful notches, slag and scale, but slight the welding procedure.
discoloration of machine thermal-cut edges on mild 5.4.10 Middle line misalignments. For
steel shall not be regarded as detrimental. longitudinal joints, the middle lines of the plates
5.4.8.2 Preparation for welding. Welding shall be in alignment within 10 % of the thickness
preparations and openings of the required shape of the thicker plate with a maximum misalignment
may be formed by the following methods. of 3 mm.
1) Machining, chipping or grinding; chipped 5.4.11 Surface alignment tolerances
surfaces that will not be covered with weld metal 5.4.11.1 Longitudinal joints. The misalignment at
shall be ground smooth after chipping. the surface of the plates shall not exceed the values
2) Thermal cutting and gouging, provided that given in the following table.
the edges are left smooth and in a condition Thicker plate thickness, Maximum misalignment
suitable for welding. b
After the edges of the plates have been prepared for b u 12 mm b/4
welding they shall be given a thorough examination 12 mm < b u 48 mm 3 mm
for flaws, cracks, laminations, slag inclusions or b > 48 mm b/16 but not greater
other defects. When plates are thermal-cut, the than 10 mm
edges should be examined before further work is
carried out. Care shall be taken to see that the weld If this misaligment would otherwise be exceeded,
preparations are correctly profiled. the surface of the thicker plate shall be tapered with
a slope of 1 : 4.
80 © BSI 02-2000
BS 2790:1992
5.4.11.2 Circumferential joints. The misalignment 5.4.14 Miscellaneous welding requirements

at the surface of the plates shall not exceed the 5.4.14.1 The reverse side of joints that are welded
values given in the following table. from both sides shall be cleaned back to sound metal
Thicker plate thickness, Maximum misalignment before applying weld metal from the reverse side.
b NOTE This requirement is not intended to apply to any process
b u 20 mm b/4 of welding by which proper fusion and penetration are obtained
by other means and by which the base of the weld remains free
20 mm < b u 40 mm 5 mm from impurities.
40 mm < b u 50 mm b/8 5.4.14.2 If the welding is stopped for any reason,
b > 50 mm b/8 but not greater extra care shall be taken on restarting to obtain the
than 20 mm required penetration and fusion.
NOTE For submerged arc welding, chipping out a groove in the
If this misalignment would otherwise be exceeded, crater is recommended.
the surface of the thicker plate shall be tapered with 5.4.14.3 If joints welded from one side only are used,
a slope of 1 : 3. particular care shall be taken in aligning the
5.4.11.3 Tube plate joints. If tube plates are components to be joined so as to ensure complete
constructed from plates of different thickness the penetration and fusion at the bottom of the joint for
surface of the thicker plate shall be tapered with a its full length, except if otherwise stated in this
slope of 1 : 4. standard.
5.4.12 Finished longitudinal and 5.4.14.4 Plates welded prior to hot or cold forming.
circumferential joints. Welds shall have a If it is necessary to butt-weld plates together prior to
smooth finish without valleys and shall merge into hot forming, the welded joint shall be
the plates without significant under-cutting or non-destructively tested throughout its length
abrupt irregularity. by ultrasonic or radiographic methods after hot
Undercutting shall be considered significant if the forming.
depth exceeds 0.5 mm. Cold forming of welded plates shall only be carried
To ensure that the weld grooves are completely out under the following conditions.
filled so that the surface of the weld metal at any a) Forming precaution. Before cold forming the
point does not fall below the surface of the adjoining weld reinforcement shall be ground smooth and
plate, weld metal may be built up as reinforcement the manufacturer shall take precautions, where
on each side of the plate. This reinforcement shall necessary, to avoid crack formation in the weld
not exceed the following thicknesses. metal or the heat-affected zone.
Thicker plate thickness, Maximum b) Limiting thicknesses:
b reinforcement thickness
1) up to 20 mm thickness for coarse grained
b u 12 mm 2.5 mm steels;
12 mm < b u 25 mm 3 mm 2) up to 25 mm thickness for fine grained
b > 25 mm 5 mm steels.
NOTE The reinforcement need not be removed except to the c) Forming. If the inside radius of curvature after
extent that it exceeds the permissible thickness, or if required forming is less than 10 times the thickness, an
by 5.4.14.4 and 5.6.3.5. appropriate heat treatment shall be applied as
agreed between purchaser, manufacturer and
5.4.13 Fillet welds. Fillet welds shall be made in
Inspecting and/or Regulating Authority
such a manner that there is no significant
[see 1.7.2.3 g)].
undercutting, as defined in 5.4.12, or other harmful
defects, and the deposition of weld metal shall be d) Control. After cold forming, the welded joints
such as to ensure fusion with the parent metal at shall be visually examined and non-destructively
the root of the weld. Sufficient weld metal shall be tested throughout their length by ultrasonic or
deposited to meet the specified requirements. Not radiographic methods, and on both sides by
less than two weld runs shall be employed when magnetic particle or penetrant methods.
making fillet welds. NOTE For the purposes of this standard, coarse and fine
grained steels are defined according to their McQuaid Ehn grain
If internal fillet welds are present in flat unflanged size, coarse grained having a grain size of 1 to 5 and fine grained
end plate or tubeplate joints to shells, furnaces and having a grain size of 5 to 8 (see BS 970-1 and BS 4490).
reversal chamber wrapper plates, the profile of the 5.4.14.5 Only small departures from circularity of a
fillet weld shall be such as to minimize notch effects. welded shell shall be rectified by cold rolling.
© BSI 02-2000 81
BS 2790:1992
5.4.14.6 In cases where post weld heat treatment of 5.4.15 Repair of weld defects
a completed boiler is required by this standard 5.4.15.1 Any repair to a weld carried out by the
(see 5.5.2), the attachment of nozzles, pads, manufacturer shall be reported to the Inspecting
branches, pipes and non-pressure parts shall be Authority.
carried out before heat treatment unless this is
manifestly not practicable, e.g. when smoke boxes If the repair is made as a consequence of a
are welded to pressure parts or in other exceptional radiographic examination, the films of the original
circumstances. In such cases, the following defects shall be made available. If the defects form a
requirements shall be complied with in addition to continuous line, the manufacturer and the
all the other appropriate requirements of section 5. Inspecting Authority shall agree either to repair the
defective part of the weld or to remove and reweld
a) Hydrogen controlled welding electrodes dried the entire weld [see 1.7.2.3 h)].
to at least scale B of BS 5135 shall be used or,
NOTE If the whole seam or an appreciable part of the seam has
alternatively, a process giving such potential to be rewelded, the purchaser or Inspecting Authority may
hydrogen levels shall be used, e.g. TIG welding. require that the original test plates be similarly treated or that
new test plates of the same quality and thickness of material be
b) The weld metal shall blend smoothly with the attached to the end of the seam and welded with it.
component material and shall be dressed if so
5.4.15.2 Except for local repairs made by manual
required by the non-destructive testing
welding, all repairs or rewelding referred to
technique.
in 5.4.15.1 shall, where practicable, be carried out
c) After completion of all welding and dressing, by the same process as was used for the original
welds with throat thicknesses exceeding 6 mm weld. An alternative process shall only be used with
shall be examined over their full length by the full knowledge and approval of the purchaser
magnetic particle methods. and Inspecting and/or Regulating Authority, and if
5.4.14.7 Attachments approved in accordance with 5.4.3.
5.4.14.7.1 Lugs, brackets, stiffeners, and other
attachments shall be contoured to fit the curvature
5.5 Heat treatment
of the surface to which they are to be attached. 5.5.1 Preheating
5.4.14.7.2 Temporary attachments welded to the 5.5.1.1 To avoid hard zone cracking in the
pressure parts shall be kept to a practical minimum. heat-affected zones of thermally-cut surfaces and
5.4.14.7.3 Temporary attachments shall be removed welds, consideration shall be given to preheating
(see 5.4.14.8) prior to the first pressurization unless the parent metal prior to the commencement of
they have been designed to the same standard as thermal-cutting or welding, including tack welding.
permanent attachments. NOTE The preheating temperature will depend upon the type
of joint, the metal thickness, the composition of the steel, the heat
5.4.14.7.4 The welding of all attachments shall be input to each run of weld and the hydrogen potential of the weld
carried out by approved welders and according to an metal. Recommendations for preheating temperatures given in
approved procedure. Table 5.5.1.1(1) and Table 5.5.1.1(2) should be considered as a
general guide to good practice.
5.4.14.8 Removal of attachments Other preheating temperatures are permitted provided that they
are proved to be satisfactory by weld procedure approval tests.
5.4.14.8.1 If construction attachments are to be
Calculations of preheating temperature to suit particular
removed, the technique used shall be such as to combinations of heat input, material composition and thickness
avoid damaging the pressure part. Such removal for carbon and carbon manganese steels may be made by
shall be by chipping, grinding, or thermal cutting reference to the following:
followed by chipping or grinding. a) BS 5135;
b) Welding steels without hydrogen cracking. F. R. Coe.
5.4.14.8.2 The areas from which temporary The Welding Institute, available from the Welding Institute,
attachments have been removed shall be dressed Research Laboratory, Abington Hall, Abington, Cambs.,
smooth and be examined by an appropriate CB1 6AL.
non-destructive test to the satisfaction of the parties No welding or tack welding shall be carried out
concerned. when the temperature of the parent metal
within 150 mm of the joint is less than 50 °C.
82 © BSI 02-2000
BS 2790:1992
Table 5.5.1.1(1) — Recommended preheating 5.5.2 Post weld heat treatment

temperatures for thermal-cutting of plates, 5.5.2.1 Post weld heat treatment in accordance
sections, bars and forgings with 5.5.2.2 to 5.5.2.5 shall (except as permitted
Material type
Material Minimum preheating by 5.4.14.6) be carried out on the completed boiler
thickness temperature after completion of all welding, and prior to the
mm °C pressure test in cases where the thickness at any
Carbon and carbon All 5 welded construction exceeds 30 mm.
manganese steel, 5.5.2.2 If the welded joint connects parts that are of
C u 0.25 % different thickness, the thickness to be considered in
applying the limit given in 5.5.2.1 shall be one of the
5.5.1.2 The manufacturer shall state, in the welding following nominal thicknesses (no deduction being
procedure submitted for approval by the Inspecting made for corrosion allowance):
Authority in accordance with 5.4.3, the details of a) the thinner of two adjacent butt-welded plates
any preheating treatment for each type of weld including dished end-to-shell connections;
including attachment welds.
b) the thickness of the shell in connections to flat
The manufacturer shall implement procedures for plates which are butt-welded to the shell; the
the measurement and maintenance of the thickness of flat plates where these are inset into
preheating temperature. the shell;

NOTE Acceptable methods of temperature measurement
include temperature-indicating crayons, contact pyrometers and
c) the thickness of the shell or flat plate, as
thermocouples. appropriate, in nozzle or pad attachment welds;
5.5.1.3 Where the risk of hydrogen cracking is high, d) the thickness of the nozzle neck at the joint in
e.g. under conditions of severe restraint, nozzle neck-to-flange connections;
consideration shall be given to the benefits of either e) the thickness of the pressure part, at the point
maintaining or boosting preheating temperature for of attachment, where a non-pressure part is
a minimum of 2 h after welding (post-heat) or of an welded to a pressure part.
intermediate post-weld heat treatment to facilitate
5.5.2.3 The temperature to which plain carbon and
hydrogen removal.
carbon-manganese steels shall be heated for stress
5.5.1.4 The temperature shall be checked during the relief purposes shall be within the range 580 °C
period of application. to 620 °C. The holding time within this temperature
5.5.1.5 Where preheating is specified, welding, range shall be 2.5 min/mm, with a minimum
where practicable, shall be continued without of 60 min.
interruption. If continuity of preheating is The procedures a) to f), as follows, shall be adopted
interrupted, the joint shall be cooled slowly under for application of the heat treatment.
an insulating blanket. Before recommencement of
a) The temperature of the furnace at the time the
welding preheating shall be applied.
boiler is placed in it shall not exceed 300 °C.
b) The rate of heating above 300 °C shall not
exceed the values given in the following table, the
limiting thickness e being as stated in 5.5.2.2.
Table 5.5.1.1(2) — Recommended preheating temperatures for welding of
plates, sections, bars and forgings
Hydrogen controlled weld metala Non-hydrogen controlled weld metal
Type Minimum preheating Minimum preheating
Material thicknessb Material thicknessb
temperature temperature
mm °C mm °C
Carbon and carbon u 30 5 u 20 5

manganese steel, > 30 100 > 20 u 50 100
C u 0.25 % > 50c
a
Hydrogen controlled weld metal as defined in BS 639 contains not more than 15 mL of diffusible hydrogen per 100 g of deposited
metal when determined by the method given in BS 6693-2.
b
The greatest component thickness at the joint.
c
It is recommended that only hydrogen controlled weld metal is used.
© BSI 02-2000 83
BS 2790:1992
5.5.2.5 Methods of heat treatment. Heat treatment

