Advances in Welding and Joining

Technologies

Swarup Bag
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati
 Module 1

Fundamentals of Welding and Joining

 Classification
 Physics of welding
 Fusion welding
 Brazing and soldering
 Adhesive bonding
 Physics of welding arc
 Surface active elements and allied welding processes
 Magnetically impelled arc welding
 Introduction
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3
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 Introduction

What is welding and joining?

Critical technologies in manufacturing

- mainly construction and mining industries in
large scale

Weld Defects => Catastrophic Failure

=> loss of property and human life

4
 Welding and joining

Types of Welding

Fusion Welding Pressure Welding

Friction Welding
Homogeneous Heterogeneous

Gas Welding Brazing Soldering

Generic types:
Electroslag Fusion  arc, gas, power beam, resistance
MIG
Thermomechanical  friction, flash, explosive
Mechanical  fasteners
TIG
High Energy Beam Solid state  adhesive, soldering, brazing

Shielded Metal Arc – “Stick”

Electric Arc

5
 Welding and joining
Three Types of Welds
Surface Two common applications are for hard
surfacing
The primary use of groove welds is to
Groove complete butt joints
• have a triangular cross section
• used that are at a 90 degree
Fillet angle

Five Types of Joints

Butt Corner

Lap

T
Edge

6
 Classification of Welding and Joining

Joining Processes

Permanent Non-permanent
o Welded Joint o Bolted Joint
o Soldering o Screw Joint
o Brazing Semi-permanent
o Riveted Joint o Adhesive Bonding

7
 Classification of Welded Joints

Joining Processes Pressure welding

o Friction welding
Fusion welding o Ultrasonic welding
o Gas welding o Explosive welding
o Arc welding o Diffusion welding
o High energy beam o Resistance welding
o Thermit welding o Magnetic impelled
Metal Deposition Process arc welding
o Soldering
o Brazing
o Adhesive Bonding 8
 Physics of welding
Is that possible to bring together metallic surfaces together?
o Only grain boundary separate them, adherence with large
force is possible

o Ideal case to conduct welding

o Practically metal surfaces contaminated with layer of

oxides
o Deals with the phenomena associated with welding
processes
o The formation of weld bonds (fusion welds and solid-state
weld, commonly differentiated by the physics of the
metallic bonding mechanism) 9
 Physics of welding
Principles of fusion welding
o Fusion welds are created by the coalescence of molten base metals
mixed with molten filler metals
o Metals must be heated to melting point for fusion welds to be
produced
o Phase transitions inherent to these processes, a heat-affected zone is
created
o The cooling of fusion zone is associated distortion, residual stress
and metallurgical changes

Principles of Solid-state welds

 at temperatures below the melting point
 are created by either the macroscopic or microscopic coalescence
of the materials in the solid state
10
 Physics of arc welding
Voltage – The electrical potential or pressure that causes current to flow
Current – The movement of charged particles in a specific direction

Polarity DC- (Direct Current Electrode Negative) Heat generation

DC+ (Direct Current Electrode Positive) in electrode
AC (Alternating Current) GTAW/GMAW
Electrical circuit
Electricity flows from the power source
Through the electrode and across the arc
Through the base material and back to the power source
Electrical - Thermal energy
 Arc created by the electric current: converted into heat because of
the resistance of electron flow
 The heat melts the metal to fuse it together 11
 Enthalpy of Melting
Q = Heat required to melt a given volume of weld
= Heat required to melt the solid + Latent heat of fusion

Q   C p Tm  To   L
FZ
ρ = Density (mass/volume) BM
Cp = Heat capacity
Tm = Melting temperature
To = Initial temperature Fusion zone (FZ)
L = Latent heat of fusion Heat affected zone (HAZ)
Base material (BM)
12
 Energy Sources for Welding
Energy to produce bonds: in form of heat to melt the metals

Categorization of energy sources

Electrical sources
Uses the electrical energy available from AC or DC source
Ex. Arc welding, Resistance welding, Electro-slag welding

