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EDFD546: Development and Learning – Assignment 3B

1) Many beginning teachers find that catering for the particular characteristics and learning
needs of students with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander backgrounds to be a real
challenge.

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Challenges

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students constitute a small but significant percentage
of student enrolments in Australia. According to the Australian Council of Deans of
Education (2017), Indigenous students represent approximately 5.58% of students in
primary and secondary schools in Australia. The national geographical distribution of
indigenous students ranges greatly, however, from 1.6% in Victoria to 40.12% in the
Northern Territory (ACDE, 2017). This unequal distribution means that, although most
teachers will have at least some interactions with indigenous students, many teachers will
work closely with a large number of indigenous throughout their career. This may be
particularly confronting for new teachers who are unfamiliar with aspects of indigenous
culture, which can have small but profound differences from Anglo-Australian cultural
norms. It is important to note that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities are not
culturally homogenous, and this report will endeavour to discuss these cultures in
generalities.

The principle reason why some teachers, particularly beginning teachers, may encounter
difficulties in their interactions with indigenous students relates to the vast degree of
cultural difference which can exist between indigenous and non-indigenous cultures.
These differences can manifest themselves in a number of ways which may be considered
rude or off-putting by a teacher who is unaware of these cultural nuances. Elements of
communication, such as eye contact, manners related to asking questions, and prolonged
silences, may have a different significance in indigenous cultures to that which teachers
are previously familiar with (Queensland Health, 2015).

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These cultural disconnects can be greatly exacerbated by linguistic obstacles. Many

indigenous students may have little or no understanding of English, or they may speak
English as an additional language or speak a creole form of English (Queensland Health,
2015). Although these are obstacles which may apply to a variety of students in Australia
and are not specific to the indigenous community, they are particularly prevalent amongst
indigenous students.

In addition to these vast cultural differences, there are a number of related considerations
which may challenge teachers working with indigenous students. Rural and remote
schools generally have a greater proportion of Aboriginal students enrolled. In the Northern
Territory, 34 of 186 schools have 100% indigenous enrolment, while 128 of 186 schools
have indigenous enrolment levels of at least 69% (Slee, 2012). Generally speaking, these
schools have lower attendance rates and educational outcomes than metropolitan schools
(Hackling, Byrne, Gower & Anderson, 2015; Slee, 2012). For example, in 2008, 85.6% of
indigenous students in very remote Northern Territory communities fell below the national
minimum standard in reading (Slee, 2012). This is particularly prevalent in indigenous
communities where parents and students may not place the same value on receiving of a
Western-style education (Hackling, et al., 2015).

Finally, working in rural or remote communities may also prove challenging to new
teachers who may have never lived outside of a large city (Somerville, Plunkett & Dyson,
2010). This may be doubly so in very small indigenous communities which are culturally
extremely different to cosmopolitan centres.

Development Theories

As with all culturally diverse student groups, teachers will be required to adapt their lesson
structure to the needs and abilities of their students. The National Numeracy Review
(Commonwealth of Australia, 2008) identified a number of considerations which can assist
teachers in engaging with their students. The dominant theme of these suggestions is that
teachers should attempt to value, understand, and integrate the culture of their indigenous
students into the classroom where possible. This could include the use of indigenous

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educators or elders in the classroom, the incorporation of local customs or languages, and
attempting to frame lessons in contexts which are useful in students' lives (Commonwealth
of Australia, 2008). It could also involve the use of indigenous-specific teaching styles,
such as the '8ways' pedagogy (NSW Department of Education and Communities, 2012).

Other teaching practices which have been found to be effective in schools in

disadvantaged or low socio-economic areas, such as stable staffing rosters and placing
high expectations on students (Duchesne, S., McMaugh, A., Bochner, A., & Krause,
K. (2016), were also recommended the National Numeracy Report (2008). These
practices are particularly important in indigenous communities where cultural differences
may make it difficult for teachers and students to form a close relationship. Given that
indigenous students may already be disinclined to attend school for a variety of reasons,
student-teacher relationship building is a fundamental component of a teachers job
(Bennett & Moriarty, 2016). However, the average tenure for teachers in very remote
indigenous communities in the Northern Territory is seven months (Slee, 2012) which
makes the task of relationship building extremely difficult.