Shell or end plate thickness, e Rate of heating shall be effected where required by one of the
following methods.
Up to and including 25 mm 220 °C/h
a) By heating the boiler as a whole in an enclosed
Over 25 mm 5 500/e °C/h furnace.
or 55 °C/h, whichever
b) By heat treatment of an end plate, or a course
is the greater
of a shell having welded-on attachments, before
c) During the heating period, there shall not be a the end or course is attached to the remaining
variation in temperature greater than 150 °C parts. Where this is done, further stress-relieving
within any 4.5 m interval of length. When at the may be necessary on completion.
holding temperature, the temperature c) By heat treatment of a shell in sections in an
throughout that portion of the boiler being heated enclosed furnace. Where this method is adopted,
shall be within the range 580 °C to 620 °C. the heated sections shall overlap by at
d) During the heating and holding periods, the least 1 500 mm and the portion outside the
furnace atmosphere shall be controlled so as to furnace shall be sufficiently shielded so that
avoid excessive oxidation of the surface of the there shall be no harmful temperature gradient.
boiler. There shall be no direct impingement of 5.5.2.6 Heat treatment of test specimens. Test plates
the flame on the boiler. welded in accordance with 5.4.6 shall receive the
e) The boiler shall be cooled in the furnace same heat treatment where applicable as the shell
to 300 °C at a rate not exceeding the values given they represent.
in the following table. Where the shell is given a primary heat treatment
Shell or end plate thickness, e Rate of cooling in every way similar to that to be given to it on
completion, the test plates shall be heat treated
Up to and including 25 mm 275 °C/h attached to or lying inside or alongside the shell.
Over 25 mm 6 875/e °C/h or Where the shell is not given a primary heat
55 °C/h, whichever treatment, or is given a primary treatment that is
is the greater not identical with the final treatment, the test
plates may be heat treated with another shell which
Below 300 °C, the boiler may be cooled in
is to be heat treated in accordance with this
still air.
standard. The heat treatment shall take place in a
f) The temperatures specified shall be the actual furnace in which the drum or shell to which the test
temperatures of any part of the boiler as plates relate will receive its final treatment. In such
determined by thermocouples in contact with the cases temperature-time records shall be provided to
boiler. show that the test plates and the parts to which they
Furnace atmosphere temperatures may be used relate have received similar treatment in respect of
to indicate metal temperatures provided that heating, soaking and cooling.
evidence exists that such readings correspond to Where test plates are heat treated independently,
the metal temperatures within close limits and the following factors shall be the same for both the
that such limits have been agreed between the test plate and the related shell:
manufacturer and the Inspecting Authority
1) rate of heating;
[see 1.7.2.3 i)].
2) maximum temperature;
A sufficient number of temperatures shall be
recorded continuously and automatically to 3) time held at temperature;
ensure that all the requirements of 5.5.2.3 are 4) condition of cooling.
complied with. Heat treatment temperatures of separately heated
5.5.2.4 Check of post weld heat treatment. The test plates shall be recorded.
inspector shall satisfy himself that post weld heat 5.5.3 Heat treatment of test materials.
treatment has been correctly performed and that The pre-heat, interpass temperature, intermediate
the temperature readings comply with the and post-heat treatments, as applicable, for test
requirements. materials shall be the same as for production
welding, although the pre-heat temperature used
during fabrication may be increased by up to 100 °C
without requalification.
84 © BSI 02-2000
BS 2790:1992
Subsequent heat treatment of test materials, 5.6.1.4 Non-destructive testing personnel shall hold
i.e. normalizing or grain refining, tempering or an appropriate certificate of competence
stress relief, shall be the same for the test as for (e.g. CSWIP) which is recognized by the Inspecting
production welding. Authority; otherwise the Inspecting Authority shall
5.5.4 Other heat treatments satisfy itself as to the competence of such personnel.
5.5.4.1 A normalizing heat treatment, or other 5.6.2 Extent of non-destructive testing
treatments according to the type of steel, as agreed 5.6.2.1 Parent material. In the case of set-on end
between the manufacturer, purchaser and plates in accordance with Figure B(3)(c) and
Inspecting and/or Regulating Authority, shall be Figure B(3)(d) the requirements of quality grades
carried out before or after welding hot-formed parts, L4 and C4 of BS 5996 shall apply.
unless the process of hot forming is carried out To minimize the risk of laminar type defects
within the appropriate temperature occurring near welds of set-in plates it is
range [see 1.7.2.3 j)]. recommended that the edges of shell and furnace
5.5.4.2 If a normalizing heat treatment is carried plates be ultrasonically tested in areas which will be
out, the part to be normalized shall be brought up to located adjacent to end plate welds, and that edge
the required temperature slowly and held at that discontinuity quality grade E of BS 5996 should be
temperature for a period just sufficient to soak the used as a guide to acceptability. Imperfections
part thoroughly. If the geometry of the part causes affecting the plate edges shall only be repaired by
insufficiently homogeneous cooling, a welding procedures approved in accordance
stress-relieving heat treatment shall be applied with 5.4.3. Repaired areas shall be subjected to
after the normalizing heat treatment. repeat ultrasonic tests.
If set-on end plates in accordance with
5.6 Non-destructive testing Figure B(3)(c) and Figure B(3)(d) are employed, the
5.6.1 General plates shall be subjected to 100 % ultrasonic
inspection over a 150 mm wide band from the
5.6.1.1 For acceptance purposes, class I and class II
periphery and 100 % ultrasonic inspection of
boilers shall be subjected to non-destructive testing
deposited weld metal after intermediate stress relief
in accordance with the requirements of 5.6.2
and machining of weld profile. The plate material so
and 5.6.3.
tested shall satisfy edge discontinuity grade
NOTE 1 For the purposes of this standard the term ES of BS 5996. The deposited weld metal shall
“non-destructive testing” covers the conventional techniques of
radiographic, ultrasonic, magnetic particle and/or liquid comply with 5.7 of this standard.
penetrant testing as specified in 5.6.2 and 5.6.3. Visual The edges of shell and furnace plates adjacent to the
inspection is also, in principle, a non-destructive method of
examination but in this standard is distinguished (see 5.6.1.2) welds of set-in end plates shall be ultrasonically
from the conventional non-destructive testing methods. tested to the same percentage as that given in
NOTE 2 Non-destructive testing is not required for class III Table 5.6.2.2.1 after completion of the welding of the
boilers for the purposes of this standard. seams. The acceptance level for laminar type defects
NOTE 3 Non-destructive testing may also be used by the
manufacturer during construction as part of the quality control
shall be edge discontinuity grade E of BS 5996.
process. Lamellar tearing shall not be permitted. Plate edge
NOTE 4 Non-destructive testing of tube-to-tube plate and bar imperfections shall only be repaired by welding
stay-to-flat plate welds is not required. procedures approved in accordance with 5.4.3.
NOTE 5 Non-destructive testing may be carried out before post Repaired areas shall be subjected to repeat
weld heat treatment.
ultrasonic tests.
If during the application of any one of the
non-destructive techniques, the results obtained do 5.6.2.2 Welded seams
not permit a final decision to be made in accordance 5.6.2.2.1 Butt-welded seams. Butt-welded seams
with the acceptance criteria specified in 5.7 another shall be subjected to radiographic or ultrasonic
of the techniques shall be applied in order to reach a testing as given in Table 5.6.2.2.1.
final decision.
5.6.1.2 In addition to the requirements of 5.6.1.1,
all welds of class I, class II and class III boilers shall
be visually inspected in accordance with the
recommendations of BS 5289.
5.6.1.3 Non-destructive testing shall be carried out
to written procedures provided by the manufacturer
and approved by the Inspecting Authority.
© BSI 02-2000 85
BS 2790:1992
Table 5.6.2.2.1 — Extent of radiographic or ultrasonic testing for butt welds

Percentage of
total length of
Testing weld to be tested
Component Type of weld Weld location Figure no. Notes
technique
Class I Class II
boilers boilers
Shell Longitudinal In shell Figure B(1) Radiographic 1 and 2 100 10

sections or ultrasonic
Circumferential Between Figure B(1) Radiographic 1,2 and 5 25 10
shell sections or ultrasonic
Circumferential Between Figure B(1) Radiographic 1,2,4 and 6 25 10
shell sections and or ultrasonic
and flanged Figure B(2)a
end plates
Circumferential Between Figure B(3)c Radiographic — 100 100
shell sections and or ultrasonic

and set-on Figure B(3)d
end plates
T-butt At junction of Figure B(3)a Ultrasonic 2 and 3 10 10
shell with and
set-in end Figure B(3)b
plates
Flat end Butt Between the Figure B(2) Radiographic 2 25 10
plates two sections or ultrasonic
in large
diameter end
plates
Furnaces Longitudinal In furnace Figure B(1) Radiographic 1 and 2 10 10
sections or ultrasonic
Circumferential Between Figure B(1) Radiographic 1 and 2 10 10
furnace or ultrasonic
sections
sections and
bowling
hoops
sections and
flanged and
plates
86 © BSI 02-2000
BS 2790:1992
Table 5.6.2.2.1 — Extent of radiographic or ultrasonic testing for butt welds

Percentage of
total length of
Testing weld to be tested
Component Type of weld Weld location Figure no. Notes
technique
Class I Class II
boilers boilers
Furnaces T-butt Between Figure B(5)a, Ultrasonic 2 and 3 25 25
furnace Figure B(5)b
sections and and
set-in end Figure B(5)c
plates
T-butt Furnace to Figure B(5)a, Ultrasonic 2 and 3 25 25
reversal Figure B(5)b
chamber end and
plate Figure B(5)c
T-butt Between Figure B(7), Ultrasonic 2 25 25
furnace Figure B(19),
sections and Figure B(20),

cylindrical Figure B(21),
components Figure B(22)
and
Figure B(23)
Reversal Longitudinal In wrapper Figure B(1) Radiographic 2 10 10
chambers plate or ultrasonic
Circumferential Between Figure B(4)a Radiographic 1 and 2 10 10
wrapper plate or ultrasonic
and flanged
end plate
T-butt Between Figure B(4)b, Ultrasonic 2 and 3 10 10
wrapper plate Figure B(4)c,
and set-in end Figure B(4)d
plate and
Figure B(4)e
Reversal Longitudinal In access tube Figure B(1) Radiographic 2 10 10
chamber or ultrasonic
access T-butt Access tube to Figure 3.8.2(7) Ultrasonic 2 and 3 10 10
tube boiler and
reversal
chamber end
plates
NOTE 1 The tests shall include each intersection of longitudinal and circumferential seams. For each longitudinal and
circumferential seam there shall be at least one radiograph, or where ultrasonic testing is specified, at least a 200 mm length shall
be examined.
NOTE 2 In each case the section of weld to be tested shall be selected at random.
NOTE 3 The position of the tested section of weld shall be marked on the boiler and recorded.
NOTE 4 In class I boilers it is permissible to reduce the percentage of weld tested to 10 when the boiler end plates are stayed to
the shell or to each other.
NOTE 5 In class I boilers it is permissible to reduce the percentage of weld tested to 10 when the boiler end plates are fully stayed
to each other by bar stays, stay tubes or a combination of bar stays, reversal chamber stays and stay tubes.
NOTE 6 When the flange is thicker than the end plate, the flange shall be machined to a taper and welded as shown in
Figure B(2)a.
© BSI 02-2000 87
BS 2790:1992
5.6.2.2.2 Welds other than those covered by For class II boilers, it shall be permissible to
Table 5.6.2.2.1 reduce the amount of non-destructive
a) General. When welds are to be examined on the examination to 10 %.
basis of a percentage of their length, the g) Fillet welds other than those referred to in (b)
section(s) to be examined shall be selected at to (f). For class I boilers, 25 % of the total length
random. of fillet welds shall be examined for surface flows
b) Full penetration welds of branches and pads. by magnetic particle or penetrant methods.
For class I boilers, 25 % of the total length of For class II boilers, it shall be permissible to
branch welds, including the pad attachment reduce the amount of non-destructive
welds that are welded to the same procedure, examination to 10 %.
shall be subjected to non-destructive examination 5.6.2.2.3 Acceptance of spot non-destructive testing.
by radiographic or ultrasonic methods where the If a welded seam reveals an unacceptable defect
thickness of the thickest part exceeds 40 mm. If (see 5.7) the entire seam shall be subjected to
the thickness of the parts being joined is equal to non-destructive testing.
or less than 40 mm, at least 25 % of the total
5.6.2.2.4 Non-destructive testing of repaired seams.
length of weld shall be examined for surface flaws
After a repair has been carried out to a welded seam,
by magnetic particle or penetrant methods.
the repaired section shall be fully non-destructively
For class II boilers, it shall be permissible to tested by all the techniques specified for the original
reduce the amount of non-destructive weld.
examination to 10 %.
5.6.3 Non-destructive testing techniques
c) Gusset and link stay attachment welds. For
class I and class II boilers, the full length of each 5.6.3.1 Radiographic techniques
gusset or link stay attachment weld, when of the 5.6.3.1.1 Radiographic examination shall be in
full penetration type, shall be ultrasonically accordance with BS 2600-1, BS 2600-2 or BS 2910,
examined. When attached by fillet welds, the full as appropriate. Because several techniques with
length of each weld shall be examined for surface differing sensitivities are detailed in these
flaws by magnetic particle or penetrant methods. standards, it is necessary to specify for each
d) End plate reverse side fillet welds. For class I particular application which technique is required
and class II boilers, the reverse side fillet weld of to be used. For thicknesses up to 50 mm X-ray
boiler end plate to shell attachments and furnace techniques shall normally be used. Other
to end plate and reversal chamber tubeplate techniques may be used provided it can be
attachments shall be examined for surface flaws demonstrated to the satisfaction of the Inspecting
over their full length, or as far as access permits, Authority that adequate sensitivity can be obtained.
by magnetic particle or dye penetrant methods, Radiographic sensitivity shall be determined in
except when the fillet weld was completed before accordance with Table 7 of BS 3971:1980, which
welding from the other side. In this case, it shall gives attainable values for thicknesses up
be permissible to reduce the amount of magnetic to 150 mm. The values given in section A of
particle or dye penetrant testing to not less Table 7 of BS 3971:1980 shall be regarded as the
than 10 % of the total length of welding of each maximum acceptable percentage sensitivity values
seam. for techniques 1 and 2 of BS 2600-1:1983,
e) Lifting lug attachment welds. Lifting lug equipment groups A, B, C, and D of BS 2600-2:1973
attachment welds of the full penetration type and techniques 1, 7 and 13 of BS 2910:1986.
shall be examined over their full length by the The values in section B of Table 7 of BS 3971:1980
ultrasonic method. When lifting lugs are attached shall be used for the remaining techniques in these
by fillet welds, the welds shall be examined for standards.
surface flaws over their full length by magnetic
particle or penetrant methods.
f) Welds of permanent major load carrying
attachments. For class I boilers, the welds shall
be examined over 25 % of their length by
ultrasonic methods in the case of full penetration
welds, and by magnetic particle or penetrant
methods in the case of fillet welds.
88 © BSI 02-2000
BS 2790:1992
5.6.3.1.2 Marking and identification of radiographs. 5.6.3.5.4 Penetrant method. The surface shall be
Each section of weld radiographed shall have free of any foreign matter which would interfere
suitable symbols affixed to identify the following: with the application and interpretation of the test.
a) the job or work-piece serial number, order Care shall be taken to avoid masking of flaws by
number, or similar distinctive reference number; distortion of surface layers by any dressing process
which may be necessary.
b) the joint;
5.6.3.6 Reporting of non-destructive testing
c) the section of the joint;
examinations. The following information shall be
d) arrows, or other symbols, alongside but clear of given in reports
the outer edges of the weld to identify its position
5.6.3.6.1 General
clearly. The symbols, consisting of lead arrows,
letters and/or numerals, shall be positioned so a) The date and timing, e.g. before or after stress
that their images appear in the radiograph to relief, of the examination and report.
ensure unequivocal identification of the section. b) The name(s) of the personnel responsible for
If radiographs are required of the entire length of a the examination and the interpretation.
welded seam, sufficient overlap shall be provided to c) Identification of the boiler and seam under
ensure that the radiographs cover the whole of the examination.
welded seam and each radiograph shall exhibit a
d) Brief description of joint design, material,

number near each end. Radiographs of repair welds
welding process and heat treatment employed
shall be clearly identified as R1, R2, etc., for the first
(if any).
repair, second repair, etc.
e) Cleaning and surface preparation or dressing
5.6.3.2 Ultrasonic techniques. Ultrasonic
prior to non-destructive testing.
examination shall be in accordance with level 2B of
BS 3923-1 with a maximum transfer value of 6 dB. f) Description and location of all relevant
indications of defects, together with all
5.6.3.3 Magnetic particle techniques. Magnetic
permanent records, e.g. radiographs,
particle inspection techniques shall comply in all
photographs, facsimiles, scale drawings or
respects with BS 6072. Their use shall be limited to
sketches, as appropriate. Corresponding reports
applications where surface flaws are being sought.
of visual examinations shall be provided.
Particular care shall be taken to avoid damage to
5.6.3.6.2 Additional information for specific
the surface by misuse of the magnetic equipment
methods
employed. If such damage occurs it shall be
remedied to the satisfaction of the Inspecting a) Radiography
Authority. 1) Image quality indicator pattern and
5.6.3.4 Penetrant techniques. Dye or fluorescent sensitivity achieved (see BS 3971).
penetrant examination of the welds shall be carried 2) Details of the radiographic technique.
out in accordance with BS 6443. NOTE Full details may be recorded in a standard
5.6.3.5 Surface condition and preparation for technique data sheet to which cross-reference may be
made.
non-destructive testing
b) Ultrasonics
5.6.3.5.1 Radiography. Surfaces shall be dressed
1) Report on parent metal examination
only where weld ripples or weld surface
including internal soundness, thickness and
irregularities will interfere with interpretation of
the radiographs. surface conditions.
5.6.3.5.2 Ultrasonics. The condition of the surfaces 2) Details of the ultrasonic technique and
equipment employed.
that will be in contact with the probe shall be in
accordance with BS 3923. NOTE Full details may be recorded in a standard
technique data sheet to which cross-reference may be
5.6.3.5.3 Magnetic particle method. The surface made.
shall be free of any foreign matter which would c) Magnetic particle method. Details of the
interfere with interpretation of the test and shall, technique(s) employed.
where necessary, be dressed to permit accurate NOTE Full details may be recorded in a standard technique
interpretation of indications. data sheet to which cross-reference may be made.
NOTE If non-fluorescent testing media are employed, a d) Penetrant method. Details of the materials and
suitable contrast medium (e.g. complying with the requirements techniques employed.
of BS 5044) may be applied after cleaning and prior to
magnetization. NOTE Full details may be recorded in a standard technique
data sheet to which cross-reference may be made.
© BSI 02-2000 89
BS 2790:1992
5.7 Acceptance criteria for weld

defects revealed by visual
examination and non-destructive
testing
5.7.1 General. This clause applies to the main
constructional welds of boilers. Other welded joints
shall be examined as agreed between the parties
concerned [see 1.7.3(k)].
Welds shall be accepted unless defects exceed the
levels given in Table 5.7(1), Table 5.7(2) and
Table 5.7(3).
5.7.2 Groups of inclusions
5.7.2.1 Isolated inclusions. Inclusions shall be
treated as isolated only if they are separated as
follows.
a) Linearly aligned [curvilinear or rectilinear,
see Figure 5.7.2(a) and Figure 5.7.2(b)]. Linearly

aligned inclusions shall be separated by a
minimum distance of twice the length of the
largest inclusion [see Figure 5.7.2(c)].
b) Randomly oriented inclusions
[see Figure 5.7.2(d)]. Inclusions that overlap are
acceptable provided that they are contained
within an envelope not exceeding 3 mm or e/15,
whichever is the greater, and are separated by at
least e/4 from any other envelope or individual
inclusion.
5.7.2.2 Assessment of a group of linearly aligned
inclusions. Inclusions within a group shall first be
assessed individually in accordance with
Table 5.7.
Adjacent inclusions contained within any envelope
of radius e/8 shall be projected on to a polar
centreline and then treated as being linearly
aligned [see Figure 5.7.2(c)].
Adjacent inclusions shall be treated as interactive if
the linear separation is less than twice the length of
the longest inclusion in the pair under
consideration. Only the actual length of adjacent
inclusions, not their effective length, shall be taken
into account when assessing whether they are
interactive [see Figure 5.7.2(c)].
If the inclusions are found to be interactive, the
actual length of each inclusion plus its separation
from its neighbour shall be summed and the
resulting length taken as the effective inclusion
length for assessment in accordance with
Table 5.7.
5.7.3 Repair of welds. Welds containing
unacceptable defects shall be repaired. Repair of
welds shall be carried out in accordance with a
procedure approved by the Inspecting Authority and
subjected to the same acceptance criteria as the
original weld.
90 © BSI 02-2000
BS 2790:1992
Table 5.7(1) — Visual acceptance levels