Chemical sources
Chemical energy stored in a wide variety of forms can be converted
to useful heat.
Ex. Oxyfuel gas welding, Thermite welding

13
 Energy Sources for Welding
Optical Sources
Focused beams of electron or Laser is operated according to
the laws of optics, achieve high power densities
Ex. Laser beam welding, Electron beam welding
Mechanical Sources
Involve some type of mechanical movement which produces
the energy
Ex. Friction welding, Ultrasonic welding, Explosion welding
Solid State Sources
Characterized by a lack of motion in contrast of mechanical
sources
Ex. Diffusion welding
14
 Physical Properties of Metals
Physical properties of materials influence the applicability
of the various joining processes
Electrical resistivity
it has the maximum affect in resistance welding and
significant role in other processes like GMAW
Thermal conductivity
pure metals have the highest conductivity, and the addition
of alloying elements tends to decrease the values of this
property
Coefficient of expansion
The thermal expansion coefficient in welding of the
materials is critically important in analyzing the distortion
of the welded samples 15
 Physical Properties of Metals
Specific heat
It is the measure of the ability of a body or gas to absorb
or store heat

Ionization Potentials
Ease of arc initiation and its stability are related to the
ionization potential – minimum possible

Metal oxides
The oxidation rate and the refractory stability of the metal
oxides formed during welding affects the transfer of
alloying elements across the arc
16
 Arc Welding Power Sources
Requirement of a power source is to deliver
controllable current at a voltage according to the
welding process being used

Power sources can be classified in two categories

Constant current or falling characteristic power

source
Constant voltage or flat characteristic power
source
17
 Constant voltage power source
 Downward or negative slope -
sufficient internal electrical
resistance and inductance in the

Open circuit voltage

circuit
 Change in current to melt the
electrode at the required rate
 Speed of electrode control the
average welding current
 Constant electrode wire feed
results in a self regulating or self
Maintain the preset voltage
adjusting arc length system
or Relative arc length
 Any change in welding current
occurs, it will automatically Desirable for semi-
increase or decrease the electrode automatic arc welding
melting rate to regain the desired
18
arc length
 Constant current power source
Non-linear negative slope of the
curves (sharply dropping

Open circuit voltage

characteristics)
Desirable for manual arc
welding
Efficient striking of arc - open
circuit voltage should be high

High frequency unit supplies high

voltage (kV) along with high
frequency (kHz) with low current A change in power source (open
circuit voltage adjustment and
Ionizes the medium between output current control) will
electrode and workpiece/nozzle change the slope of the volt
starting pilot arc which ultimately ampere curve
19
leads to the start of main arc
 Role of shielding gas
Protecting the arc and molten weld pool from contamination
by the atmosphere
 Directly use shielding gas
 Slag coverage by chemical reactions in the arc
Common shielding gases:
Argon, helium, carbon dioxide and oxygen

 100 % for certain applications

 Mixed together in different combinations

Properties:
Reactivity, ionization potential and thermal conductivity
20
 Fusion welding
 Arc Welding
Fusion (Non-Pressure)
 Consumable Electrode
Pressure (Non-Fusion)
o SMAW – Shielded Metal
Arc Welding
 Gas Welding o GMAW – Gas Metal Arc
o Oxy-Acetylene Welding
o Air-Acetylene o SAW – Submerged Arc
o Oxy-Hydrogen Welding
 High Energy Beam o ESW – Electroslag
o Electron Beam Welding Welding
 Non-Consumable Electrode
o Laser Beam Welding o GTAW – Gas Tungsten
 Chemical Based Arc Welding
o Thermit Welding o PAW – Plasma Arc
Welding
21
o Carbon Arc Welding
 Oxy-Acetylene Gas Welding

 Mixing of acetylene gas and oxygen in the welding

nozzle
 Proportional of gases decided the nature of flame

Neutral Flame: Ratio of oxygen to acetylene, in the mixture

leaving the torch, is almost exactly one-to-one.
Ex. Welding of mild steel, stainless steel, copper, aluminum