Implications for Beginning Teachers

The primary implication for beginning teachers who will be working closely with indigenous
students is that a deep cultural understanding of the local indigenous community will be
highly beneficial to relationship building with indigenous students. Whilst teachers working
in remote and heavily indigenous communities may experience the greatest challenges,
even teachers working in metropolitan areas should have some understanding of
Aboriginal and Torres strait Islander culture. As mentioned above, indigenous Australian
cultures are not culturally homogenous, meaning that each individual community will have
it's own unique cultural nuances. However, teachers who have received some level of
cultural awareness training will be in a much greater position to form student-teacher
relationships (Bennett & Moriarty, 2016).

The majority of new teachers will receive some degree of indigenous cultural awareness
training throughout their degree (Tye, 2014; Forrest, Lean & Dunn, 2017) and all teachers

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are required or heavily encouraged to participate in professional development in

multicultural education (NSW Department of Education and Training, 2009). Whether
these practices are sufficient, however, is a topic of debate. Community-Based Models
(CBM's) of cultural engagement can be used to assist teachers to engage with a variety of
disadvantaged communities, including aboriginal communities (Capatano & huisman,
2010). These CBM's may involve in-depth culturally-specific professional development
activities, tours of the local community, poverty simulations, and community engagement
activities to assist new teachers in engaging with and understanding the community culture
of their students (Capatano & Huisman, 2010). These activities assist teachers to
understand indigenous communities more fully, thus allowing for teachers and students to
form relationships more easily.

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Reference List

Australian Council of Deans of Education (2018). ACDE Analysis of 2016 Census

Statistics of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Teachers and Students. Retrieved from
https://www.acde.edu.au/acde-analysis-of-2016-census-statistics-of-aboriginal-torres-
strait-islander-teachers-and-students/

Bennett, M., & Moriarty, B. (2016). Lifelong learning theory and pre-service teachers'
development of knowledge and dispositions to work with Australian Aboriginal students.
International Journal of Pedagogies and Learning 11(1), 1-9. doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/22040552.2016.1187645

Capatano, S., & Huisman, S. (2010). Preparing Teachers for Urban Schools: Evaluation of
a Community Based Model. Perspectives on Urban Education 7(1), 80-90. Retrieved from
http://content.ebscohost.com

Commonwealth of Australia. (2008). National Numeracy Review Report. Retrieved from

https://alearningplace.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/National-Numeracy-Review.pdf

Duchesne, S., McMaugh, A., Bochner, A., & Krause, K. (2016). Educational
psychology for learning and teaching (5th ed.) VIC, Australia: Cengage
Learning.

Forrest, J., Lean, G., & Dunn, K. (2017). Attitudes of classroom teachers to cultural
diversity and multicultural education in country New South Wales, Australia. Australian
Journal of Teacher Education 42(5), 17-34. Retrieved from https://search-informit-com-
au.ezproxy1.acu.edu.au

Hackling, M., Byrne, M., Gower, G., & Anderson, K. (2015). A pedagogical model for
engaging Aboriginal children with science learning. Teaching Science 61(1), 27-39.
Retrieved from https://media.proquest.com

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NSW Department of Education and Communities. (2012). 8 Ways: Aboriginal Pedagogy

from Western NSW. Dubbo: NSW Department of Education and Communities.

NSW Department of Education and Training (DET) (2009). Ethnic Affairs Priority
Statement Report. Retrieved from https://education.nsw.gov.au/about-us/strategies-and-
reports/media/documents/MPSP-report-2006.pdf

Queensland Health (2015). Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Cultural Capability.
Retrieved from
https://leo.acu.edu.au/pluginfile.php/2840620/mod_book/chapter/166740/communicating.p
df

Slee, J. (2012). Addressing systemic neglect of young indigenous children's rights to

attend school in the Northern Territory, Australia. Child Abuse Review 21(2), 99-113. doi:
https://doi.org/10.1002/car.1166

Somerville, M., Plunkett, M., & Dyson, M. (2010). New teachers learning in rural and
regional Australia. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education 38(1), 39-55. doi:
https://doi.org/10.1080/13598660903474130

Tye, G. (2014). Striving for Equity for Australia's Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
Students. Ethos 22(4), 20-25. Retrieved from http://web.b.ebscohost.com

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2) Given that the majority of formal education takes place within the classroom, how can
beginning teachers engage students who are frequently absent from school?