NOTE The following symbol is used.
h is the height of the defect
Profile defects Permitted maximum
Undercut Slight undercut permitted, depth should not exceed 0.5 mm
Shrinkage grooves and root concavity As for undercut except that depth shall not exceed 1.5 mm
Excess penetration h u 3 mm. Occasional local slight excess is allowable
Reinforcement shape The reinforcement is to blend smoothly with the parent metal.
Dressing is not required provided the shape does not interfere
with the specified non-destructive testing techniques
(see also 5.4.12)
Overlap Not permitted
© BSI 02-2000 91
Table 5.7(2) — Radiographic acceptance levels
92
BS 2790:1992
NOTE The following symbols are used.
e is the parent metal thickness. In the case of dissimilar thicknesses, e applies to the thinner component
w is the width of the defect
I is the length of the defect

¿ is the diameter of the defect
c is the mean circumference of the weld
Defect type Permitted maximum
Planar defect a) Cracks and lamellar tears Not permitted
b) Lack of root fusion Not permitted
Lack of side fusion
Lack of inter-run fusion
c) Lack of root penetration Not permitted except as specified in 5.3.2.4 and 5.3.2.6
Cavities a) Isolated pores (or individual pores in a group)
¿ k e/4 and
k 3.0 mm for e up to and including 50 mm
k 4.5 mm for e over 50 mm up to and including 75 mm
k 6.0 mm for e over 75 mm
b) Uniformly distributed or localized porosity 2 % of radiographic areaa for e k 50 mm, and pro rata for greater
thicknesses
c) Linear porosity Linear porosity parallel to the axis of the weld may indicate lack of fusion
or lack of penetration and is therefore not permitted
d) Wormholes, isolated I k 6 mm, w k 1.5 mm
e) Wormholes, aligned As linear porosity
f) Crater pipes As wormholes, isolated
g) Surface cavities Not permitted
Slag inclusions a) Individual and parallel to major weld Main butt welds in shells, furnaces I = e k 100 mm
axis (see 5.7.2) and end plates and the welds of w = e/10 < 4 mm
set-on end plates [see Figure B(3)(c)
and Figure B(3)(d)]
b) Individual and randomly oriented (not parallel As isolated pores
to weld axis) see 5.7.2
c) Non-linear group As uniformly distributed or localized porosity
Solid inclusions a) Tungsten inclusions
1) Isolated As isolated pores
© BSI 02-2000
2) Grouped As uniformly distributed or localized porosity

b) Copper inclusions Not permitted
NOTE The simultaneous presence of more than one type of allowable defect within a given length of weld is permitted and each type should be individually assessed.
a
The area of radiograph to be considered is the length of weld affected by porosity, but not less than 50 mm, multiplied by the maximum width of the weld.
BS 2790:1992
Table 5.7(3) — Ultrasonic acceptance levels for welds of thickness 7 mm or greater

Group Echo response height Type of indication (see note 1) Maximum permitted dimensions
A Less than 20 % D.A.C. All types No limitations
B Greater than D.A.C. All types None permitted
C 20 % to 50 % D.A.C. Threadlike (Th) Iue
(D.A.C. – 14 dB to D.A.C. – 6 dB) h < 3 mm
Volumetric (Vl) w or I u e
h W 3 mm
Planar longitudinal (Pl) e
I u ---
h W 3 mm 2
Planar transverse (Pt) I u 5 mm
h W 3 mm
D 50 % to 100 % D.A.C. Threadlike (Th) lesser of
(D.A.C. – 6 dB to D.A.C.) h < 3 mm e
I u --- or u 5 mm
2
Volumetric (Vl) w or I u 5 mm
h W 3 mm
Planar longitudinal (Pl) lesser of
h W 3 mm e
I u --- or u 5 mm
2
E 20 % to 100 % D.A.C. Planar surface (Ps) I u 5 mm
(D.A.C. – 14 dB to D.A.C.) (see note 2)
h W 3 mm
Multiple (M) I, w, or h u 5 mm
(see note 3)
Isolated point (Is) I u 5 mm
h u 3 mm
Key
e = Parent metal thickness. In the case of dissimilar thickness, e applies to the smaller thickness.
h = Through-wallDimension of flaw.
I = Length of flaw.
w = Width of flaw.
NOTE 1 Definition of types of indication: the following definitions apply to the types of indication detailed in Table 5.7(3).
— Threadlike (Th): indications having measurable length but no measurable width or through-wall dimension, and which are
not classified as planar (e.g. linear inclusion).
— Volumetric (Vl): indications having measurable length and/or width and measurable through-wall dimension, and which are
not classified as planar (e.g. linear or globular cavity or inclusion).
— Planar longitudinal (Pl): indications having a planar nature, which lie parallel to, or closely parallel to, the weld axis
(e.g. longitudinal crack, lack of side-wall fusions, lack of inter-run fusion).
— Planar transverse (Pt): indications having planar nature, which lie transverse to the weld axis (e.g. transverse crack).
— Planar surface (Ps): indications of types Pl or Pt, which lie within 25 % of e, or 6 mm (whichever is the smaller) of the nearest
surface, where e is the parent metal thickness or, in the case of dissimilar joined thicknesses, the smaller thickness
(e.g. longitudinal and transverse cracks, lack of side-wall fusion, lack of root fusion and lack of root penetration).
— Multiple (M): group or cluster of indications in which individual indications cannot be resolved at the reference sensitivity
(e.g. group or cluster of cavities or inclusions).
— Isolated Point (Is): indications having no measurable dimension and which can be resolved at the reference sensitivity from
neighbouring indications. (It is not possible to determine from the ultrasonic information alone whether an isolated point
indication is actually a pore, inclusion, short crack or small area of lack of fusion.)
NOTE 2 Indications shall be disregarded only by agreement between the manufacturer and the Inspecting Authority.
NOTE 3 Where adjacent, linearly aligned indications are separated by a distance of less than twice the length of the longest
indication, they shall be considered as continuous. The total, combined length shall then be assessed against the appropriate flaw
size criteria in Table 5.7(3).
© BSI 02-2000 93
BS 2790:1992
Figure 5.4.6.1.3 — Cutting up of the test plate
NOTE The figure illustrates a root bend test.

Figure 5.4.7.4 — Transverse bend test specimen
94 © BSI 02-2000
BS 2790:1992
Figure 5.4.7.5 — Side bend test specimen
Figure 5.4.7.7 — V-notch test piece
© BSI 02-2000 95
96
BS 2790:1992
Figure 5.7.2 — Assessment of inclusions
© BSI 02-2000
BS 2790:1992
Section 6. Inspection and pressure testing
6.1 Inspectors 3) witness the marking of test plates for

identification before they are cut from the
Inspectors, as referred to in this section, shall be
parent plate or plates.
persons employed and trained as inspectors by
inspection organizations that are recognized as b) when shell plates and end plates have been
Inspecting Authorities (see 1.3.7) in the country of formed, with the plate edges prepared for
manufacture and/or installation. welding, and when test plates are attached;
The inspector, for the purpose of inspecting and/or c) during the following stages of welding, if
certification of boilers under the requirements of appropriate to the welding technique and as
this standard, shall be independent of the agreed between the manufacturer and the
manufacturer and the purchaser and shall not be in Inspecting Authority:
the employ of either, except that, where the 1) when the first run has been deposited along
purchaser maintains a separate competent the principal seams and test plates;
engineering inspection department, then competent 2) when these seams have been completed on
inspectors from such a department may carry out one side and prepared for welding on the other
the inspection and certification requirements of this side;
standard.
3) on completion of welding;
6.2 Inspection during construction d) to examine radiographs and/or reports of

non-destructive testing;
6.2.1 Each boiler shall be inspected during
e) when weld test specimens have been prepared
construction by persons nominated by the
from the test plate, previously selected, to
Inspecting Authority. Sufficient inspections shall be
witness the required tests;
made to ensure that the materials, construction,
and testing comply in all respects with this f) when openings have been prepared, when
standard. standpipes and similar connections have been
tack-welded in position, and subsequently on
The Inspecting Authority shall have the right to
completion;
require evidence that the design complies with this
standard. g) on completion of manufacture, during
hydraulic testing and again after testing, to
The Inspecting Authority shall have access to the
works of the manufacturer at all times during which inspect internally and externally.
work is in progress, and shall be at liberty to inspect
the manufacture at any stage and to reject any part
6.3 Pressure tests
not complying with this standard. 6.3.1 When welding of all pressure parts has been
The Inspecting Authority shall notify the completed and after heat treatment, if required by
manufacturer before construction begins of the this standard, each boiler shall be hydrostatically
stages of the construction at which special tested to a pressure of 1.5 times the design pressure
examinations of materials will be made, and the without any indication of weakness or defect.
manufacturer shall give reasonable notice to the The test shall be witnessed by the Inspecting
Inspecting Authority when such stages will be Authority.
reached, but this shall not preclude the Inspecting 6.3.2 The test pressure shall be maintained for a
Authority from making examinations at any other period of not less than 30 min.
stages, or from rejecting material or workmanship
It is important, in the interests of safety, that the
whenever they are found to be defective.
boiler shall be properly vented, so as to prevent the
6.2.2 The Inspecting Authority shall make formation of air pockets, before the test pressure is
examinations at the following stages: applied.
a) when plates have been received at the NOTE 1 It is recommended that the temperature of the water
boilermaker’s works, to: should be not less than 7 °C during the hydrostatic test.
NOTE 2 It is recommended that before the boiler is approached
1) check the identification markings on the for close examination, the pressure shall be reduced to not less
plates with those recorded on the platemaker’s than 1.1 times the design pressure and not more than 0.9 times
certificates; the hydrostatic test pressure.
NOTE 3 On completion of the hydrostatic test, release of
2) check the reported results of mechanical and pressure should be gradual.
chemical properties given on the platemaker’s NOTE 4 The welding of non load bearing assemblies, e.g. smoke
certificates against the requirements of the boxes, to the pressure parts of the boiler may be carried out after
standard; hydrostatic test.
© BSI 02-2000 97
BS 2790:1992
6.3.3 If any repairs are found to be necessary during

or subsequent to the hydrostatic pressure test, the
boiler shall again be subjected to the pressure test
specified above after completion of the repairs and
after any heat treatment.
98 © BSI 02-2000
BS 2790:1992
Section 7. Documentation and marking
7.1 Drawings, documents and data

sheets
7.1.1 The manufacturer shall supply to the
purchaser and to the Inspecting Authority, by 7.3 Marking
drawings, documents or data sheets, full
information of the dimensions and design pressure 7.3.1 Each boiler shall be permanently and legibly
of each boiler together with particulars of the marked to show its identity and origin. This
materials of which it is constructed. If erection on marking shall be made either above the furnace or,
site is not undertaken by the manufacturer, he shall where this is not practicable, on a plate
supply full information to permit the proper erection permanently attached to a principal pressure part
of the boiler. or on the steel structure of the boiler in a position
where it will be visible after the boiler is lagged. Any
7.1.2 When completed, the boiler shall be
stamps which are used directly on pressure parts
accompanied as necessary by the appropriate
shall have letters and figures with radiused edges.
drawings, documents and data sheets for the
information of the Regulating Authority. 7.3.2 The marking shall show the following
particulars:
Radiographs, ultrasonic test reports, heat
treatment charts and relevant in-house inspection a) the name and domicile of the manufacturer;
records shall be kept by the manufacturer for a b) the manufacturer’s serial number;
period of not less than five years. c) the design pressure;
d) the minimum design pressure of the vessel
7.2 Certificates
where it is other than atmospheric;
The manufacturer shall issue a certificate that each e) the design temperature;
boiler has been designed, constructed and tested in
every respect in accordance with this British f) maximum continuous rating;
Standard, and this certificate shall be g) the year of manufacture;
countersigned by the Inspecting Authority as h) the date of the hydrostatic test, and the test
evidence that it has been so constructed and tested. pressure;
If erection is inspected by a second Inspecting i) the mark of the Inspecting Authority;
Authority each Inspecting Authority shall sign the
certificate in respect of the work it has supervised. j) any other mark required by statute in the
country in which the boiler will operate;
If the design and fabrication functions are carried
out by separate organizations, each organization k) the number of this British Standard and class
shall issue a certificate in respect of the work it has of boiler, e.g. BS 2790:19922) Class 1;
performed; alternatively a joint certificate signed by
each organization in respect of the work it has
performed shall be issued (see 1.4.2 and 1.7.2.2).
Each certificate shall be countersigned by the
Inspecting Authority as required above.
2) Marking BS 2790:1992 on or in relation to a product represents a manufacturer’s declaration of conformity, i.e. a claim by or on
behalf of the manufacturer that the product meets the requirements of the standard. The accuracy of the claim is therefore solely
the responsibility of the person making the claim.
© BSI 02-2000 99
BS 2790:1992
Section 8. Safety valves, fittings and mountings
8.1 Safety valves NOTE The term “from and at 100 °C” is an abbreviation
indicating the evaporation from feedwater at 100 °C to steam
8.1.1 General at 100 °C and as such is the basis of determining the peak load
equivalent evaporation of a steam boiler.
8.1.1.1 Materials, design and construction of safety
8.1.2.2 Full rated discharge capacity. The full rated
valves shall be in accordance with BS 6759-1.
discharge capacity of the safety valves shall be
8.1.1.2 The minimum bore of the valve seat of any achieved without causing the boiler pressure to
safety valve directly connected to a boiler shall be increase to more than 110 % of the design pressure
not less than 15 mm. (see 3.1.2).
8.1.1.3 Every boiler, with the exception of open On steam boilers this shall be demonstrated by the
vented hot water boilers, shall have at least one carrying out of an accumulation test at the
safety valve sized for the rated output of the boiler, maximum evaporative capacity with the stop valve
and this valve shall be mounted on the boiler shell closed, in the presence of the Inspecting Authority,
in accordance with the requirements of 8.1.3. before the boiler is put into normal operation.
Additionally, where a superheater is fitted, it shall During this test, no more feedwater shall be
have at least one safety valve mounted on the outlet supplied than is necessary to maintain a safe
side, and this valve shall have a nominal capacity working water level. Tests shall not be carried out
of 25 % of the boiler rated output. on boilers fitted with superheaters where
8.1.1.4 When a boiler is fitted with an integral overheating may occur, and special consideration
superheater without an intervening stop valve, the shall be given to boilers fired with solid fuels.
safety valves fitted on the superheater may be 8.1.3 Attachment to the boiler
considered as forming part of the safety valve
relieving capacity of the boiler. 8.1.3.1 Safety valves shall be mounted, without any
intervening valve, on pads or branches used for no
8.1.1.5 Where a superheater is fitted with a valve other purpose. The axis of the valve shall be vertical.
intervening between it and the boiler, the The cross-sectional area of the bore of each pad or
superheater safety valves shall not be taken into branch shall be at least equal to the area of the bore
account when assessing the boiler safety valve of the inlet of the safety valve or, where two or more
relieving capacity. safety valves are mounted on the same pad or
8.1.1.6 Where an economiser is fitted with a valve branch, at least equal to the sum of the areas of the
intervening between it and the boiler, it shall be inlet bores of all the safety valves.
fitted with a safety valve which shall not be counted 8.1.3.2 Branches shall be as short as possible with
as forming part of the boiler safety valve capacity. minimum protrusion into the boiler shell.
8.1.1.7 Where a safety valve is required for an 8.1.3.3 Pressure drop in the inlet branch shall not
economiser, its capacity shall be calculated on the exceed 3 % of the set pressure or 1/3 of the
basis of the economiser thermal capacity. The valve maximum allowable blowdown permitted by
shall be sized for steam. BS 6759-1, whichever is the least, at actual flow,
8.1.1.8 There shall be no intervening valves that is certified capacity divided by 0.9.
between the boiler and its protective safety valves or NOTE Excessive pressure loss at the inlet of a safety valve will
between the safety valves and their point of cause extremely rapid opening and closing of the valve which is
discharge to atmosphere. known as “chattering” or “hammering”. This may result in
reduced capacity and damage to seating faces and other parts of
8.1.1.9 In cases where sub-atmospheric pressures the valve.
may occur which the boiler could not sustain, a Reference should be made to the recommendations given in
vacuum break device shall be provided. Appendix B of BS 6759-1:1984.
8.1.2 Discharge capacity 8.1.3.4 Safety valves shall be accessible for