22
 Oxy-Acetylene Gas Welding
Carburizing Flame: Proportion of acetylene in the mixture is
higher than that required to produce the neutral flame.
Lower temperature than neutral flame (excess carbon)
Ex. Welding of iron and steel produces very hard and brittle
iron carbide

Oxidizing Flame: Contains more

oxygen than required for a neutral
flame
Used for Copper base metals and
zinc base metals 23
 Shielded Metal Arc Welding

o Consumable electrode (coated

with a shielding flux)
o Flux produces protective gas
around weld pool
o Flux coated rod
o Slag keeps oxygen off weld
bead during cooling
 Advantages
o Simple, portable and
inexpensive equipment
 Disadvantages
o Process is discontinuous due to limited length of the electrodes
o Weld may contain slag inclusions
24
o Fumes make difficult the process control
 Gas Metal Arc Welding
o Consumable wire electrode
o Shielding provided by gas
(Ar, He, CO2, Ar + O2 or
other gas mixtures)

Advantages
o Continuous weld may be
produced (no interruptions)
o Slag removal is not required
(no slag)
Disadvantages
o Expensive and non-portable
equipment is required 25
 Submerged Arc Welding
o Consumable wire electrode
o Shielding provided by flux
granules
o Low UV radiation & fumes
o Flux acts as thermal insulator
o Suitable for thick plates
Advantages
o Very high welding rate
o The process is suitable for
automation
o High quality weld structure
Disadvantages
o Weld may contain slag inclusions
26
o Mostly for welding horizontally located plates
 Electroslag Welding
o Workpiece is filled with a welding
flux
o At start, arc is created to melt the
flux powder and forms molten slag
o Molten flux short circuits the arc
o Heat is generated due to ohmic
heating of the slag
o Slag circulates and melt the
consumable electrode and
workpiece edges
 Disadvantages
 Advantages
o Coarse grain structure of the
o High deposition rate
weld
o Welding of thick plates
o Low toughness of the weld
o Low slag consumption
o Only vertical position is
o Low distortion
possible 27
 Carbon Arc Welding
o Oldest welding process
o Shields (neutral gas, flux) may
be used for weld pool
protection depending on type
of welded metal.
 Advantages
o Low cost of equipment
and welding operation
o High level of operator skill  Disadvantages
is not required o Unstable quality of the weld
o The process is easily (porosity)
automated o Carbon of electrode
o Low distortion of work contaminates weld material
piece with carbides 28
 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
o Non-consumable electrode
o With or without filler metal
o Shielded by inert gas (Ar, He,
N2)
o Used for thin sections of Al,
Mg, Ti
 Advantages:
o Weld composition is close to that of
the parent metal
o Relatively high quality weld structure
o No slag formation  Disadvantages:
o Thermal distortions of work pieces o Low welding rate
are minimal due to concentration of o Relatively expensive
heat in small zone o Requires high level of
29
operators skill
 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

 Workpiece in a protective inert gas atmosphere

 Any filler material supplied externally
 To increase melting point of electrode – thorium or
zirconium is added to tungsten
 DCEN is normally used
 Welding Al and Mg – AC is used
 Ar is most commonly used shielding gas
 N2 is used for welding copper
30
 Plasma Arc Welding
o Plasma is a gaseous mixture
of positive ions, electrons
and neutral gas molecules
o Non-consumable electrode
 Advantages
o Good tolerance of arc to
misalignments
o High welding rate
o Keyhole effect produces high
penetrating capability

