Water

Water is a transparent, tasteless, odorless, and nearly

colorless chemical substancethat is the main constituent of
Earth's streams, lakes, and oceans, and the fluids of most
living organisms. Its chemical formula is H2O, meaning that
each of its molecules contains one oxygen and two hydrogen
atoms that are connected by covalent bonds. Strictly speaking,
water refers to the liquid state of a substance that prevails
at standard ambient temperature and pressure; but it often
refers also to its solid state (ice) or its gaseous state
(steam or water vapor). It also occurs in nature as
snow, glaciers, ice packs and icebergs, clouds, fog, dew, aquifers,
and atmospheric humidity.

Water covers 71% of the Earth's surface. It is vital for all known
forms of life. On Earth, 96.5% of the planet's crust water is found
in seas and oceans, 1.7% in groundwater, 1.7% in glaciers and the
ice caps of Antarctica and Greenland, a small fraction in other
large water bodies, 0.001% in the air as vapor, clouds (formed of
ice and liquid water suspended in air), and precipitation. Only
2.5% of this water is freshwater, and 98.8% of that water is in ice
(excepting ice in clouds) and groundwater. Less than 0.3% of all
freshwater is in rivers, lakes, and the atmosphere, and an even
smaller amount of the Earth's freshwater (0.003%) is contained
within biological bodies and manufactured products. A greater
quantity of water is found in the earth's interior.

Water on Earth moves continually through the water

cycle of evaporation and transpiration (evapotranspiration), con
densation, precipitation, and runoff, usually reaching the sea.
Evaporation and transpiration contribute to the precipitation
over land. Large amounts of water are also chemically combined
or adsorbed in hydrated minerals.

Safe drinking water is essential to humans and other lifeforms

even though it provides no calories or organic nutrients. Access
to safe drinking water has improved over the last decades in
almost every part of the world, but approximately one billion
people still lack access to safe water and over 2.5 billion lack
access to adequate sanitation. However, some observers have
estimated that by 2025 more than half of the world
population will be facing water-based vulnerability. A report,
issued in November 2009, suggests that by 2030, in some
developing regions of the world, water demand will exceed
supply by 50%.

Water plays an important role in the world economy.

Approximately 70% of the freshwater used by humans goes to
agriculture. Fishing in salt and fresh water bodies is a major
source of food for many parts of the world. Much of long-
distance trade of commodities (such as oil and natural gas) and
manufactured products is transported by boats through seas,
rivers, lakes, and canals. Large quantities of water, ice, and
steam are used for cooling and heating, in industry and homes.
Water is an excellent solvent for a wide variety of chemical
substances; as such it is widely used in industrial processes, and
in cooking and washing. Water is also central to many sports
and other forms of entertainment, such as swimming, pleasure
boating, boat racing, surfing, sport fishing, and diving.
Drinking water

Drinking water, also known as potable water, is water that is

safe to drink or to use for food preparation. The amount of
drinking water required varies. It depends on physical activity,
age, health issues, and environmental conditions. Americans, on
average, drink one litre of water a day and 95% drink less than
three litres per day. For those who work in a hot climate, up to 16
liters a day may be required. Water is essential for life.

Typically in developed countries, tap water meets drinking

water qualitystandards, even though only a small proportion is
actually consumed or used in food preparation. Other typical
uses include washing, toilets, and irrigation. Greywater may
also be used for toilets or irrigation. Its use for irrigation
however may be associated with risks. Water may also be
unacceptable due to levels of toxins or suspended solids.

Globally, by 2015, 89% of people had access to water from a

source that is suitable for drinking - called improved water
source. In Sub-Saharan Africa, access to potable water ranged
from 40% to 80% of the population. Nearly 4.2 billion people
worldwide had access to tap water, while another 2.4 billion had
access to wells or public taps. The World Health Organization
considers access to safe drinking-water a basic human right.
About 1 to 2 billion people lack safe drinking water.
Definitions

According to the World Health Organization's 2017

report, safe drinking-water is water that "does not represent any
significant risk to health over a lifetime of consumption,
including different sensitivities that may occur between life
stages.":2

A 'safely managed drinking water service" is "one located on

premises, available when needed and free from contamination.
Common Drinking Water Contaminants

All sources of drinking water contain some naturally occurring

contaminants. As water flows in streams, sits in lakes, and filters
through layers of soil and rock it dissolves or absorbs the
substances that it touches. According to its exposure, water
transforms in composition and in physical parameters.

Aluminum (Al) Low level exposure is not thought to harm your

health. Aluminum, however is not a necessary substance for our
bodies and too much may be harmful. (Federal Limit 0.05 – 0.2
mg/L)

Arsenic (As) Arsenic is a known human carcinogen. (Federal

Limit 0.010 mg/L)

Cadmium (Cd) Symptoms of cadmium poisoning include

cramps, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. Long term exposure to
lower levels of cadmium leads to kidney disease, lung damage
and fragile bones. (Federal Limit 0.005mg/L)

Calcium (Ca) Calcium is an important contributor to water

hardness. (No Federal Limit)

Chromium (Cr) Above the EPA limit chromium may potentially

cause skin irritation or ulceration. Long term exposures to
chromium may cause damage to liver, kidney, circulatory, and
nerve tissues. (Federal Limit 0.1 mg/L)

Fecal Coliform Bacteria and Escherichia coli (E. coli) Present in

the intestines of mammals. In the laboratory, coliforms are used
as indicators of fecal contamination of ground and surface
waters. Water sources containing any coliforms must be treated
before consumption.