functional testing and maintenance.
8.1.2.1 Steam and unvented hot water boilers. The
8.1.4 Drainage. For each safety valve fitted with
total rated discharge capacity of all the safety valves
discharge piping, an individual unrestricted drain
mounted on a boiler (and integral superheater)
shall be provided.
calculated in accordance with BS 6759-1 shall be at
least equal to the maximum evaporative capacity of The drain pipe shall be laid with a continuous fall to
the boiler in the case of steam boilers or the a place where the discharge is visible and cannot
maximum rating of the boiler in the case of hot injure any person
water boilers. Where the feedwater temperature, NOTE Reference may be made to BS 806 for the design of
and hence the actual evaporative capacity of the discharge pipe.
boiler is not known, the required safety valve
capacity shall be based on the specific peak load
evaporation “from and at 100 °C”.
100 © BSI 02-2000

BS 2790:1992
8.2 Water-level gauges The required water volume shall be determined

from
8.2.1 General
W = TDv
8.2.1.1 Each steam boiler with a rating of more
than 100 kW shall be fitted with at least two where
suitable water level indicators, or at least one of W is the water volume (in m3);
which shall be a suitable water gauge connected T is the sinking time (in min);
directly to the boiler. For boilers of less than 100 kW D is the maximum evaporative capacity
rating, one suitable water level gauge shall be (in kg/min);
sufficient. v is the specific volume of water at the
Where two water-level gauges are required it shall saturation steam temperature (in m3/kg).
be permissible to mount them on a column or to
attach them independently to the boiler shell. If
water-level gauges are attached to other items of 8.4 Connecting pipes for water-level
equipment, e.g. water-level control chambers, at fittings
least one gauge shall be attached directly to the Where a water level gauge, safety control or alarm
boiler shell. Water-level gauges and columns shall device is connected to the boiler by pipes, the bore of
comply with BS 759-1.
such pipes shall be not less than 25 mm.

8.2.1.2 The required water-level gauge in which the NOTE The ends of pipes local to the fittings may be reduced to
water level can be observed shall be mounted so that not less than 20 mm bore for water level gauges and to 25 mm
bore for separate safety control and alarm devices.
the water level is visible in the gauge glass at the
ultimate lowest alarm level (see 8.3.2) and also at In order that the true level of the water in the boiler,
that of any high level alarm which is fitted. at the point of connection, is indicated accurately in
the water-level gauges and the water-level control
8.2.1.3 At least one water-level gauge with its
chambers, the water connection of these fittings
isolating valves or cocks shall be connected directly
shall be mounted as close as is practicable to the
to the boiler, except as provided for in 8.2.1.1, and
boiler shell or drum.
other than a drain, no device shall be fitted to the
gauge that could cause incorrect indication of the Connecting pipes shall be as short as practicable.
water level in the gauge. The water connections shall all be on or as near as
8.2.1.4 In the case of horizontal return tube boilers, practicable to the same horizontal plane.
such as waste heat, economic or similar, where the
water-level gauge connections are taken from the 8.5 Pressure gauges
sides of the boilers, the lower or water end at least At least one pressure gauge of the bourdon-tube
shall be arranged with a tee or cross connection so type, complying with BS 759-1, shall be fitted to
as to permit cleaning and proving of the pipes. each boiler.
8.3 Water-level alarms 8.6 Boiler feedwater valves

8.3.1 Requirements for the provision of water level 8.6.1 Each boiler shall be fitted with:
alarms are given in section 9.
a) a feed water stop valve and a check valve; or
8.3.2 The ultimate lowest alarm level referred to
b) a globe stop and check valve.
in 9.2.3 shall be at a height above the level of the
highest heated surface within the boiler shell which 8.6.2 Further to the requirements of 8.6.1, where
is the greater or either: two or more boilers are supplied from a common
feedwater system, each boiler shall be provided with
a) 100 mm; or
an additional stop valve capable of being locked in
b) a height which will give sufficient water the closed position.
volume above the level of the highest heated
Feed water valves shall comply with BS 759-1.
surface to allow a sinking time, i.e. the time for
the water to fall from the lowest alarm level to the
8.7 Boiler blowdown and drain
level of the highest heated surface, of not less
than 5 min or, in the case of solid fuel fired mountings
boilers, not less than 7 min at a steam generation 8.7.1 General
rate equal to the maximum capacity of the boiler. 8.7.1.1 Each boiler shall be fitted with suitable
blowdown and drain valves or cocks. Cocks shall not
be used for pressures over 13 bar. All such valves
and cocks shall comply with BS 759-1.
© BSI 02-2000 101

BS 2790:1992
8.7.1.2 Boiler blowdown and drain valves shall be NOTE Attention is directed to Section 34 of the Factories
attached to the boiler by pipes that are as short as Act, 1961 which states “No person shall enter or be in any steam
boiler which is one of a range of two or more steam boilers unless:
practicable. a) all inlets through which steam or hot water might
8.7.2 Blowdown valves or cocks. Blowdown otherwise enter the boiler from any other part of the range are
disconnected from that part; or
valves or cocks shall be placed as near as practicable
b) all valves or taps controlling the entry of steam or hot water
to the lowest point of the boiler. are closed and securely locked, and, where the boiler has a
8.7.3 Continuous and automatic blowdown blow-off pipe in common with one or more other boilers or
delivering into a common blow-off vessel or sump, the blow-off
mountings. When specified in the contract, valves, valve or tap on each such boiler is so constructed that it can
cocks and mountings required to control the water only be opened by a key which cannot be removed until the
conditions in a boiler shall be fitted at appropriate valve or tap is closed and is the only key in use for that set of
positions. blow-off valves or taps.”
8.7.4 Drains. Valves or cocks shall be fitted to drain 8.8 Boiler main stop valves
all parts of boilers that are not drained by
blowdowns. 8.8.1 General. Boiler main stop valves shall comply
with BS 759-1.
8.7.5 Safety arrangements
8.8.2 Cast iron valves. The use of flake
8.7.5.1 All blowdown mountings and drain valves graphite (grey) cast iron to BS 1452, grade 220 and
connected directly to the boiler and discharging into above, and nodular graphite (SG) cast iron to
the boiler blowdown system shall either be capable BS 2789, with a minimum elongation > 12 %, shall
of being locked in the closed position or be protected be permitted for valves up to and including DN200
by a second valve at their discharge which is capable where the operating pressure and temperature does
of being locked in the closed position not exceed 13 bar and 220 °C respectively.
NOTE The expression “connected directly to the boiler” covers
any valve that cannot itself be isolated from the boiler. However, the use of flake graphite cast iron is not
permitted for main stop valves on steam boilers.
8.7.5.2 Where manually operated blowdown valves
or cocks from more than one boiler deliver into a 8.8.3 Main stop valves for steam boilers. The
common discharge, a common handle or stop valve connecting the boiler to the steam pipe
operating/interlocking device shall be provided shall be attached directly to the boiler or shall be as
which is capable of being removed only when such near as practicable to it. In the case of a boiler with
valves or cocks are fully closed. No other a superheater, the stop valve shall be located as
arrangement is permissible. near to the outlet from the superheater header as is
convenient and practicable.
8.7.5.3 When at least two boilers are equipped with
a continuous and/or automatic boiler blowdown Where two or more boilers are connected to a
system leading to a common main, this common common header, in addition to the boiler stop valve,
main shall be separate from and independent of any a second valve shall be incorporated in the steam
main to which manually operated valves are connection and this valve shall be capable of being
connected. The discharges from the two mains shall locked in the closed position. Unless a separate
be led to separate disposal points such that non-return valve is fitted in the steam connection,
inadvertent pressurization of the manual one of the two stop valves shall incorporate a
blowdown main cannot occur. All such systems shall non-return facility.
be either fitted with a stop valve, capable of being NOTE 1 An isolating valve is necessary to enable an individual
locked in the closed position, and a check valve, in boiler to be isolated from a common header or manifold to
facilitate maintenance and examination.
addition to any regulating valves or devices NOTE 2 It is also essential that drainage facilities are
required to control the blowdown flow or, incorporated in steam supply pipework for removal of
alternatively, a globe stop and check valve, capable condensate.
of being locked in the closed position, may be
substituted for the stop valve and the check valve.
102 © BSI 02-2000

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8.8.4 Main stop valves for hot water boilers.

Each boiler shall be fitted with a parallel slide valve
or other form of gate valve at the flow and return
connections as near as practicable to the boiler.
Where two or more boilers are connected to a
common header or manifold, the boiler flow and
return connections shall each be fitted with an
additional parallel slide valve or other form of gate
valve capable of being locked in the closed position
to isolate the boiler. All valves on flow and return
connections shall be capable of being locked in the
open position at all times while the boiler is in
service.
8.9 Vent pipes

For a fully flooded hot water boiler in an open
vented system, the vent pipe shall be sized
according to the maximum rated output of the boiler

it is intended to protect. The minimum pipe size to
be used for rated out-puts up to 600 kW shall be in
accordance with Table 8.9.
Table 8.9 — Minimum open vent pipe size
Rated output Minimum bore Designated sizea
kW mm
below 60 25 1
60 to 150 32 1!
151 to 300 38 1"
301 to 600 50 2
a
Steel pipe sizes complying with medium or heavy quality of
BS 1387.
For rated outputs above 600 kW, the minimum

cross-sectional area of the vent pipe A (in mm2) shall
be that given by the equation:
A = 3.5 × QR
where
QR is the rated heat output (in kW).
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Section 9. Automatic controls
9.1 General 9.2 Automatic controls for steam

All steam and hot water boilers shall be fitted with boilers
automatic water level and firing controls. 9.2.1 Automatic water level controls. Automatic
The minimum requirements for automatic controls water level controls shall be so arranged that they
shall be as follows, supplemented by the positively control the boiler feed pumps or regulate
requirements of either 9.2 or 9.3 as appropriate. the water supply to the boilers and effectively
a) In the event of failure of the automatic maintain the level of water between predetermined
controls, the boiler shall be capable of being limits.
brought under manual control safely. Use under Automatic water level controls shall be operated by
manual control shall be in accordance with a one of the following methods:
clearly defined written emergency procedure that a) float or displacer;
shall include the immediate provision of a trained b) electrical probe;
boiler attendant.
c) any other method approved by the Inspecting
b) All electrical equipment and circuits for water Authority.
level and firing controls shall be designed to fail
safe, i.e. faults in circuits shall cause the fuel and 9.2.2 Automatic firing controls. Automatic firing
controls shall be so arranged that, at all times, they
air supply to the boiler to be shut off

automatically. All electrical conductors and control the supply of fuel and air to the firing
equipment in connection with water level and equipment. These controls shall shut off the supply
firing controls shall be of adequate size and shall of fuel to oil or gas burners or shall shut off the air
be properly insulated and protected to prevent supply and, if necessary, the fuel supply to solid fuel
damage. Where necessary, adequate protection firing equipment in the event of one or more of the
against the ingress of moisture or the effects of following circumstances arising.
abnormal temperature shall be provided. a) Flame failure or pilot flame failure in oil or gas
c) Suitable means shall be provided to test the fired boilers. This control shall be of the lock-out
controls with the boiler in operation. Where float type requiring manual resetting.
or electrode-type controls are housed in chambers b) Failure to ignite the burner within a
external to the boiler, a blow-down valve which predetermined time. This control shall be of the
blows through steam and water in sequence shall lock-out type requiring manual resetting.
be fitted to the water-side of the chamber. Where c) When a predetermined high pressure at or
an isolating valve is fitted in the steam balance below the safety valve set pressure is reached.
pipe, either it shall be locked in the open position
d) When the water level falls to a predetermined
and the key kept with a responsible person or it
level below the normal operating level. This
shall be of a type that cannot accidentally be left
control shall also cause an audible alarm to
closed. Where a locked valve is used, a duplicate
sound.
key shall be kept in a glass-fronted cabinet in the
boiler house for use in emergency. e) Failure of forced or induced draft fan or an
automatic flue damper.
d) Where controls are of the internal type,
i.e. with the floats or the electrodes mounted 9.2.3 Independent overriding controls. In
inside the boiler, suitable means shall be addition to the water level and firing controls
provided to test the operation of these controls. specified in 9.2.1 and 9.2.2, an entirely independent
and separately operated overriding control shall be
e) The blow-down lines from the chambers shall fitted. This shall shut off the fuel supply to oil or gas
be piped separately to a suitable blow-clown tank burners or the air and, if necessary, the fuel supply
or sump. They shall not be piped into the main
to solid fuel firing equipment when the water level
boiler blow-down line.
falls to a predetermined ultimate low level in the
NOTE Attention is drawn to the recommendations, in boiler, this level being lower than the level referred
particular those concerned with the testing of controls, contained
in guidance note PM 5 entitled “Automatically controlled steam to in 9.2.2 d).
and hot water boilers”, produced by the Health and Safety NOTE In the case of solid fuel firing, the heat should be
Executive. dissipated from the fuel bed as quickly as possible. Ways of
achieving this will depend upon the type of installation
concerned.
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Water shall still be visible in the water level gauge e) When the water level in the pressurizing
glass when the independent overriding control equipment in a category 2 system falls to a
operates. This control shall also cause an audible predetermined level below the normal operating
alarm to sound and shall be of the lock-out type level. This control shall also cause an audible
requiring manual resetting. alarm to operate.
Where mounted externally to the boiler, the f) When the pressure in a category 2, 3 or 4
overriding control shall be provided with its own system falls to a predetermined pressure below
chamber and independent connections to the boiler the specified operating pressure. This
and shall comply with the requirements predetermined pressure shall be at a level that
of 9.1.2 where applicable. will ensure that the water does not reach boiling
point in any part of the system while working
9.3 Automatic controls for hot water temperature is maintained.
boilers g) When the pressure in a category 3 system
9.3.1 Types of system. For the purpose of ensuring increases to within 0.35 bar of the safety valve
compliance with the requirements of this section, set pressure. The safety valve set pressure shall
fully flooded boiler systems shall be divided into four be such that it will not allow the design pressure
basic categories: of any part of the boiler to be exceeded.
category 1: static head systems open to h) Loss of water within the boiler. This control
atmosphere; shall be of the lock-out type requiring manual
resetting.
category 2: closed pressurized systems with
separate gas cushioned pressurizing vessels and 9.3.3 Independent overriding controls. In
provision for make-up water; addition to the automatic controls required by 9.3.2,
all categories of fully flooded hot water boilers shall
category 3: sealed pressurized systems with be provided with independent overriding controls
separate diaphragm or bladder type pressurizing that cut off the fuel supply to oil or gas burners or
vessels and provision for make-up water;
cut off the air supply and, where required, the fuel
category 4: continuously pumped pressurized supply to solid fuel firing equipment in the event of
systems with provision for make-up water. one or more of the following circumstances arising.
Boilers pressurized by steam are classified as steam a) When the temperature of the water at or near
boilers and shall comply, where applicable, with the the boiler flow outlet rises to a predetermined
requirements for steam boilers. temperature providing a margin below the
9.3.2 Automatic controls. All categories of fully temperature of saturated steam corresponding
flooded hot water boilers shall be provided with with the pressure at the highest point of the
automatic controls. Automatic controls shall shut circulating system above the boiler. For oil or gas
off the supply of fuel to oil or gas burners or shall fired boilers this margin shall be at least 6 °C and
shut off the air supply and, if necessary, the fuel for solid fuel fired boilers it shall be at least 10 °C.
supply to solid fuel firing equipment in the event of This control shall be of the lock-out type requiring
one of more of the following circumstances arising. manual resetting.
a) Flame failure or pilot flame failure in oil or gas b) When the water level in the pressurizing
fired boilers. This control shall be of the lock-out equipment of a category 2 system falls to a
type requiring manual resetting. predetermined level below the level referred to
b) Failure to ignite the fuel within a in 9.3.2 e). This control shall lock out the firing
predetermined time in oil or gas fired boilers. equipment and shall be of a type that requires
This control shall be of the lock-out type requiring manual resetting.
manual resetting. NOTE In the case of solid fuel firing, the heat should be
dissipated from the fuel bed as quickly as possible. Ways of
c) Failure of forced or induced draft fan or an achieving this will depend upon the type of installation
automatic flue damper. concerned.
d) When the water at or near the boiler flow outlet