The Dangers of Student Absenteeism

The dangers of chronic and illegitimate student absenteeism are widely understood and
acknowledged by most teachers, however, it can be difficult for many teachers, particularly
new teachers, to find solutions to ongoing student attendance problems. This is because
there is no single reason why students might regularly miss school, and therefore a
uniform solution does not exist. Instead, teachers must understand the reasons why their
students might choose to be absent from class, and attempt to provide a tailored
response.

Student absenteeism is a common occurrence in Australian schools. In Queensland,

approximately 5% of school-age children are estimated to be absent from their school
without a legitimate excuse on an average school day (Mazerolle, Antrobus, & Eggins,
2017). This figure is considerably higher in remote and indigenous communities in
Australia (Slee, 2012). Sustained student absenteeism has been found to be a major
contributing factor to poor student achievement, low graduation rates, and generally poor
student development (Havik, Bru, & Ertesvåg, 2015; Yang & Ham, 2016; Rocque, Piquero,
Ozakan, & Farrington, 2016). Additionally, students who are frequently absent from school
have been found to have poorer lifetime outcomes in later life in areas such as mental
health, earning capacity, incarceration rates, and employment and job satisfaction rates
(Rocque, et al., 2017).

Broadly speaking, there are three main areas of factors as to why a student might be
regularly absent from school. These are individual factors (such as learning difficulties or
behavioural problems, linguistic barriers, or inter-personal problems), school-based factors
(which relate to the operation of the school and classroom environment), and external
factors (such as family obligations, cultural perceptions or values, or financial or work
pressures). If a student is frequently absent from class, the teacher should make a

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concerted effort to discover the root cause of this absenteeism, and address it in some
way if possible.

Development Theories

One theory which is commonly employed by schools to address truancy problems is

Operant Conditioning. Operant conditioning, pioneered by B.F. Skinner, suggests that
certain 'operant' (or voluntary) behaviours can be actively encouraged or discouraged by
the introduction of contiguous positive or negative consequences (rewards or
punishments) as a result of those actions (Duchesne, 2016). For example, students who
attend school regularly might receive a prize at the end of the semester, whereas students
who are regularly absent may be suspended. The practice of penalising parents of
frequently absent students is also an example of operant conditioning (Zhang, 2007).
Critics of Operant Conditioning, however, argue that because Operant Conditioning is
extrinsically motivated (students are motivated to attend by desire for reward or fear of
punishment), they will not develop an appreciation for their education in the same way an
intrinsically motivated student would (Deci & Ryan, 2015).

An alternative Behaviourist theory is Self-Determination Theory. Self-Determination

Theory, popularised by Edward Deci and Richard Ryan, posits that the most effective way
to encourage a positive behaviour (such as regular school attendance) is by internalising
extrinsic motivations. If a student can be shown the value of their education, the
importance of regular school attendance, the personal consequences of regular non-
attendance, and they can come consider the school and classroom environment to be a
safe and supportive one, they are more likely to decide themselves to attend school
without any external motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2015; Taylor & Adelman, 1990). These
internalised cognitive changes are inherently difficult to create, however, particular actions
of teachers can go a long way in encouraging students to intrinsically motivate themselves
to attend school.

Implications for Beginning Teachers

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The implication for beginning teachers who are confronting issues of student absenteeism
is that they should not think in terms of 'how to force students to attend school' using
Operant Conditioning, but rather in terms of 'how to make students want to attend school'
using Self-Determination Theory. 'School factors' of student absenteeism, which teachers
have a degree of control over, can and should be changed to suit the needs and interests
of each individual class.