 Disadvantages
o Expensive equipment
o High distortions and wide welds as a result of high heat input
 Modes of Plasma Arc Welding
Transferred arc Non-Transferred arc
 Arc occurs between the
 Workpiece being electrode and the nozzle
welded is part of the  High temperature is carried
electrical circuit to the workpiece by the
plasma gas
 Plasma arc transfers  Thermal energy-transfer
from the electrode to mechanism is similar to that
the workpiece for an oxy-fuel
 It is used for welding of
 May be used for high various metals and for
speed welding plasma spraying (coating)
32
 LASER Beam Welding
o Heat is generated by a high energy laser beam
o Can be conduction more or keyhole mode welding
o Shelding gas is used
 Disadvantages
Advantages
o High cost
o Very narrow weld may be obtained equipment
o Relatively high quality of the weld o Not
structure completely
o Very small heat affected zone free from
o Dissimilar materials may be welded contamination
o Micro and nano-scale welding
o Vacuum is not required
o Low distortion of work piece
33
 Electron Beam Welding
o Beam of high energy electrons
o Carried out in a vacuum chamber
o Formation of keyhole
Advantages
o Deep penetration weld
o Narrow weld and narrow heat affected zone
o Low distortion
o Filler metal is not required

Disadvantages
o Expensive equipment
o High production expenses
o X-ray irradiation 34
 Thermit Welding
o Utilizes heat generated by exothermic chemical reaction between the
components of the thermit (a mixture of a metal oxide
and aluminum powder)
o The molten metal, produced by the reaction, acts as a filler material
joining the work pieces after solidification
8Al + Fe3O4 = 9Fe + 4Al2O3
o Reaction produces Al2O3 , free elemental iron and large amount of
heat
o The exothermic reaction occurs via reduction and oxidation
o Al2O3 is much less dense

Other metal oxides:

2Al + 3Cu2O = 6Cu + Al2O3
35
 Thermit Welding
Advantages
o heat of chemical reaction is utilized
o No external power source is required
o Large heavy section may be joined

Disadvantages
o Only ferrous (steel, chromium, nickel) materials can be
welded
o Relatively slow welding rate
o High temperature process may cause distortions and
changes in Grain structure in the weld region
o Weld may contain gas (mainly H2) and slag
contaminations 36
 Summary
 Heat generation in electrode depends on DC polarity
 Welding of aluminum AC is preferred
 Thermal conductivity of material is important parameter
for FZ and HAZ dimensions
 Flat characteristic of V-I curse is suitable for semi-
automatic arc welding
 Sharp dropping characteristic is suitable for manual arc
welding
 Inert gas is most suitable shielding gas
 Non-transferred arc in PAW is suitable for thermal
spraying or coating
 LBW or EBW is preferred for high depth of penetration
is required (formation of keyhole) 37
 Welding v/s Brazing or Soldering
Difference: Brazing and Welding
Metallic components are joined through fusion
or recrystallization of the base metal by applying heat,
pressure or both
In brazing, where only the filler metal melts during
processing
Difference: Soldering and Brazing
Soldering - joining process wherein metals are bonded
together using a non-ferrous filler metal with a melting
temperature lower than 450 °C
Brazing - the filler metal melting point is greater than
450 °C - it is considered to be a brazing process rather than
a soldering process
38
 Brazing

 Brazing is production and cost efficient

 Component distortion is minimized or eliminated
 Base metal dilution is low
 Joining of dissimilar materials can be achieved
 Different geometric sizes can be joined
 Small and wide gap sizes can be filled
 Specialized labor is not required
39
 Principle of Brazing
Brazing is when a filler metal or alloy is heated to its
melting temperature above 450 °C
It is then distributed in liquid form between two or more
close-fitting parts by capillary action
The filler metal is brought slightly above its melting
temperature
 It then interacts with a thin layer of the base metal (known
as wetting) and is then cooled quickly to form a sealed joint

Capillary action pull the melted brazing alloy into the

space between the parts being joined
An air/acetylene torch is used 40
 Advantages and Limitations of Brazing
 Join virtually any dissimilar metals
 The bond line can be very neat in appearance
 Brazing does not melt the base metal
 It allows much tighter control over tolerances without the need for
secondary finishing
 There is almost no distortion
 Possible to join non-metals, i.e. ceramics can be easily brazed to
each other or to metals

 Brazed parts may not be put in an environment which exceeds the

melting point of the filler metal (typically bronze)
 Brazed joints require a high degree of base-metal cleanliness
 Creating an aesthetic disadvantage - joint color is often different
from that of the base metal
41
 Common Brazing Techniques
Heat Sources for Brazing