rises to a predetermined temperature providing a
margin of at least 17 °C below the temperature of
saturated steam corresponding with the pressure
at the highest point of the circulating system
above the boiler.
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9.3.4 Boilers using mixing valves. Where mixing

valves are used to blend return water with flow
water, solid fuel fired boilers shall serve at least one
circuit that is independent of the mixing valve and
that is capable of dissipating residual heat in the
fuel bed when the mixing valve closes against the
boiler, e.g. during mild weather, or a heat
dissipation thermostat that will override the mixing
valve control in the event of excessive temperature
rise shall be fitted in the boiler flow line.
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Appendix A Information to be supplied by the purchaser to the manufacturer

A.1 General
The information given in A.2 to A.5 shall be the minimum supplied to the manufacturer by the purchaser
at the time of the enquiry.
A.2 Saturated steam boilers
a) Maximum steam capacity (in t/h).
b) Working pressure (gauge) (in bar).
c) Feed water inlet temperature (in °C).
A.3 Superheated steam boilers
a) Maximum steam output (in t/h).
b) Working pressure (gauge) at the superheater outlet (in bar).
c) Superheated steam temperature at maximum steam capacity (in °C).
d) Feed water inlet temperature (in °C).
A.4 Hot water boilers
a) Maximum heat output (in kW).

b) Working pressure (gauge) (in bar).
c) Water return temperature (in °C).
d) Water flow temperature (in °C).
e) Method of pressurization (e.g. by steam, gas, static head or continuous pumping).
f) Description of the control system of the hot water circuit.
A.5 General information
A.5.1 Liquid fuels. Specification and analysis.
A.5.2 Gaseous fuels. Type and origin. Specification and analysis. Gross and net calorific value. Available
gas pressure at installation.
A.5.3 Solid fuels, including waste. Type and origin (e.g. country, district, mine, manufacturer, industrial
undertaking). Specification and analysis (e.g. state of material as supplied, gross and net calorific value,
size of granule, ash-fusion point).
A.5.4 Mixed fuels. The proportion of the various fuels and the method of combustion (this requires
agreement between the purchaser and the manufacturer).
A.5.5 Characteristic values. The limits of certain characteristic values on which the guarantees shall be
based. (This requires agreement between the purchaser and the manufacturer.)
A.5.6 Electrical power supply. The specification (e.g. voltage, frequency, number of phases, number of wires
and any limitations for the direct starting of motors.
A.5.7 Site conditions. Responsibility for erection, height above sea level and climatic conditions.
A.5.8 Chimney emissions. The permitted levels of chimney emissions of combustion products for the fuel to
be used, in accordance with the regulations applying in the district of installation.
NOTE Attention is drawn to the Clean Air Act 1993.
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BS 2790:1992
Appendix B Typical examples of acceptable weld details

B.1 General
The drawings given in this appendix are intended to convey recommendations relating to connections
welded manually by the metal-arc process in carbon steel boilers with a shell thickness of not less
than 6 mm. The following types of connection are dealt with.
Figures
a) Plate preparation for butt-welded longitudinal and circumferential
seams Figure B(1)
b) Cross seams in end plates Figure B(2)
c) End plate- or tube plate-to-shell connections Figure B(3)
d) Attachment of end plate or tube plate to reversal chamber or firebox
wrapper plates Figure B(4)
e) End plate-to-furnace connections Figure B(5) and Figure B(6)
f) Reversal chamber tube plate-to-furnace connections Figure B(5)
g) Ash drop-out tube Figure B(7)
h) Cross tube connections Figure B(8)

i) Foundation rings Figure B(9)
j) Firehole opening Figure B(10)
k) Standard weld preparation details for branches Figure B(11)
l) Branches without added compensation rings
1) Set-on branches Figure B(12) to Figure B(17)
2) Set-in branches Figure B(18) to Figure B(23)
3) Forged connections Figure B(24) and Figure B(25)
m) Branches with added compensation rings
1) Set-on branches Figure B(26)
2) Set-in branches Figure B(27)
n) Studded connections and couplings
1) Butt-welded studded connections Figure B(28)
2) Fillet-welded studded connections Figure B(29)
o) Manhole frame Figure B(30)
B.2 Purpose
The purpose of this appendix is to exemplify sound and commonly accepted practice and not to promote the
standardization of connections that may be regarded as mandatory or to restrict development in any way.
A number of connections have been excluded which, whilst perfectly sound, are restricted in their use to
certain applications, firms, or localities. Furthermore, the desirability is appreciated of introducing
amendments and additions in the future to reflect improvements in welding procedures and techniques as
they develop.
B.3 Selection of detail
The connections recommended are not considered to be equally suitable for all service conditions, nor is the
order in which they are shown indicative of their relative mechanical characteristics. In selecting the
appropriate detail to use from the several alternatives shown for each type of connection, consideration
should be given to the manufacture and service conditions that pertain.
108 © BSI 02-2000

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B.4 Weld details and dimensions

B.4.1 General. The limitations quoted in B.4.2 to B.4.4 are based on commonly accepted sound practice,
but may be subject to modifications dictated by special welding techniques or design conditions.
B.4.2 Weld dimensions. The dimensions of the welds, i.e. throat thickness, have been proportioned to
develop the full strength of the parts joined.
B.4.3 Modifications. Cases may well arise where sound modifications may be made with advantage as
follows:
a) to the weld preparation details to suit special welding techniques; or
b) to the weld dimensions to suit design and service conditions.
B.4.4 Butt joints [including tee butt joints of the type shown Figure B(3)]. In cases where full penetration
butt joints are indicated, it is intended that they should be back chipped or gouged and back welded or,
alternatively, that the welding procedure should be such as to ensure sound root conditions.
B.4.5 Weld preparation details for branches. The weld preparation details (for example bevel angles, root
radii, and root faces) recommended are indicated by letters and numbers in circles which refer to the details
shown in Figure B(11). They are designed to provide correct conditions for welding and to facilitate the
deposition of sound weld metal in the root of the joint. This is particularly important in the case of
single-bevel and single-J welds, and, if these are given as alternatives, it is recommended in general that
preferences be given to the latter if the depth or throat thickness of the weld exceeds about 16 mm.
B.5 Connections of the types specified in Figure B(3), Figure B(12) to Figure B(17) and
Figure B(19) to Figure B(28)
B.5.1 The dimensions and shape of the detail chosen can influence the feasibility and/or efficiency of
ultrasonic examination. This may also be a function of the equipment and time available. If ultrasonic
examination is specified, these factors should be given due consideration.
B.5.2 If welds are made from one side only, the penetration bead should have a smooth contour and be flat
or slightly convex.
B.5.3 The use of ring-type compensation is not suitable for cases where there are severe temperature
gradients.
B.5.4 If ring-type compensation is used, the material used for the ring should be of the same nominal
strength as that of the shell.
B.5.5 If partial penetration joints are used, it is possible that root defects may be present. Since such
defects cannot always be detected or interpreted by means of non-destructive testing, the use of partial
penetration joints is not suitable for cases where there are severe temperature gradients, especially when
these are of a fluctuating nature.
B.5.6 If ultrasonic inspection is required by this standard, it may be necessary to examine the welded
connection between the branch and shell prior to fitting the compensation ring.
B.6 Branches of the types shown in Figure B(12) to Figure B(17) and Figure B(19)
to Figure B(28)
B.6.1 Weld dimensions. The dimensions of the welds shown have been proportioned to develop the full
strength of the parts joined (see also B.4.2 and B.4.3, as well as B.7.2.1).
B.6.2 Weld preparation details. While both single-bevel and single-J welds have been shown as acceptable
in the smaller sizes, in general the latter are to be preferred because of the sounder root conditions
obtained, and it is recommended that single-bevel welds be limited in size to about 16 mm in depth
(see also B.4.3 and B.4.5).
B.7 Branches without compensation rings in Figure B(12) to Figure B(17) and Figure B(19)
to Figure B(25)
B.7.1 Set-on branches. Consideration should be given to the necessity for examining the shell plate for
laminations around the branch hole if set-on branches are used.
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BS 2790:1992
B.7.2 Set-in branches

B.7.2.1 Weld dimensions. The type of branch-to-shell connections and the dimensions of welds employed
may be influenced by several factors in the operational conditions for which the boiler is designed. For
general guidance in this appendix, weld dimensions have been shown for the various connections
recommended, based on the concept that the welded joints should develop the full strength in tension of the
branch radial to the shell as indicated in Figure B(18)(a) and Figure B(18)(b). In general it should therefore
be unnecessary to apply larger welds than those shown.
The approximate assumption has been made that the total throat thickness of the welds should equal twice
the branch thickness. It has also been assumed that the welds should be reasonably symmetrical about the
full thickness of the connection.
It is further recommended that, when the branch thickness exceeds half the thickness of the shell, full
penetration joints should be used with fillet welds equal in total throat thickness to 20 % of the shell
thickness as shown in Figure B(18)(c) and Figure B(18)(d). This additional throat thickness is
recommended to compensate for the relative practical difficulty of applying perfectly sound welds in nozzle
connections and of applying non-destructive tests for their examination. These additional fillet welds are
also intended to provide a reasonable geometric profile. For practical reasons a minimum dimension
of 6 mm has been applied to the fillet weld size.
There may be service conditions for which smaller welds are adequate. In such cases the weld sizes may be
reduced subject to agreement with the Inspecting Authority.
B.7.2.2 Gap between branch and shell. The gap between the branch and the shell should not exceed 3 mm.
Wider gaps increase the tendency to spontaneous cracking during welding, particularly as the thickness of
the parts joined increases.
B.7.2.3 Removal of internal sharp edge in branch bore. The internal edges in the bores of set-in branches
are shown radiused because a stress concentration occurs at this point. This precaution is recommended if
the branch connection is fully stressed or subjected to fatigue, but may not be necessary if these conditions
do not occur.
B.7.2.4 Preparation of hole in shell. In the case of set-in branches of the types shown in Figure B(19) to
Figure B(22) inclusive, the hole in the shell may be cut and profiled in two ways as follows.
a) The depth of the grooves B and D may be constant around the hole as shown in Figure B(18)(e).
This, the normal case, is the basis upon which the drawings have been prepared.
b) The roots of the weld grooves may be in one plane, as for example, when they are machine bored, in
which case the depths of the grooves will vary around the hole as shown in Figure B(18)(f).
B.8 Branches with added compensation rings in Figure B(26) and Figure B(27)
B.8.1 General. Compensation rings should be a close fit to the shell and tell-tale holes should be
provided in them.
B.8.2 Set-in branches. The gap between the branch and the shell should not exceed 3 mm. Wider gaps
increase the tendency to spontaneous cracking during welding, particularly as the thickness of the parts
joined increases.
B.9 Flanges. See BS 806 for weld details of flanges.
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BS 2790:1992
NOTE The use of the minimum gap and the minimum angle should be associated with the maximum radius r of 10 mm.
Conversely, the maximum gap and the maximum angle should be associated with the minimum radius r of 5 mm.
Figure B(1) — Plate preparation for butt-welded longitudinal and circumferential seams
NOTE V-preparation may be used as an alternative.

Figure B(2) — Cross seams in end plates
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NOTE 1 The use of minimum angle should be associated with a maximum radius r of 10 mm. Conversely, the maximum angle
should be associated with a minimum radius r of 5 mm.
(a) (b)
NOTE 2 Figure B(1)(3)(c) and Figure B(1)(3)(d) are for attachment of end plates to shell in waste heat boilers if there is danger of
lamellar tearing of the shell plate. These methods of attachment should be used in class I boilers only.
NOTE 3 Conventional butt joints are used and may not necessarily be of the form shown.
NOTE 4 If a gas box flange is attached by welding as shown, a machined groove to reduce stress concentration is preferred.
NOTE 5 For non-destructive testing requirements, see 5.6.2.
Figure B(3) — Attachment of unflanged flat end plates or tube plates to shell
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Figure B(4) — Attachment of end plates or tube plates to reversal chamber or

firebox wrapper plates
© BSI 02-2000 113

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Figure B(4) — Attachment of end plates or tube plates to reversal chamber or

firebox wrapper plates (concluded)
114 © BSI 02-2000

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NOTE 1 The plate edge radius of not less than e/2 is only required when the furnace end is exposed to a flame or a comparably
high temperature, e.g. at the entry to the reversal chamber.
NOTE 2 The front end of the furnace can protrude beyond the weld provided that the protrusion and the weld area are adequately
insulated to prevent overheating.
(a)
(b)
Figure B(5) — Attachment of furnaces to end plates or reversal chamber tubeplates
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NOTE 3 The position of the welds can be reversed if desired in order to deposit the larger weld from the outside.
Dimensions are in millimetres.
(c)
Figure B(5) — Attachment of furnaces to end plates or reversal chamber tubeplates
Figure B(6) — Attachment of furnaces to flanged end plates
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See 5.3.2.6
Figure B(7) — Typical method of attachment of ash drop-out tube
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See B.4.4
Figure B(8) — Fusion welds of cross tubes
Figure B(9) — Foundation ring
118 © BSI 02-2000

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NOTE All welds are full penetration welds (see B.4.4).

(a)
NOTE All welds are full penetration welds (see B.4.4).