Lead (Pb) Symptoms of lead poisoning include tiredness and

aching bones. (Federal Limit 0.015 mg/L)

Magnesium (Mg) Magnesium is an important contributor to

water hardness. When water is heated, magnesium breaks down
and precipitates out of solution, forming scale. Magnesium
concentrations greater than 125 mg/L may have a laxative
effect. (No Limit)

Pesticides & Herbicides Enter surface and ground water

primarily as runoff and can remain in sediment for years.
Thousands of chemicals are currently regulated by the EPA and
have various hazardous effects on humans. (Federal Limit Per
Each Analyte)

Potassium (K) To lower blood pressure, blunt the effects of salt,

and reduce the risk of kidney stones and bone loss, adults should
consume 4.7 grams of potassium per day. (No Limit)
Silver (Ag) Silver poisoning causes a blue-gray discoloration of
the skin, mucous membranes, and eyes. In high doses it is fatal to
humans. (Federal Limit 0.1 mg/L)

Sodium & Chloride (Na/Cl2) If the sodium and chloride levels are
near 100 mg/L, individuals may notice a salty taste. These levels
also affect plant growth. (Sodium: No Limit) (Chloride: Federal
Limit is 250 mg/L)

Turbidity: Turbidity is the lack of clarity or brilliance in water.

This can affect water treatment systems such as UV lights for
disinfection, reverse osmosis units, sediment removal systems,
and ion exchange treatment systems. (Federal Limit 1 NTU)
Chemical and physical properties
Water (H2O) is a polar inorganic compound that is at room
temperature a tasteless and odorless liquid, nearly colorless with
a hint of blue. This simplest hydrogen chalcogenide is by far the
most studied chemical compound and is described as the
"universal solvent" for its ability to dissolve many
substances. This allows it to be the "solvent of life". It is the only
common substance to exist as a solid, liquid, and gas in normal
terrestrial conditions.

States
Water is a liquid at the temperatures and pressures that are
most adequate for life. Specifically, at a standard pressure of
1 atm, water is a liquid between 0 °C (32 °F) and 100 °C (212 °F).
Increasing the pressure slightly lowers the melting point, which
is about −5 °C at 600 atm and −22 °C at 2100 atm. This effect is
relevant, for example, to ice skating, to the buried lakes of
Antarctica, and to the movement of glaciers. (At pressures higher
than 2100 atm the melting point rapidly increases again, and ice
takes several exotic forms that do not exist at lower pressures.)

Increasing the pressure has a more dramatic effect on the boiling

point, that is about 374 °C at 220 atm. This effect is important in,
among other things, deep-sea hydrothermal vents and geysers,
pressure cooking, and steam engine design. At the top of Mount
Everest, where the atmospheric pressure is about 0.34 atm,
water boils at 68 °C (154 °F).

At very low pressures (below about 0.006 atm), water cannot

exist in the liquid state and passes directly from solid to gas
by sublimation—a phenomenon exploited in the freeze drying of
food. At very high pressures (above 221 atm), the liquid and gas
states are no longer distinguishable, a state called supercritical
steam.

Water also differs from most liquids in that it becomes

less dense as it freezes. The maximum density of water in its
liquid form (at 1 atm) is 1,000 kg/m3 (62.43 lb/cu ft); that
occurs at 3.98 °C (39.16 °F). The density of ice is
917 kg/m3(57.25 lb/cu ft). Thus, water expands 9% in volume as
it freezes, which accounts for the fact that ice floats on liquid
water.

Objective

1. To check the potability of water

2. To Enumerate approx no. of Coliform in different drinking
water sample
3. To check the Microbiological quality of milk
6(A) Coliform bacteria
Coliform bacteria are defined as rod-shaped Gram-negative
non-spore forming and motile or non-motile bacteria which can
ferment lactose with the production of acid and gas when
incubated at 35–37°C. They are a commonly used indicator of
sanitary quality of foods and water. Coliforms can be found in
the aquatic environment, in soil and on vegetation; they are
universally present in large numbers in the feces of warm-
blooded animals. While coliforms themselves are not normally
causes of serious illness, they are easy to culture, and their
presence is used to indicate that other pathogenic organisms of
fecal origin may be present.