Torch brazing: fuel gas flame - acetylene, hydrogen or

propane
Application: braze a tube into a fitting using copper or
silver brazing filler metals

Induction brazing: Electric coils used to heat the part

and the brazing filler metal
Application: tube to tube assembly - brazing with
copper and silver alloys
42
 Common Brazing Techniques
Continuous furnace: Through preheating, heating and post-
heating zones where the braze alloy reaches melting
temperature, then resolidifies during cooling
Silver and copper based brazing filler metals are most
commonly used in these processes

Vacuum furnace: A furnace with electrically heated

elements heat the brazing filler metal to the melting state
Flow and capillary attraction are achieved
Brazing of alloys that are sensitive to oxidation at high
temperatures - pumping system removes oxygen
Application: Gold, copper, nickel, cobalt, titanium and
ceramic based filler metals are vacuum brazed
43
 Principle of Soldering
 Difference from Brazing - filler metal used in case of soldering
should have the melting temperature lower than 450oC
 Flux must be applied to the faying surfaces and then surfaces are
heated
 Solder is added to the joint - distributes between the closely fitted
surfaces
 Strength of soldered joint is much lesser than welded joint and less
than a brazed joint

44
 Advantages and Limitations of Soldering
A low-temp heat source can be used – not necessary to
melt base metals
Parts can be dis-assembled at any time by simply
supplying heat
Dissimilar metals can be easily joined - aluminum to
brass, and copper to steel

 Low Strength
 Damaged under high temperature conditions
 Careful removal of the flux residuals is required in order to
prevent corrosion
 Large sections cannot be joined
 Fluxes may contain toxic components 45
 Soldering Tools
Soldering iron, fluxes, solder wire or stick and spelter
Soldering Iron: Consists of a copper bit attached to iron rod
at its one end, and a wooden handle at the other end
- used to melt the filler metal and paste it to make the joint

Most of the solder metals are the alloy of tin and lead
Percentage of lead is kept least due to its toxic properties
A solder is selected on the basis of its melting point
Solder of high melting point provides better strength of the
joint
Tin promotes the wetting action required for making the
joint
46
 Types of Solders
Soft soldering: Used for joining small intricate parts having
low melting points
 tin-lead alloy as filler material
 melting point of the filler material should be below 400oC
 It uses gas torch as the heat source

Hard soldering (also called Brazing): Joins two pieces of

metals by expanding into the pores of the work piece opened
by high temperature
 The filler material possess high temperature above 450oC
 It comprises of two parts namely silver soldering (used
for most nonferrous metals and alloys) and brazing
47
 Soldering Techniques
Touch soldering, furnace soldering, resistance soldering, dip
soldering and infrared soldering - methods are common to
both soldering and brazing processes
Methods for only soldering
Hand Soldering: Small joints are made in very short time
Done manually using solder iron (mainly repairing)
Wave Soldering: Large-scale soldering process
Electronic components are soldered to a printed circuit board
(electronic assembly)
Reflow Soldering: Also widely used in electronics to make
print circuit boards
A solder paste (solder powders + flux) is applied to spots on
the board the board is heated to melt the solder, forming
mechanical and electrical bonds between the component
 Principle of Adhesive Bonding
Joining process in which a filler material is used to hold
two (or more) closely-spaced parts together by surface
attachment
An adhesive must
o wet the surfaces
o adhere to the surfaces
o develop strength after it has been applied
o remain stable

Substrate 1
Boundary Layer 1
Adhesive
Boundary Layer 2
Substrate 2 49
 Surface Preparation and Curing
Surface Preparation: Part surfaces must be extremely clean
Bond strength depends on degree of adhesion between
adhesive and parts – links with the cleanliness of surface
For metals - solvent wiping often used for cleaning, and
roughening surface by sandblasting improves adhesion
For nonmetals - surfaces are sometimes mechanically
roughened or chemically etched to increase roughness
Curing: Process by which physical properties of the adhesive
are changed from liquid to solid (usually by chemical
reaction)
o Curing often aided by heat and/or a catalyst
o If heat used, temperatures are relatively low
o Curing takes time - a disadvantage in production
o Pressure sometimes applied to activate bonding process
 Methods of Application of Adhesive
Brushing
Performed manually; coating is often uneven