(b)
Figure B(10) — Typical method of attachment of firehole opening
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BS 2790:1992
NOTE 1 These recommendations have been included for general guidance. Discretion should be used in applying the maximum
and minimum dimensions quoted which are subject to variation according to the welding procedure employed (for example, size and
type of electrodes), the position in which the welding is carried out and the practicability of carrying out satisfactory non-destructive
testing, where necessary.
NOTE 2 It is recommended that in no case should the gap between the branch and shell exceed 3 mm. Wider gaps increase the
tendency to spontaneous cracking during welding, particularly as the thickness of the parts joined increases.
Figure B(11) — Standard weld preparation details
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NOTE Preference should be given to the detail shown in Figure B(12)(b) if e exceeds about 16 mm.
(a)
(b)
Figure B(12) — Set-on branches
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NOTE The backing ring material should be of the same nominal composition as that of the vessel shell. Care should be taken to
ensure close fitting of the backing rings which should be removed after welding. After the removal of backing rings the surface should
be ground smooth and examined for cracks by dye penetrant, magnetic, or other equivalent methods.
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NOTE These details are recommended only where the bore of the branch is readily accessible for welding. The joint should be
back-gouged from the side most accessible and suitable for this purpose, generally the outside.
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NOTE These joints are generally used for small branch-to-shell diameter ratios.
124 © BSI 02-2000

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126 © BSI 02-2000

© BSI 02-2000
Figure B(18) — Weld details for set-in branches
127
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NOTE These are generally used when e is approximately equal to e1/2.

Figure B(19) — Set-in branches (partial penetration weld)
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NOTE These are generally used when e is greater than e1/2.

Figure B(20) — Set-in branches (full penetration weld)
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NOTE These are generally used when e is greater than e1/2.

Figure B(21) — Set-in branches (full penetration weld)
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Figure B(22) — Set-in branches (full penetration asymmetrical welds)
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NOTE As a general recommendation, all set-in branches should be welded on the inside of the shell as shown in Figure B(19)
to Figure B(22) if they are accessible for the purpose; otherwise preference should be given to set-on branch connections shown in
Figure B(12) to Figure B(17). However, the connections shown above in Figure B(23)(a) and Figure B(23)(b) are considered to be
acceptable if assurance can be provided that the welding procedure employed will ensure sound and consistent root conditions with
uniform penetration.
Figure B(23) — Set-in branches (full penetration welds, welded from one side only)
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NOTE Forging should be carried out within the correct range of temperature for the materials used.
(a)
NOTE Conventional butt joints are used to weld the forged branch connection to the shell and branch and may not necessarily be
of the form shown. See B.4.4 and B.4.5.
(b)
Figure B(24) — Forged branch connections
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NOTE Conventional butt joints are used to connect the forging to the shell and may not necessarily be of the form shown.
See also B.4.4 and B.4.5. These forgings connecting branches to shells are used with various forms of profile.
Figure B(25) — Forged branch connections
134 © BSI 02-2000

© BSI 02-2000
Figure B(26) — Set-on branches with added compensation rings
135
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136
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Figure B(27) — Set-in branches with added compensation rings
© BSI 02-2000
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NOTE If partial penetration joints are specified, the details given in Figure B(19) are recommended (see also B.5.5).
Figure B(28) — Butt-welded studded connections
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NOTE 1 Fillet welded details are not recommended if the boiler is subjected to pulsating loads; in this case preference should be
given to the details shown in Figure B(28).
NOTE 2 The sizes of the fillet welds should be based on the loads transmitted paying due regard to all fabrications and service
requirements but in any case should not be less than 6 min. (See also Figure B(11) for standard weld preparation details.)
Figure B(29) — Fillet-welded studded connections
See B.4.4
Figure B(30) — Oval manhole frame
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Appendix C Calculation of tube plate temperatures

C.1 General
This appendix provides a method for the calculation of the hot face metal temperature and the average
(design) temperature of tube plates within the tube nest.
The calculation takes into account the effects under steady conditions of heat transfer
a) from the hot gas to the tube plate face and tube inside surfaces by convection, including the tube
entrance effect, and radiation, including radiation interchange in the reversal chamber;
b) by thermal conduction through the tube plate and tube walls from the tube plate face and tube inside
surfaces to the water side surfaces, assuming adequate thermal contact between tube and plate;
c) by nucleate boiling from the water side surfaces.
The method and design curves have been developed from published heat transfer data and contain some
simplifying approximations which tend to be self-compensating; calculated and measured temperatures
have shown good agreement where complete data are available.
C.2 Notation
a is the heat input area to the tube plate element from the tube plate face [see Figure C(8)];
A is the heat input area to the tube plate element from the tube inside surfaces [see Figure C(7)];
AC is the total effective water cooled surface area in reversal chamber;
AR is the total refractory surface area in the reversal chamber;
C is the correction factor for tube-to-tube plate contact thermal resistance;
d is the inside diameter of the convection tube (in mm);
D is the reversal chamber inside diameter (for cylindrical chambers) (in mm);
e is the tube plate thickness (in mm);
F is the overall exchange factor for radiation interchange in the reversal chamber
[see Figure C(2)];
G is the tube specific gas flow rate [in kg/(m2·s)];
hCE is the tube entrance convection coefficient [in W/(m2 · K)] [see Figure C(6)];
hCO is the corrected basis convection coefficient [in W/(m2 · K)] [see Figure C(5)];
h½CO is the hypothetical basis convection coefficient [in W/(m2 · K)] [see Figure C(4)];
hm is the tube plate thermal conductance (in W/(m2 · K);
hR is the radiation coefficient for the tube plate face [in W/(m2 · K)];
h½R is the radiation coefficient for black exchange [in W/(m2 · K)] [see Figure C(1)];
ht is the weighted average heat transfer coefficient [in W/(m2 · K)];
L is the reversal chamber inside length (for cylindrical chambers) (in mm);
LB is the reversal chamber radiation beam length (in mm);
N = 4 000;
p is the average pitch between the tube centres (in mm);
t is the tube plate average (design) temperature (in °C);
tC is the initial estimate of tM (in °C);
tG is the true gas temperature at the tube entrance (in °C);
tM is the tube plate hot face metal temperature (in °C);
tS is the boiler water temperature (in °C);
¶ is the tube plate average temperature factor [see Figure C(12)];
½ is the heat transfer factor for the tube plate element [see Figure C(10)];
2 is the tube plate thermal conductivity [in W·mm/(m2 · K)]
= 40,000 for steel grades 460 and 490;
= 45,000 for steel grades 400 and 430;
Ì is the tube plate hot face temperature factor [see Figure C(11)].
© BSI 02-2000 139

BS 2790:1992
C.3 Calculation method

C.3.1 Radiation coefficients. Determine the radiation coefficient h R′ for black exchange, i.e. emissivity = 1,
F = 1, from Figure C(1). The gas temperature tG at tube entry shall be the true value as would be measured
by a multishield high velocity suction pyrometer (an ordinary thermocouple will always read low; error may
be up to 300 °C). tC is the initially assumed value of the tube plate hot face metal temperature. Typical
values shown on Figure C(1) will usually avoid the necessity for reiteration.
The emissivity of the gas is dependent on the gas analysis, temperature, partial pressures and the beam
length in the reversal chamber. The curves in Figure C(2) are based on the excess air normally used in
directly fired boilers. For products of coal combustion, it is recommended that the natural gas curve be used
to allow for particle radiation. For other gas mixtures the gas emissivity should be determined from a text
on radiant heat transfer, e.g. [3].
The radiation beam length for a cylindrical reversal chamber is given by the following formula.
For chambers which are not cylindrical, the radiation beam length is given by the following formula.
where
VC is the chamber volume
ACS is the chamber surface area
In calculating the chamber surface area no reduction shall be made for tube holes or furnace opening.
For chambers containing refractory linings AR/AC is the ratio of the total effective (reflecting) refractory
surface area to the effective cooled (absorbing) surface area in the chamber.
AC includes the total area enclosed within the tube plate perimeter, i.e. no reduction for tube holes or
furnace opening.
AR/AC for cylindrical chambers may be obtained from Figure C(3).
For fully water cooled chambers AR/AC = 0.
Determine the overall exchange factor F from Figure C(2), then the radiation coefficient for the tube plate
face is given by the following formula.
hR = Fh ′R
Radiation to the tube inside surfaces is taken into account by use of the coefficient 0.5hR in the equation for
the weighted average heat transfer coefficient ht.
C.3.2 Convection coefficients. The hypothetical basis convection coefficient h½CO is dependent on the specific
gas flow rate G in the convection tubes and on the tube inside diameter d. For the products of combustion
of oil fuels, natural gas and coal determine h½CO from Figure C(4). Determine the correction
factor hCO/h½CO for the tube entry gas temperature from Figure C(5), using the oil fuel curve for coal
products. Then the basis convection coefficient for fully developed tube flow at temperature tG is given by
the following formula.
140 © BSI 02-2000

BS 2790:1992
For other gases where the values of specific heat, thermal conductivity or viscosity are different from those
for the products of combustion of oil or natural gas, the value of hCO may be calculated from the equation
for fully developed flow inside tubes as follows.
Nu = 0.023 R 0.8
e r
P 0.33 (see, for example, [3])
where
Nu is the Nusselt number  based on the tube

Re is the Reynolds number  inside diameter, d;
Pr is the Prandtl number.
Determine the correction factor hCE/hCO for the tube entrance region from Figure C(6), then the average
convection coefficient, hCE, for the tube inside surface over the effective length for heat input to the tube
plate, is given by the following formula.
Convective heat transfer to the tube plate face is taken into account by the use of the coefficient hCO in the
equation for the weighted average heat transfer coefficient ht.
C.3.3 Weighted average gas-side heat transfer coefficient. For the tube plate element, bounded by tube
inside surfaces and planes containing tube centrelines, the heat input areas A (tube inside surfaces) and a
(tube plate face) are determined from Figure C(7) and Figure C(8).
The weighted average heat transfer coefficient is then calculated as follows.
where
C = 0.90 for tubes expanded only;
C = 0.95 for tubes expanded and welded;
C = 1.0 for tubes full penetration welded.
C.3.4 Tube plate thermal conductance. The tube plate thermal conductance is given by the following
formula.
C.3.5 Water-side heat transfer. Heat transfer conditions at the water side surfaces are taken into account
in the equations for the tube plate metal temperatures by use of the constant N.
C.3.6 Tube plate temperatures. The following equations for the tube plate hot face and average metal
temperatures are based on equations developed by Gardner [10].
The factors ½, Ì and ¶ are dependent on A/a [from Figure C(9)] and on ht/hm and are obtained from
Figure C(10), Figure C(11) and Figure C(12).
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BS 2790:1992
The gas temperature tG at the tube entrance shall be the true value as would be measured by a
multi-shield high velocity suction pyrometer (an ordinary thermocouple will always read low; the error may
be as much as 300 °C).
C.4 Bibliography
1. LUCAS, D.M. and LOCKETT, A.A. Mathematical Modelling of Heat Flux and Temperature Distribution
in Shell Boilers. Proc. 4th Syrup. on Flames and Industry, 1972, BFRC — Inst. Fuel.
2. KERN, D.Q. Process Heat Transfer, McGraw-Hill, 1950.
3. McADAMS, W.H. Heat Transmission, McGraw-Hill, 1954.
4. GORE, W.H., GUNN, D.C. and HORSLER, A.G. Natural Gas Firing of Shell Boilers, Inst. Fuel,
March 1972.
5. V.D.I. WÄRMEATLAS.
6. JACOB, M. Heat Transfer, John Wiley, 1949.
7. ECKERT, E.R.G. and DRAKE, R.M. Heat and Mass Transfer, McGraw-Hill, 1959.
8. FRAAS, A.P. and OZISIK, M.N. Heat Exchanger Design, John Wiley, 1965.
9. PERRY, K.P. Heat Transfer by Convection from a Hot Gas Jet to a Plane Surface. Proc. I.
Mech. E., 1954, 168

10. GARDNER, K.A. Heat Exchanger Tube Sheet Temperatures. Refiner and Natural Gasoline
Manufacturer, March 1942, 21, no. 3
C.5 Example of a calculation carried out using the method given in Appendix C
C.5.1 Design data assumed
Fuel: natural gas

Boiler: multitubular waste heat with refractory lined hot gas chamber
Specified inlet gas temperature: 900 °C
Boiler design pressure: 1.1 N/mm2
Saturation temperature: ts = 188 °C
Boiler tubes: inside diameter d = 56.3 mm
pitch, triangular p = 88 mm
gas flow rate G = 11 kg/(m2 · s)
Tubeplate: thickness e = 22 mm
material 430 grade
Tube end attachment: expanded and welded
Inlet gas chamber: cylindrical, refractory lined on wrapper
and back plates
inside diameter D = 1 800 mm
inside length L = 1 000 mm
C.5.2 Calculation of radiation coefficient. The calculation of radiation coefficient hR is carried out as
described in C.3.1.
From Figure C(1), using an assumed value of tC = 350 °C indicated by the typical
dryback curve, h R
′ = 185 W/(m2 · k)
LB Radiation beam length
From Figure C(3) AR/AC = 3.15 where L/D = 0.555

From Figure C(2) F = 0.58
Ü hR = 0.58 × 185 = 107.3 W/(m2 · K)
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C.5.3 Calculation of convection coefficients. The calculation of convection coefficients hCO and hCE is carried
out as described in C.3.2.
From Figure C(4) hCO′ = 61 W/(m2 · K)
From Figure C(5) h CO = 0.952

h ′ CO
Ü hCO = 0.952 × 61 = 58.1 W/(m2 · K)
h CE e 22
From Figure C(6) -----------
- = 2.9 where ---- = -------------- = 0.391
h CO d 56.3
Ü hCE = 2.9 × 58.1 = 168.5 W/(m2 · K)
C.5.4 Calculation of weighted average gas-side heat transfer coefficient. The calculation of weighted average
gas-side heat transfer coefficient ht is carried out as described in C.3.3.
A e
From Figure C(7) ------ = 0.6 where --- = 0.391, triangular pitch
d 2 d
a
- = 0.67 where p
From Figure C(8) ----- 88 = 1.563
= --------------
d2 d 56.3
For tubes expanded and welded C = 0.95.
C.5.5 Calculation of tube plate thermal conductance. The calculation of tube plate thermal conductance hm
is carried out as described in C.3.4.
For 430 grade steel Æ = 45 000 (see C.2).
C.5.6 Calculation of tube plate temperatures. The calculation of tube plate temperatures t and tm is carried
out as described in C.3.6.
ht 187
---------- = ------------- = 0.09144
hm 2045
From Figure C(9) A ----- = 0.9
a
From Figure C(10), Figure C(11) and Figure C(12)
½ = 1.72, Ì = 0.885, ¶ = 0.935
Ü Tube plate hot face metal temperature is given by
This is below the limit given in 3.1.3.2 and is therefore satisfactory.