One of the leading reasons for student disengagement with school is the use of an
inappropriate curriculum in the classroom. (Gase, DeFosset, Perry, & Kuo, 2016). A
classroom curriculum could be inappropriate for a number of reasons. The content could
be too abstract or unrelated from the students' own experience, thus making it difficult for
them to construct meaning and making the class seem uninteresting or irrelevant.
Alternatively, the lessons could be either too advanced or too basic for a student, meaning
that they may get bored easily (Gase, et al., 2016; Zhang, 2007).

Although teachers are constrained in the content they are required to teach, they should
endeavour to teach this content at a level and in a way which appeals to their students.
One way of doing so is the use of Inquiry or Problem-Based Learning tasks which give
students a degree of autonomy over their education, and can demonstrate a practical
application of the lesson content (Duchesne, 2016). The inclusion of vocational subjects
into school curriculums can also be beneficial in attracting students to a curriculum (Reid,
2010). Teachers should also be aware of students with linguistic obstacles or learning
difficulties and attempt to factor these considerations into their lessons. Students who feel
they are academically or linguistically unable to keep up with their class lessons are far
more likely to be frequently absent from school (Spencer, 2009).

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Reference List

Deci, E.L., & Ryan, R.M. (2015). Self-Determination Theory. International Encyclopaedia
of the Social & Behavioural Sciences 2(21), 486-491. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-
8.26036-4

Duchesne, S., McMaugh, A., Bochner, A., & Krause, K. (2016). Educational
psychology for learning and teaching (5th ed.) VIC, Australia: Cengage
Learning.

Gase, L.N., DeFosset, A., Perry, R., & Kuo, T. (2016). Youth's Perspectives on the
Reasons Underlying School Truancy and Opportunities to Improve School Attendance.
The Qualitative Report 21(2), 299-320. Retrieved from https://search-proquest-
com.ezproxy1.acu.edu.au

Havik, T., Bru, E., & Ertesvåg, S.K. (2015). School factors associated with school refusal –
and truancy-related reasons for school non-attendance. Social Psychology Education 18,
221-240. doi: 10.1007/s11218-015-9293-y

Mazerolle, L., Antrobus, E., Bennet, S., & Eggins, E. (2017). Reducing Truancy and
Fostering a Willingness to Attend School: Results from a Randomised Trial of a Police-
School Partnership Program. Prevention Science 18(4), 469-480. doi: 10.1007/s11121-
017-0771-7

Reid, K. (2010). Finding strategic solutions to reduce truancy. Research in Education 84,
1-18. Retrieved from https://search-proquest-com.ezproxy1.acu.edu.au

Rocque, M., Jennings, W.G., Piquero, A.R., Ozkan, T., & Farrington, D.P. (2016). The
Importance of School Attendance: Findings From the Cambridge Study in Delinquent
Development on the Life-Course Effects of Truancy. Crime & Delinquency 63(5), 592-612.
doi: 10.1177/0011128716660520

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Slee, J. (2012). Addressing Systemic Neglect of Young Indigenous Children's Rights to

Attend School in the Northern Territory, Australia. Child Abuse Review 21, 99-113. doi:
10.1002/car.1166

Spencer, A. M. (2009). School Attendance Patterns, Unmet Educational Needs, and

Truancy. Remedial and Special Education 30(5), 309-319. doi:
10.1177/0741932508321017

Taylor, L., & Adelman, H.S. (1990). School Avoidance Behaviour: Motivational Bases and
Implications for Intervention. Child Psychiatric and Human Development 20(4), 219-233.
doi: 10.1007/BF00706015

Yang, K., & Ham, S. (2016). Truancy as systemic discrimination: Anti-discrimination

legislating and its effect on school attendance among immigrant children. The Social
Science Journal 54, 216-226. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2017.02.001

Zhang, M. (2007). School Absenteeism and the Implementation of Truancy-Related

Penalty Notices. Pastoral Care in Education 25(4), 25-34. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-
0122.2007.00422

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3) An unacceptably high proportion of children and adolescents experience some degree

of mental health difficulties. How can a beginning teacher recognise and support students
who may be experiencing mental health difficulties?