Manual rollers
Similar to paint rollers

Silk screening
Brushing through open areas of a screen to
coat selected areas

Flowing
Using manually operated flow guns; more
consistent control than brushing 51
 Failure of Adhesive Bonding
Three possible mechanisms:
 Structural failure - internal failure of a substrate material
in a region close to the joint
 Adhesive failure - interfacial failure resulted in separation
of one of the substrate from the adhesive layer
 Cohesive failure - internal failure of the adhesive layer.

Structural failure Adhesive failure Cohesive failure 52

 Classification of Adhesives
Classification is based on load carrying capability
Structural, semi-structural, or non-structural
Glass transition temperature - an important property for
polymeric materials, above which polymers are rubbery and
below which they are glassy
Structural adhesives: Relatively strong adhesives that are
normally used well below their glass transition temperature
Two groups - thermoplastic and thermosetting
The thermoplastic adhesives get soften at high temperatures
Common examples: epoxies and acrylic adhesives
Semi-structural - applications where failure would be less
critical
Non-structural - applications for aesthetic purposes
cost-effective required for assembly of finished products
 Advantages and Disadvantages
o Ability to join dissimilar materials
o Sealing properties (adhesive fills gaps and voids)
o Provides thin and invisible joint
o Joints may be electrically/thermally conductive or
insulating
o Eliminates galvanic corrosion
o Requires careful substrate (adherent) surface preparation
o Service temperature (Most are unstable above 180°C)
and environment limitation
o Changing properties during service
o Long mixing and curing time may be required
o Difficult to disassembly of joined parts
o Necessity to hold together the joined parts during curing
 Applications of Adhesive Bonded Joints

Automotive, aircraft, building products,

ship building
Packaging industries
Footwear
Furniture
Book binding
Electrical and electronics

55
 Physics of Welding Arc

 Welding arc and electron emission mechanism

 Zones in welding arc
 Electrical aspects
 Initiation of arc
 Forces acting on arc
 Effect of electrode polarity
 Efficiency of arc
 Modes of metal transfer

56
 Basics of Welding Arc
 Arc develops due to flow of current - charged particles should have
reasonably good electrical conductivity
Charged particles are generated by
Thermo-ionic emission
Increase in temperature of metal increases the kinetic energy of free
electrons
When it crosses the limit, electrons are ejected from the metal surface
Tungsten and carbon - having high melting point exhibit thermo ionic
electron emission tendency
Field emission
Free electrons are pulled out of the metal surface by high potential
difference between the work piece and electrode
Secondary emission
High velocity electrons also collide with other gaseous molecules -
results in decomposition of gaseous molecules into atoms and charged
particles (electrons and ions) 57
 Zones in Arc Gap
Cathode spot: Region where from Electrode
electrons are emitted
Cathode drop region: Voltage drop
affects the heat generation and
Cathode spot
melting rate of the electrode Cathode
Plasma: flow of charged particles Cathode drop
i.e. free electrons and positive ions zone
takes place
Anode drop region: Voltage drop Anode spot
Plasma
affects the heat generation and Anode drop
melting of anode zone
Anode spot: Electrons get merged Anode
and their impact generates heat for
melting
 Electrical Aspects of Welding Arc
Welding arc – effective resistance for flow of current in an
electric circuit
Resistance - is a function of temperature
- inversely proportional to the density of charge
particles

V = VC+ Vp + Va (cathode drop + plasma drop + anode

drop region)

Power of the arc = V*I where I = current

 Variation of arc length mainly affects plasma heat

 Shielding gas influences the heat generation in the cathode
59
and anode drop zones
 Initiation of Arc
Touch start: in case of all common welding processes
Field start: automatic welding operations (TIG, PAW)