Tube plate average (design) metal temperature is given by
© BSI 02-2000 143

BS 2790:1992
′ for black exchange (F = 1)

Figure C(1) — Radiation coefficient h R
144 © BSI 02-2000

145 © BSI 02-2000
Figure C(2) — Determination of overall exchange factor F
BS 2790:1992
BS 2790:1992
Figure C(3) — Ratio AR/AC for cylindrical chamber, diameter D, length L
146 © BSI 02-2000

BS 2790:1992
G 0.8
NOTE h ′CO = 20.2 -----------
d 0.2
Figure C(4) — Basis convection coefficient h ′CO
© BSI 02-2000 147

BS 2790:1992
Figure C(5) — Determination of correction factor hCO/h ′CO
Figure C(6) — Determination of correction factor hCE/hCO
148 © BSI 02-2000

© BSI 02-2000
Figure C(7) — Non-dimensional tube area
149
BS 2790:1992
150
BS 2790:1992
Figure C(8) — Non-dimensional plate area
© BSI 02-2000
© BSI 02-2000
Figure C(9) — Tube/plate area ratio
151
BS 2790:1992
152
BS 2790:1992
Figure C(10) — Factor ½
© BSI 02-2000
© BSI 02-2000
Figure C(11) — Factor Ì
153
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BS 2790:1992
Figure C(12) — Factor ¶
Appendix D Boiler operation

D.1 Burner matching, control and maintenance
D.1.1 The formulation of the requirements and recommendations of this standard was carried out bearing
in mind the need for satisfactory matching of a burner or burners to the boiler. The limitations on furnace
heat input related to furnace diameter and on maximum calculated tube plate ligament metal temperature
given in section three are intended to ensure reliable service of the boiler unit in an environment of good
engineering control and maintenance. It is, therefore, important that the heat input for which the boiler is
designed should not be exceeded in service.
D.1.2 It is also important that combustion quality is maintained throughout the life of the boiler in order
to obtain efficient operation and to avoid damage to heat transfer surfaces. Particular attention is drawn
to the effects of poor fuel/air mixing which can result in carbon monoxide, generated within the furnace
tube, burning at the first tube pass entrance, causing increased metal temperature. A systematic
maintenance programme to discover and correct the effects of wear, and loosening and fouling of the
combustion equipment is recommended.
D.2 Feed and boiler water
D.2.1 General. The two main functions of a steam boiler are to transfer heat to the water to produce steam
and to separate the steam from the water in the boiler. The boiler can only carry out these functions
effectively if the qualities of the feed water and of the boiler water are properly controlled.
D.2.2 Objectives of water treatment. The objectives of water treatment are to keep those parts of the plant
that are in contact with water and steam clean and intact and to facilitate the production of clean steam.
The selection, application and control of water treatment should be consistent with these aims.
Steel in contact with water or steam quickly forms upon its surface a film of iron oxide which may or may
not be protective. Water treatment to prevent corrosion should so adjust the quality of the water that a film
of protective oxide is maintained.
154 © BSI 02-2000

BS 2790:1992
D.2.3 Filling the boiler. On initial start up and on subsequent refilling after the boiler and/or system have
been drained down, the boiler and system should be filled only with fully treated water. If the system is a
large one, it may be advisable to fill with demineralised water. Before filling the system and boiler, the
water should be analysed and the pH and oxygen scavenger content should be adjusted to conform with
Table 2 of BS 2486:1978. Neglect of this has been known to cause serious failures with hot water boilers.
D.2.4 Contact with the atmosphere. It is not correct to assume that a hot water system is fully closed. There
will be some leakages from the system thus requiring make-up and, at some stage, system water may be
in contact with the atmosphere, e.g. in a header tank or over-flow vessel. The requirements for feed water
and boiler water in BS 2486 should be followed.
D.2.5 Deposits. Impurities introduced into the boiler with feed water can produce scale or other deposits
which impede the transfer of heat and may restrict the flow of water. In addition to reducing boiler
efficiency, either effect leads to insufficient cooling of the metal heat transfer surface which may then
become so hot that it is no longer strong enough to withstand the operating pressure. Deposits may also
lead to corrosion by shielding the underlying metal from protective conditions in the water or steam.
D.2.6 Scale. Calcium, magnesium and silicon compounds are the main constituents and can form scales of
widely differing characteristics with thermal conductivities varying from 216 to 3 450 W·mm/(m2 · K). In
practice this means that some silicon based scales of only 0.1 mm thickness can impede the transfer of heat
as effectively as a calcium sulphate scale 1.6 mm thick. It is therefore important that any scale build-up is
detected and removed as soon as possible. It is essential that the cause also be investigated and corrected
as in many instances it is not possible to determine the composition of the scale without chemical analysis.
Some silicon-based scales are almost invisible to the naked eye and are detected more easily by the use of
a special instrument.
D.2.7 Foam
D.2.7.1 There is always a small unavoidable degree of carry-over of water with the steam generated from
a boiler. However, under certain conditions when contaminants are present the boiler water may foam
badly and this can cause the following difficulties.
a) Gross carry-over of boiler water into the steam main can occur. Traps may be overloaded and pipes
flooded leading to a dangerous water hammer. Slugs of water travelling at speeds approaching one
hundred and fifty kilometres an hour can cause serious damage.
b) Float switches are designed to float in water not in foam. Lockout of the boiler may result from
malfunctioning of float switches.
c) Foam in contact with heated surfaces does not conduct heat away from them as effectively as water.
The boiler metal may overheat, perhaps dangerously.
D.2.7.2 Causes of foam include the following.
a) Detergents, oils, and fats.
b) Excessive alkalinity (this can cause other problems, e.g. chemical attack on gauge glasses).
c) Suspended solids.
d) High total dissolved solids content.
D.2.8 Corrosion. Corrosion is most commonly due to the presence of oxygen in the boiler water and it is
therefore necessary to ensure that the oxygen content of the feed water is at the lowest possible level. The
use of hot feed water and, where economically feasible, the installation of deaeration equipment is
recommended, but in all cases a suitable oxygen scavenging agent should be present in reserve in the boiler
water at all times, even when the boiler is idle.
© BSI 02-2000 155

BS 2790:1992
D.3 Some modes of failure

D.3.1 Overheating in a boiler can be caused by shortage of water following the failure of water level controls
to operate correctly, the accumulation of scale and internal deposits, which can affect the satisfactory
operation of water level controls, or the use of contaminated feed water. The following damage can result.
a) Collapse or deformation of the furnace, sometimes resulting in rupture of the plate in the location of
the bulged area or tearing at the end plate connections.
b) Collapse or deformation of the reversal chamber in a wet back boiler.
c) Hogging or sagging of smoke tubes.
d) Leakage from tube expansions.
e) Cracking of welds and of tube ends at the tube plate attachments.
f) Bulging of tube plates and cracking of ligaments.
D.3.2 Lack of oxygen scavenging of the boiler water can result in severe pitting and wasting internally and
cracking at areas of maximum stress concentration such as at the toes of the internal fillet welds of end
plate to furnace and shell connections.
Boiler cracking can occur, due to a combination of causes, including oxygen attack. As a boiler cools, a
partial vacuum can be created resulting in air being drawn in. This can be eliminated by following correct
shut-down procedures which should include closing steam valves.
D.3.3 If boilers are used on hot water service, gas-side corrosion can occur if care is not taken to avoid
dewpoint conditions.
D.3.4 High metal temperature at the entrance to the first tube pass owing to incomplete combustion can
cause cracking of tube plate ligaments and cracking of welds and tube ends at the tube plate attachments.
D.4 Bibliography
1. The treatment of water for shell boilers, Shell Boiler Group of the PGCA3)
2. Guidance Note PM5: Safe operation of automatically controlled steam and hot water boilers, Health and
Safety Executive4)
Appendix E Recommendations for access and internal inspection

The provision of adequate inspection and cleaning facilities should be considered as an integral part of the
design concept of a boiler and internal components, wherever practicable, should be designed and arranged
so that they do not prevent adequate inspection being carried out.
In particular good inspection facilities should be provided for all corner joints, such as the shell and furnace
attachments to the boiler end plates, subject to high bending moments and for all components, such as
furnace and reversal chamber crowns, subject to high heat flux.
For boilers that are capable of being entered it is recommended that a clear space of 400 mm be provided
above or below the manhole to permit axial traverse of the bottom of the boiler or axial traverse above the
tube nest.
It is recommended also that, if the design pressure permits, the distance between the centre stay bars
below the manhole be not less than 400 mm.
Where necessary a vertical clear space not less than 200 mm wide should be provided between the tube
nests above the furnace to permit inspection of the furnace and reversal chamber crowns.
Where internal access is not provided or is only partially provided a sufficient number of
head-holes, hand-holes or sight holes should be positioned so that a general view of the furnace and reversal
chamber crowns can be obtained.
Boilers should be installed so that entry and inspection openings are readily accessible.
3) Obtainable from the Power Generation Contractors Association, Westminster Tower, 3 Albert Embankment, London SE1 7SL.
4) Obtainable from HSE Books, PO Box 1999, Sudbury, Suffolk CO10 6FS.
156 © BSI 02-2000

BS 2790:1992
Appendix F Example of a calculation, carried out in accordance with

Appendix G of BS 5500:1991, to determine the shell stresses for a boiler with leg
supports
NOTE All references in this Appendix to BS 5500 refer to the 1991 edition.
F.1 Design data assumed [see also Figure F(1)]
Material BS 1501-151 grade 430A

Boiler mass fully flooded 15 000 kg
Design pressure (P) 1.38 N/mm2
Internal diameter (corroded) (Di) 1 800 mm
Mean radius (r) 906 mm
Length between end plates (L) 4 000 mm
Distance from the centre of support to the mid-length of the boiler (d) 1 250 mm
Circumferential length of the loaded area (2 Cø) 320 mm
Axial length of the loaded area (2Cx) 400 mm
Shell thickness (corroded) (t) 12 mm

Design stress (f) 120 N/mm2
F.2 Limits of applicability (see also G.2.2 of BS 5500). The condition that the length L is to be greater
than r is satisfied where L = 4 000 > r = 906.
The condition that the distance A [see Figure F(1)] is to be not less than r/2 is satisfied
where A = 550 > r/2 = 453.
The condition that the Cø/r ratio is not to exceed the value derived from Figure G.2(0) of BS 5500 is satisfied
where Cø/r = 160/906 < 0.182 from Figure G.2(0) of BS 5500 where r/t = 906/12 = 75.5.
F.3 Radial lead from support reaction
An approximate and conservative value for the radial lead, W shall be obtained from the formula
W = W1/cos Ú, where W1 is the vertical reaction at the support.
Using the approximate formula:
Reaction per support: W1 = 15 000 × 0.25 = 3 750 kg
600
Sin Ú = ---------- = 0.662 therefore Ú = 41.5 ° [see Figure F(1)]
906
3750
Radial load: W = --------------------- = 5007 kg = 49 119 N
cos 41.5
NOTE At higher values of Ú this formula may substantially over-estimate the radial lead and, if desired, a detailed analysis may be
undertaken to establish a more accurate value. Such an analysis should consider the specific geometry of the support, its method of
connection to the shell, and in cases where expansion of the shell between supports is subject to a degree of restraint, any arising
thermally induced reaction force.
F.4 Determination of circumferential and longitudinal moments and membrane forces
(see also G.2.2.1.2 of BS 5500)
Equivalent length for off centre loading:
Values required for application in Figures G.2(5) to G.2(8) of BS 5500:
© BSI 02-2000 157

BS 2790:1992
The quantities Mø/W, Mx/W, Nøt/W, Nxt/W for values of Cø/Cx = 0.8 and 64r/t (Cx/r)2 = 235.5 are obtained
from Figures G.2(5) to G.2(8) of BS 5500. It is necessary to interpolate a value of 2Cx/Le = 0.164
between 2Cx/Le = 0.05 and 2Cx/Le = 0.2.
MÌ
-------- = 0.0524 therefore Mø = 0.0524 × 49 119
W
= 2 574 N·mm/mm
Mx
------- = 0.0212 therefore Mx = 0.0212 × 49 119
W
= 1 041 N·mm/mm
NÌ t
---------- = – 0.0562 therefore
W
= – 0.0562 × 49 119-
-----------------
12
Nø = – 230 N/mm
NÌ t
---------- = –0.101 therefore Nx = – 101 × 49 119
------------------
W 12
= – 413.4 N/mm
Longitudinal Circumferential Longitudinal

Circumferential moment, moment, membrane force, membrane force,

MÌ/W [see Figure G.2(5)] Mx/W NÌ t/W Nx t/W
[see Figure G.2(6)] [see Figure G.2(7)] [see Figure G.2(8)]
2C
----------x = 0.05 0.06 0.025 – 0.06 – 0.12
Le
2C
----------x = 0.164 0.0524 0.0212 – 0.0562 – 0.101
Le
2C
----------x = 0.2 0.05 0.02 – 0.055 – 0.095
Le
F.5 Determination of stresses considering boiler fully flooded and no internal pressure
(see also G.2.2.1.2 of BS 5500)
F.5.1 Membrane stresses. These are calculated as follows:
N
circumferential = --------Ì- = – 230
--------------- = – 19.17 N/mm2
t 12
N
longitudinal = -------x- = – 413.4
---------------------- = – 34.45 N/mm2
t 12
F.5.2 Membrane plus bending stresses. These are calculated as follows:
N 6M Ì
circumferential --------Ì- ± -------------
-
t t2
N 6M
longitudinal = -------x- ± ------------x-
t t2
F.6 Effect of internal pressure. In G.2.2.1.3 of BS 5500 it is stated that a conservative result will be
obtained by adding the pressure stresses to those due to local loads.
From B.3.2 of BS 5500:
circumferential stress (pressure)
158 © BSI 02-2000

BS 2790:1992
PR i 1.38 × 900
= ------------ = ------------------------------ = 103.50 N/mm2
t 12
longitudinal stress (pressure)
NOTE The longitudinal stress (pressure) calculated as above does not take into account the effect of end-to-end staying and it is
permissible to reduce the longitudinal stress (pressure) if necessary by applying the loaded area supported by the shell to evaluate
the shell longitudinal stress due to pressure.
Therefore, the membrane plus bending plus pressure stresses are as follows:
circumferential = + 88.08 + 103.50 = + 191.58 N/mm2
– 126.42 + 103.50 = – 22.92 N/mm2
longitudinal = + 8.93 + 51.41 = + 60.34 N/mm2
– 77.83 + 51.41 = – 26.42 N/mm2
F.7 Allowable stress values. From A.3.3.1 of BS 5500:
the membrane stress is not to exceed 1.2f = 1.2 × 120 = 144 N/mm2;
the membrane plus bending stress is not to exceed 2f = 2 × 120 = 240 N/mm2;
the membrane plus bending plus pressure stress is not to exceed 2f = 2 × 120 = 240 N/mm2.
From A.3.3.3 of BS 5500, the membrane plus bending stress (total compressive stress) is not to
exceed – 0.9Et = – 0.9 × 180 = – 162 N/mm2, where Et is as defined in 2.3.1. Hence, all calculated stresses
are within the limits specified.
F.8 Stresses in reinforcing plates (see also G.3.1.5 of BS 5500). The stresses in the reinforcing plate
which occur at the edge of the loaded area 2CÌ × 2 Cx corresponding to the leg dimensions should also be
investigated. The stresses are calculated in a manner similar to the calculations in F.1 to F.7, assuming a
shell thickness of (t + t1), where t1 is the thickness of reinforcing plate (in mm). It is assumed that the
reinforcing plate and boiler shell share the moments MÌ and Mx in proportion to the cube of their
thicknesses and the membrane forces NÌ and Nx in direct proportion to their thicknesses.
Figure F(1) — Assumed boiler dimensions for example of a calculation of

the shell stresses in a boiler with leg supports
© BSI 02-2000 159

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Appendix G Calculation of sustainable pressure for “Walker” type reversed

curvature sections of non-circular reversal chambers
The following suggested working form presents a method whereby the sustainable pressure of reversed
curvature sections of non-circular reversal chambers may be calculated as required by 3.10.2.1.
160 © BSI 02-2000

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Suggested working form —

“Walker” type reverse curve sections or corrugations
© BSI 02-2000 161

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BS 2790:1992 Specification for design and manufacture of shell boilers of

welded construction
Enquiry Cases — Introduction
In accordance with the provisions of 1.5, the publication of Enquiry Cases will be notified in BSI Update
and will be made available for inclusion in the ring-binder in a separate section following the text of the
specification and the appendices.
The table below is for recording cases as they are published and included in the binder, and for noting their
subsequent routeing.
In general, cases will be extant, as adjuncts to the standard and open to public comment, until the text of
the standard is amended to incorporate the substance of particular cases. This will be done in the course of
the normal updating procedure and each case so dealt with will be recorded on the relevant amendment.
When a new edition of the standard is published, embracing all previously issued amendments, the
relevant enquiry cases will be removed from the list and only those remaining extant, as described above,
will be referred to. Consequently, the numerical sequence of Enquiry Case number in the first column will
not be continuous because of these omissions.
Subsequent Summary of pages

Enquiry Case
Enquiry
Date of publication Subject of the Enquiry Case routeing
Case No. Page No Issue
(e.g. incorporated
in BS 2790)
2790/15 March 1986 Allowable stresses in shells under 163 2
hydraulic test conditions at boiler
supports
2790/23 April 1988 Ultrasonic examination of welds 165
2790/26 July 1993 Incorporation of design 167
temperature in boiler making
2970/27 July 1993 Furnace stiffening rings 169
2790/28 July 1996 Weld production control test 171-173
plates
162 © BSI 02-2000