Student Mental Health Difficulties

Long-term struggles with mental health are prevalent amongst Australian students.
Although it is difficult to determine exact figures, a number of studies suggest that between
12-25% of students experience some form of mental health difficultes during their
adolescent years (Remaine & Brown, 2010; Johnson, Eva, Johnson & Walker, 2011;
Askell-Williams & Cefai, 2014; Mazzer & Rickwood, 2015; Kutcher, Wei & Morgan, 2015;
Marsh, 2016; Rieke, Aldridge & Afari, 2017). Not only is this rate of mental health problems
in students alarmingly high, studies also indicate that this trend may be worsening (Reiki,
et al., 2017). In this context, there is call for teachers to play a critical role in identifying and
assisting students who may be experiencing mental health difficulties (Mazzer &
Rickwood, 2015). It is important to note that this report is not suggesting that teachers
should take on the role of trained mental health experts in schools, but will instead outline
the ways in which teachers can contribute to a positive environment of mental health for
students.

Although there are a vast number of recognised mental disorders, the most prevalent
mental difficulties amongst students are anxiety/stress disorders, mood/depressive
disorders, and behavioural disorders (Askell-Williams & Cefai, 2014). Externalised
behaviours, such as aggression, impulsivity or oppositional defiance, can be easily
observed by a casual observer. However, internalised behaviour, such as anxiety or mood
disorders, can be easily overlooked (Marsh, 2016). Quite often students experiencing
mental health problems will not seek medical or professional treatment (Askell-Williams &
Cefai, 2014). Suicide is one of the leading causes of death in young people (Kõlves, Ross,
Hawgood, Spence & De Leo, 2017).

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Development Theories

The arguments for teachers playing a role in promoting the positive mental health of their
students are relatively recent, but compelling. Teachers have a pastoral duty to assist and
promote the health and wellbeing of students, including their social, cognitive, emotional,
educational, and developmental needs (NSW Department of Education and Communities,
2015). Schools have long taken pastoral responsibility for students in relation to nutrition,
sex education, and drug education (Askell-Williams & Cefai, 2014). Additionally, students
spend a large portion of their time at school, where they may encounter a range of positive
and negative factors which may affect their mental health. Consequently, teachers are in a
unique position to observe and support students who may be experiencing mental health
problems (Mazzer & Rickwood, 2015).

Teacher involvement with student mental health typically falls under three categories; (1)
teachers can create, organise, or be involved with universal programs designed to
promote positive mental health in all students, (2) targeted programs for groups with
known risk factors (for example, students of a particular group which may be particularly
subject to bullying), and (3) individual interventions with students who are experiencing, or
are suspected to be experiencing, mental health difficulties (Askell-Williams & Lawson,
2013).

Despite the expectations that teachers be involved in supporting the positive mental health
of students, many pre-service teachers do not receive direct mental health training (Askell-
Williams & Cefai, 2014; Mazzer & Rickwood, 2015). As a result, some teachers who feel
unqualified dealing with issues of mental health may be forced to undergo further
professional development or research the topic in their own time (Askell-Willaims &
Lawson, 2013). Alternatively, some teachers may attempt to avoid confronting potential
mental health issues out of fear that they may lack the necessary skills or qualifications
(Mazzer & Rickwood, 2015).

Implications for Beginning Teachers

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As stated above, this report is not suggesting or recommending that classroom teachers
should operate as mental health professionals. The most important step for a teacher
dealing with issues of student mental health is to alert the school support system. This
might be different from school to school, so new teachers should be familiar with the
support processes in their school. Generally this might involve alerting a school counsellor
or year advisor (Johnson, et al., 2011).

With that having been said, classroom teachers have a responsibility to be capable of
identifying and supporting students struggling with mental health difficulties. Where this
training is not offered during teacher training, teachers have a responsibility to familiarise
themselves with the vast amount of literature available to assist them to undertake this
role. One particularly useful source of information for teachers is the Department of Health
and Ageing's 'Social and Emotional Wellbeing: A teacher's guide' report (Commonwealth of
Australia, 2013) which provides information and resources for teachers dealing with
students' mental health issues.