Escherichia coli (E. coli), a rod-shaped member of the coliforms

group, can be distinguished from most other coliforms by its
ability to ferment lactose at 44°C in the fecal coliform test, and
by its growth and color reaction on certain types of culture
media. When cultured on an eosin methylene blue (EMB) plate, a
positive result for E. coli is metallic green colonies on a dark
purple media. Escherichia coli have an incubation period of 12–
72 hours with the optimal growth temperature being 30–37°C.
Unlike the general coliform group, E. coli are almost exclusively
of fecal origin and their presence is thus an effective
confirmation of fecal contamination. Most strains of E. coli are
harmless, but some can cause serious illness in humans. Infection
symptoms and signs include bloody diarrhea, stomach cramps,
vomiting and occasionally, fever. The bacteria can also cause
pneumonia, other respiratory illnesses and urinary tract
infections.

An easy way to differentiate between different types of coliform

bacteria is by using an eosin methylene blue agar plate. This
plate is partially inhibitory to Gram (+) bacteria, and will
produce a color change in the Gram (-) bacterial colonies based
on lactose fermentation abilities. Strong lactose fermenters will
appear as dark blue/purple/black, and E.coli (which also
ferments lactose) colonies will be dark colored, but will also
appear to have a metallic green sheen. Other coliform bacteria
will appear as thick, slimy colonies, with non-fermenters being
colorless, and weak fermenters being pink.
6(B) Bacteriological Examination of water by multiple-
tube fermentation test of multiple tube test:

Multiple – Tube Fermentation Test or Most Probable Number

(MPN) Test is the most oftenly used technique for the sanitary
analysis of water. The test is used to detect coliforms (coliforms
are defined as facultatively anaerobic, gram-negative, non-
sporing, rod-shaped bacteria that ferment lactose with the
production of acid and gas within 24 hrs of incubation at 350C)
that make up approximately 10% of the intestinal
microorganisms of humans and other animals and have found
widesperead use as indicator organisms of faecal contamination.

The test is performed sequentially in three stages :

presumptive, confirmed and completed test (Fig. 18.1). Lactose
broth tubes are inoculated with different water volumes in the
presumptive test. Tubes that are positive for gas production are
inoculated into brilliant green lactose bile broth in the confirmed
test and positive tubes are used to calculate the most probable
number (MPN) of coli forms in the water sample following the
statistical table. The completed test, involving the inoculation of
EMB agar plate, nutrient agar slant and brilliant green lactose
bile broth and preparation of a Gram stain slide from NA slant,
is used to establish that coli form bacteria are present in the
sample. The complete process including the confirmed and
completed tests requires at least 4 days of incubation and
transfers.
Presumptive Coliforms Test

The Presumptive coliforms test is used to detect coliforms in a

water sample. In this test lactose fermentation tubes are
inoculated with different water volumes and production of acid
and gas from the fermentation of lactose in any of the utbes is a
presumptive evidence of coliforms in the water sample. He
lactose broth used in this test is selective for the isolation of
coliforms because of the addition of bile and lauryl sulphate or
brilliant green. A pH indicator such as Bromocres -1 purple is
also added to lactose broth for the detection of acid. The colour of
the indicator changes to yellow with the production of acid from
lactose.
Observation

Examine all the lactose fermentation tubes for the production of

acid (yellow colour) and gas after 24 and 48 hours of incubation.
Confirmed Colifroms Test

This test is used to confirm the presence of coliforms and to

determine the MPN value in water sample showing positive or
doubtful pre sumptive test. In the confirmed test, water sample
form all the positive presumptive lactose broth tubes are
inoculated into tubes of brilliant green lactose bile broth and
incubated at 350C for 48 hrs. Positive confirmed tubes are used
to determine MPN. A statistical method is used to estimate the
population of coliforms, which means that the result obtained is
ex pressed as the most probable number (MPN) of coliforms. A
count of number of lactose fermentation tubes/brilliant green
lactose bile broth showing production of gas following the
incubation period is taken and MPN is found by matching the
result with those provided in the statistical table.
Observation

Examine all the inoculated bile broth tubes for the gas
production.
Completed Coliforms Test

Completed test is used to establish the presence of coliforms

bacteria and as a confirmatory test for the presence of E coli in a
water sample. In the completed test, the sample form the positive
brilliant green lactose bile broth form the confirmed test area
streaked onto a selective different medium for coliforms and
inoculated into lactose broth tube as well as streaked on a
nutrient agar plate to perform Gram staining. The medium
commonly used is eosin-methylene blue (EMB) that is selective in
nature because of the dye methylene blue which inhibits the
growth of Gram positive bacteria, allowing the growth of Gram
negative bacteria. EMB is differential in nature in that lactose
fermenting bacteria give coloured colonies (a positive confirmed
test) due to the formation of a complex in EMB that precipitates
out onto the coliform colonies. Non-lactose fomenters produce
colourless colonies on EMB agar. If there is production of acid
and gas in the inocurlated lactose broth and there area road
shaped bacteria showing Gram negative reaction, these confirm
the presence of E coli in the water sample and is considered a
positive completed test.
Observation –

Observe the plates after 24 hrs incubation of for coliform

colonies

1. Inoculate a brilliant green lactose broth tube and a nutrient

agar slant with the coliform culture from the EMB agar plate.

2. Incubate the broth tube and nagar slant at 350C for 24 hours.