Enquiry Case 2790/15: March 1986
to BS 2790:1982
Issue 2, January 1990
Enquiry Case 2790/15
Allowable stresses in shells under hydraulic test conditions at boiler supports
Enquiry
The shell design stress used in the Appendix F sample calculation is derived from the 250 °C minimum mean
metal temperature requirement of 3.1.3.2. Is it permissible when considering the fully flooded hydraulic test
condition to derive an allowable design stress based upon the material yield strength property at 20 °C?
Reply
No.
All boilers should be considered fully flooded at the design temperature which should not be taken as less
than 250 °C.
The reference standard, BS 5500 has no explicit limit on local stresses in shells at supports under hydraulic
test conditions; the stress limits in Appendix A of BS 5500 apply to design conditions.
© BSI 02-2000 163

164
blank
Enquiry Case 2790/23: April 1988
to BS 2790:1986
Ultrasonic examination of welds
Enquiry
BS 3923-1:1986 refers to Examination Levels based on the use of a 3 mm hole, whereas BS 2790:1986 refers
to specific defect sizes for acceptance purposes. Can the committee give guidance as to how to proceed when
the BS 2790:1986 defect size limit is less than 3 mm.
Reply
Until further data becomes available, as an interim solution it is recommended, subject to agreement
between the manufacturer and Inspecting Authority, that either Table 5.7 of BS 2790:1986 or an
Examination Level in BS 3923:1986 appropriate to the defect size limit of Table 5.7 in BS 2790:1986, be
applied.
© BSI 02-2000 165

166
blank
Enquiry Case 2790/26: July 1993
to BS 2790:1992

Incorporation of design temperature in boiler marking
Enquiry
Item g) of 7.3.2 of BS 2790:1992 requires that any other necessary particulars shall be marked on a boiler.
In the UK, Regulation 5(4) and Schedule 4 of the Pressure Systems and Transportable Gas Containers
Regulations (PSR 1989) apply. Item 7 of Schedule 4 is “the design temperature”. Noting that several
different design temperatures may apply to the various elements within a shell boiler, advice is requested
on how compliance with the legal requirements may be achieved.
Reply
The committee recognizes the difficulty presented by the wording of PSR 1989 Regulation 5(4) and
Schedule 4 in relation to the case of shell boilers. It does not however have the authority or competence to
make a legally binding determination of this issue.
The committee can however advise its opinion that the intent of the regulation in respect to design
temperature might be met by including in the marking the following primary information:
a) for steam boilers, the saturation temperature corresponding to the design pressure;
b) for hot water boilers, the design outlet water temperature.
The committee is further of the opinion that design temperatures for individual elements of a steam boiler
are generally derived from, or supplemental to, this primary information, and that marking of such
temperatures, which may in any case be impracticable, should not be essential to meet the intent of the
regulation.
© BSI 02-2000 167

168
blank
to BS 2790:1992

Furnace stiffening rings
Enquiry
The requirements for furnace stiffening rings are contained in 3.10.1.9 of the standard, but the material
requirements are not. Do stiffening rings have to be manufactured from the same material as that for the
furnace to which they are attached?
Reply
No. Stiffening rings can be manufactured from a different material, providing it conforms to 2.1 of the
standard.
© BSI 02-2000 169

170
blank
to BS 2790:1992

Weld production control test plates
Enquiry
5.4.6 of the standard defines the number of test plates that are required and 5.4.7 defines the associated
levels of destructive testing.
The draft European Standard for shell boiler manufacture also defines these requirements.
For consistency, should the requirements of section 9 of the draft EN Shell Boiler standard be adopted for
these items?
The requirements for weld production control test plates for class III boilers are not clearly defined in
BS 2790. Can this also be clarified at the same time?
Reply
Yes. The requirements of the draft EN Shell Boiler standard can be adopted as follows.
Production control test plates

In order to control the continuing quality of the manufacture and the compliance of the mechanical
properties of the welded joints with the specification, test plates should be welded to the boiler plates prior
to commencement of the production weld.
For Class I boilers with a weld factor of v = 1.0 the material for the production control test plates should be
from the same batch of plates as the shell plates, and for Class II boilers with a weld factor v = 0.85 the
material for the production control test plates should be to the same specification as the shell plates local to
the seam being welded.
When Class II boilers are manufactured along with Class I boilers and are welded to the same procedure,
destructive tests are not required for the Class II boilers, provided that sufficient test plates are produced
to cover the total length of welding involved.
Production control test plates are not required for Class III boilers.
A production control test plate only applies to main shell longitudinal and circumferential welds.
Production control test plates for longitudinal seams should be welded as a continuation of a longitudinal
seam weld.
If so desired, production control test plates may be provided at both ends of a longitudinal seam, in which
case the dimensions of the test plates should be sufficient to take the required test specimens out of one of
them and the specimens for any necessary re-testing out of the other.
The test plates should be supported or reinforced during the welding in order to prevent undue warping.
The test plates should be subjected to the same heat treatment as required for the work piece to which they
belong.
Test plates which have warped during welding may be straightened at a temperature below the temperature
of heat treatment of the shell to which they belong. Straightening should be done before final heat treatment.
© BSI 02-2000 171

BS 2790:1992
Frequency of testing
The frequency of testing of production control test plates should be as follows:

a) one test plate per boiler in the case of v = 1.0 (Class I);
b) one test plate per 100 m of longitudinal joints which are welded to the same procedure in the case
of v = 0.85 (Class II);
c) one test plate per year, where the circumferential seams are welded to a procedure different to the
longitudinal seams.
NOTE 1 If the circumferential welds are made to the same procedure as the longitudinal welds, no test plates need be provided for
the circumferential seams.
NOTE 2 After 10 test plates have successfully passed the tests, testing may be reduced to the following:
a) one test plate per 100 m of longitudinal joints which are welded to the same procedure in the case of v = 1.0 (Class I);
b) one test plate per 1 000 m of longitudinal joints which are welded to the same procedure in the case of v = 0.85 (Class II);
c) one test plate per year, where the circumferential seams are welded to a procedure different to the longitudinal seams.
If the circumferential welds are made to the same procedure as the longitudinal welds no test plates need be provided for the
circumferential seams.
Destructive testing of test plates

The number and type of test specimens to be taken from the test plate are dependent on the plate thickness
and are derailed in Table 1, and the symbols for the table are given in Table 2.
Table 1 — Number and type of specimens
Plate thickness
Specimens
mm
e k 12 1-FB, 1-RB, 1-MA
12 < e k 35 3-IW, 1-MA
35 < e k 3-IW, 1-TT, 1-LT, 1-MA
Table 2 — Symbols
Designation Symbol
Face bend test to BS EN 910 FB
Root bend test to BS EN 910 RB
Transverse tensile test to BS EN 895 TT
Longitudinal tensile test to BS EN 876 LT
Impact test, weld to BS EN 875 IW
Impact test, HAZ to BS EN 875 IH
Macro examination MA
Test plates should be of sufficient size to allow for the required number of specimens, including an
allowance for re-tests.
The results of all tests should be recorded. If any test specimen shows an unsatisfactory result, the reason
for the failure should be investigated and two re-test specimens should be prepared and tested. If it can be
shown that the failure has resulted from a local or accidental defect and the re-test results are satisfactory,
the re-test results should be accepted.
172 © BSI 02-2000

BS 2790:1992
Re-tests
Production factors may result in scatter of mechanical test results which may occasionally fall below the
agreed specification level. Where individual tests do not comply with the above requirements, the reasons
for this failure should be investigated and if no unacceptable imperfections are found the following re-tests
should be made:
a) tensile test: two re-tests;
b) bend test: two re-tests;
c) impact test: three additional tests.
Should any of the re-tests fail to comply with these requirements, then the joints/boiler represented by the
test plate should be deemed not to be in compliance with this standard.
© BSI 02-2000 173

BS 2790:1992
Publications referred to
BS 10, Specification for flanges and bolting for pipes, valves and fittings (obsolescent).
BS 21, Specification for pipe threads for tubes and fittings where pressure-tight joints are made on the
threads (metric dimensions).
BS 499, Welding terms and symbols.
BS 499-1, Glossary for welding, brazing and thermal cutting.
BS 639, Specification for covered carbon and carbon manganese steel electrodes for manual metal-arc
welding.
BS 709, Methods of destructive testing fusion welded joints and weld metal in steel.
BS 759, Valves, gauges and other safety fittings for application to boilers and to piping installations for and
in connection with boilers — Part 1: Specification for valves, mountings and fittings.
BS 806, Specification for design and construction of ferrous piping installations for and in connection with
land boilers.
BS 970, Specification for wrought steels for mechanical and allied engineering purposes.
BS 970-1, General inspection and testing procedures and specific requirements for carbon, carbon
manganese, alloy and stainless steels.
BS 1113, Specification for design and manufacture of water-tube steam generating plant (including
superheaters, reheaters and steel tube economizers).

BS 1387, Specification for screwed and socketed steel tubes and tubulars and for plain end steel tubes
suitable for welding or for screwing to BS 21 pipe threads.
BS 1501, Steels for fired and unfired pressure vessels: plates.
BS 1501-1, Specification for carbon and carbon manganese steels (withdrawn).
BS 1502, Specification for steels for fired and unfired pressure vessels: sections and bars.
BS 1503, Specification for steel forgings for pressure purposes.
BS 1560, Circular flanges for pipes, valves and fittings (class designated).
BS 1560-3.1, Specification for steel flanges.
BS 2486, Recommendations for treatment of water for land boilers.
BS 2600, Radiographic examination of fusion welded butt joints in steel.
BS 2600-1, Methods for steel 2 mm up to and including 50 mm thick.
BS 2600-2, Methods for steel over 50 mm up to and including 200 mm thick.
BS 2910, Methods for radiographic examination of fusion welded circumferential butt joints in steel pipes.
BS 3059, Steel boiler and superheater tubes.
BS 3059-1, Specification for low tensile carbon steel tubes without specified elevated temperature properties.
BS 3059-2, Specification for carbon, alloy and austenitic stainless steel tubes with specified elevated
temperature properties.
BS 3601, Specification for carbon steel pipes and tubes with specified room temperature properties for
pressure purposes.
BS 3602, Steel pipes and tubes for pressure purposes: carbon and carbon manganese steel with specified
elevated temperature properties.
BS 3602-1, specification for seamless and electric resistance welded including induction welded tubes.
BS 3602-2, Specification for longitudinally arc welded tubes.
BS 3920, Derivation and verification of elevated temperature properties for steel products for pressure
purposes.
BS 3920-1, Method for driving the minimum elevated temperature yield or proof stress properties when data
on a minimum of 50 casts are available.
BS 3923, Ultrasonic examination of welds.
BS 3923-1, Methods for manual examination of fusion welds in ferritic steels.
BS 3971, Specification for image quality indicators for industrial radiography (including guidance on their
use).
BS 4490, Methods for micrographic determination of the grain size of steel.
174 © BSI 02-2000

BS 2790:1992
BS 4504, Circular flanges for pipes, valves and fittings (PN designated).
BS 4504-3.1, Specification for steel flanges.
BS 4870, Specification for approval testing of welding procedures.
BS 4870-1, Fusion welding of steel (withdrawn).
BS 4871, Specification for approval testing of welders working to approved welding procedures.
BS 4871-1, Fusion welding of steel (withdrawn).
BS 4882, Specification for bolting for flanges and pressure containing purposes.
BS 5044, Specification for contrast aid paints used in magnetic particle flaw detection.
BS 5135, Specification for arc welding of carbon and carbon manganese steels.
BS 5289, Code of practice for visual inspection of fusion welded joints.
BS 5500, Specification for unfired fusion welded pressure vessels.
BS 5750, Quality systems.
BS 5996, Methods for ultrasonic testing and specifying quality grades of ferritic steel plate.
BS 6072, Method for magnetic particle flaw detection.
BS 6443, Method for penetrant flaw detection.

BS 6693, Diffusible hydrogen.
BS 6693-2, Method of determination of hydrogen in manual metal-arc weld metal.
BS 6759, Safety valves.
BS 6759-1, Specification for safety valves for steam and hot water.
BS EN 287, Approval testing of welders for fusion welding.
BS EN 287-1, Steels.
BS EN 288, Specification and approval of welding procedures for metallic materials.
BS EN 288-3, Welding procedure tests for the arc welding of steels.
BS EN 10002, Tensile testing of metallic materials.
BS EN 10002-1, Method of test at ambient temperature.
BS EN 10002-5, Method of test at elevated temperatures.
BS EN 10028, Flat products made of steel for pressure purposes.
BS EN 10028-2, Non-alloy and alloy steels with specified elevated temperature properties.
BS EN 10045, Charpy impact test on metallic materials.
BS EN 10045-1, Test method (V- and U-notches).
Standards significant to Health and Safety at work5)
Welding steels without hydrogen cracking, F.R. Coe6).
5)
Published by the Health and Safety Executive and obtainable from HSE Books, PO Box 1999, Sudbury, Suffolk CO10 6FS.
6) Published by and obtainable from The Welding Institute, Research Laboratory, Abington Hall, Abington, Cambs. CB1 6AL.
© BSI 02-2000
BS 2790:1992
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British Standard

A single copy of this British Standard is licensed to

This is an uncontrolled copy. Ensure use of the most

Committees responsible for this

Associated Offices Technical Committee

This British Standard, having

First published December 1956

8435 March 1995

9551 July 1997 Indicated by a sideline in the margin

2.4 Forming of plates 6

8.1 Safety valves 100

© BSI 02-2000 iii

Table 2.5(2) — Carbon and carbon manganese steels without

specific requirements being for agreement between the parties concerned

© BSI 02-2000 vii

1.1 Scope 1.1.3 Design and construction of superheaters,

(a) design pressure 1.3 Definitions

1.3.5 1.4.2 Responsibilities of the manufacturer.

of: are carried out by separate organizations, the

1.5 Interpretation 1.7 Information and requirements to

not confer on the committee any power or

1.7.2.3 Requirements to be agreed and documented

been dished or flanged at non-uniform

2.1 General ReH is the upper yield stress;

Cross tubes shall be seamless.

2.4 Forming of plates Table 2.5(1) — Carbon and carbon manganese

(see 3.1.4.4) without verification. Tube 3059-2 S1, S2 or 360

Table 2.5(2) — Carbon and carbon manganese

ERW or CEW 360

Tube 3059-1 HFS —

3601 S  320 — 125 100 91 88

Typical boilers and component terminology are e2

= 0.65 for class III boilers.

L is the length of boiler shell between end plates 0.005 Do u e u 0.08 Do

The minimum thickness e shall in no circumstances

Ri is the internal radius of curvature of the crown

C see Figure 3.4.4; entirely unpierced by tubes or other holes and

strength of the reinforcing area and all other

3.8 Stays, stiffeners and supported Table 3.8.1.3 — Breathing space

Figure 3.8.2(1) and Figure 3.8.2(2)];

When considering areas enclosed by circles which where

flat plate under consideration, the constant j shall

Table 3.8.2.6 — Value of constant j

where c) Links, anchor plates and pins constructed from

that permitted for the parent metal multiplied by

shall be not less than 0.125 Dh + 12.5 mm,

where Then for the combustion chamber tube plates, the

3.10.1.4 Plain furnaces. The design pressure of

Equations (1) and (2) may be expressed in terms of

temperature (in N/mm2);

NOTE The radiant heating surface consists of the furnace.

NOTE The radiant heating surface consists of the furnace.

Figure 3.1(5) — Vertical boiler (concluded)

Figure 3.2.5.2 — Design of saddle supports (concluded)

Figure 3.3(2) — Shape factor

Figure 3.3(3) — Openings in ends

Figure 3.3(4) — Limits of reinforcement

Figure 3.6.1(2) — Compensation for elliptical manholes and inspection openings

Figure 3.8.1(2) — Typical arrangement of end plate on Cornish boiler