It is important for teachers to familiarise themselves with indicators of mental health

problems, so that they can support students who may be internalising mental health
struggles (Duchesne, 2016). Teachers who encounter large numbers of students
throughout the course of their day may have a greater difficulty in identifying specific
students experiencing mental health difficulties (Johnson, et al., 2011). However, teachers
who are aware of the indicators of internalised mental health difficulties are in a far greater
position to support their students (Marsh, 2016).

One way in which teachers can positively impact the mental health of their students is
ensuring classroom learning experiences and day-to-day school interactions are
conducted in a way which supports the mental health of their students. Many of the factors
which may influence negative mental health may be outside the control of teachers,
however, efforts to foster safe and supportive environments in the classroom can be
beneficial to students with mental health difficulties (Johnson, et al., 2011). Activities which
promote positive student communication, demonstrate respect for students, and facilitate
increased student self-worth and self-efficacy can have a large impact on a students

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mental health while they are at school (Johnson, et al., 2011).

Reference List

Askell-Willaims, H., & Cefai, C. (2014). Australian ad Maltese teacher' perspectives about
the capabilities for mental health promotion in school settings. Teaching and Teacher
Education 40, 61-72. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2014.02.003

Askell-Willaims, H., & Lawson, M.J. (2013). Teachers' knowledge and confidence for
promoting positive mental health in primary school communities. Asia-Pacific Journal of
Teacher Education 41(2), 126-143. doi: 10.1080/1359866X.2013.777023

Commonwealth of Australia. (2013). Social and Emotional Wellbeing: A teacher's guide.

Retrieved from http://www.responseability.org/__data/assets/pdf_file/0009/4878/Social-
and-Emotional-Wellbeing-A-Teachers-Guide.pdf

Duchesne, S., McMaugh, A., Bochner, A., & Krause, K. (2016). Educational psychology for
learning and teaching (5th ed.) VIC, Australia: Cengage Learning.

Johnson, C., Eva, A.L., Johnson, L., & Walker, B. (2011). Don't Turn Away: Empowering
Teachers to Support Students' Mental Health. The Clearing House: A Journal of
Educational Strategies, Issues and Ideas 84(1), 9-14. doi:
10.1080/00098655.2010.484441

Kõlves, K., Ross, V., Hawgood, J., Spence, S.H., & De Leo, D. (2017). The impact of a
student's suicide: Teachers' perspectives. Journal of Affective Disorders 207, 276-281. doi:
10.1016/j.jad.2016.09.058

Kutcher, S., Wei, Y., & Morgan, C. (2015). Successful Application of a Canadian Mental
Health Curriculum Resource by Usual Classroom Teachers in Significantly and
Sustainably Improving Student Mental Health Literacy. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry
60(12), 580-586. doi: 10.1177/070674371506001209

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Marsh, R.J. (2016). Identifying Students with Mental Health Issues: A Guide for Classroom
Teachers. Intervention in School and Clinic 5(1), 318-322. doi:
10.1177/1053451215606706

Mazzer, K.R., & Rickwood, D.J. (2015). Teacher's role breadth and perceived efficacy in
supporting student mental health. Advances in School Mental Health Promotion 8(1), 29-
41. doi: 10.1080/1754730X.2014.978119

NSW Department of Education and Communities. (2015). The Wellbeing Framework for
Schools. Retrieved from https://www.det.nsw.edu.au/wellbeing/about/16531_Wellbeing-
Framework-for-schools_Acessible.pdf

Remine, M. D., & Brown, P.M. (2010). Comparison of the prevalence of mental health
problems in deaf and hearing children and adolescents in Australia. Australian and New
Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 44(4), 351-357. doi: 10.3109/00048670903489866.

Rieke, H., Aldridge, J.M., & Afari, E. (2017). The role of the school climate in high school
students' mental health and identity formation: A South Australian study. British
Educational Research Journal 43(1), 95-123. doi: 10.1002/berj.3254

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