Touch start Field start

 Electrode - contact with the  High strength electric field is
work piece and then pulled apart applied - leads to ejection of
to create a very small gap electron from cathode spots
 Causes short-circuiting resulting  Once the free electrons are
in flow of heavy current - leads available in arc gap - normal
to heating, partial melting and potential difference maintain a
slight evaporation of the metal at welding arc
the electrode tip  Commonly used where direct
 Pulling up of the electrode - contact between electrode and
maintain the arc work piece is not preferred
60
 Effect of Electrode Polarity
Generation of Heat
2/3rd of heat is generated at the anode and 1/3rd at the cathode
Mass of electron is less than mass of ions - it gets accelerated at high
velocity and more heat is generated at anode
DC Welding - DCSP/DCEN
• used for non-consumable electrode and for deep penetration
- DCRP/DCEP
• used for consumable electrode welding process and thin sheets
AC Welding
o Polarity changes in every half cycle of current
Arc Stability
o SMAW provide better arc stability with DCEN than DCEP.
o GTAW commonly uses DCEN
o When cleaning action is required, AC is more preferable
61
 Arc Efficiency
Heat loss due to
conduction to base metal
by convention and radiation to surrounding
Only a part of heat generated by the arc to be used for
melting purpose

Arc efficiency - ratio of the heat generated at anode and

total heat generated in the arc (using non-consumable
materials)
In consumable arc welding process - heat generated both
at cathode and anode for melting of filler and base metal
In general, consumable arc welding processes offer higher
arc efficiency than non-consumable arc welding process
 Forces Acting on Arc Zone
Influence the mode of metal transfer
Gravity force - acts on molten metal drop Fg = ρVg
Surface tension force - tends to resist the detachment of molten
metal drop from electrode tip and usually acts against
gravitational force
Force due to impact of charge carriers – acts by charged particles
on to the molten metal drop at the tip of electrode tends to delay
the detachment
Force due to metal vapours - due to upward movement of metal
vapours from the weld pool act against the molten metal drop at
the tip of the electrode
Force due to electro magnetic field - Interaction of
electromagnetic field with that of charge carriers produces a force
which tends to pinch the drop at the tip of the electrode also called
63
pinch force
 Modes of metal transfer
Transfer of molten metal from the tip of a electrode to the
weld pool

Factors
Shielding gas, composition of the electrode, diameter of the
electrode

Types of metal transfer

o Short Circuit Transfer
o Globular Transfer
o Spray Transfer
o Dip Transfer
64
 Modes of metal transfer - Short Circuit Transfer
 Low welding current - droplet grows
slowly

Current
 When drop touches weld pool, short-
circuiting takes place
 Due to narrow arc gap, molten drop
does not attain a size big enough to fall Arc Time
Short
under gravitational force
circuiting
 After short circuit - welding current
flow increases abruptly and results in Arc
excessive heat generation
 The molten metal of droplet becomes
Short circuiting
thinner (low surface tension) Pinching
 Molten metal is transferred to the weld Finally, re-ignites arc and
pool flow of current starts
 An arc gap is established that increases
arc voltage abruptly Repeated over cycle
 Modes of Metal transfer – Globular transfer
 Welding current is low (more than short circuit transfer)
and arc gap is large - droplet can grow slowly
 Droplets continues to grow until gravitational force exceeds
the surface tension force
 As soon as drop attains large size enough and so
gravitational force becomes more than other drop-holding-
forces
 Drop separates from the electrode tip and is transferred to
the weld pool
 The droplet transfer occurs when it attains size larger than
the electrode diameter
 No short-circuit takes place
 Modes of Metal transfer – Spray transfer
 Welding current density is higher
than globular transfer
 High welding current density results
in high melting rate and greater
pinch force
 Droplets are formed rapidly and
pinched off quickly by high pinch
force
 Droplets are of very small in size
 High welding current increases
temperature that lowers the surface
tension force Required especially in
 Decreases the resistance to difficult to access areas
detachment of drops
 Modes of metal transfer – Dip transfer

Dip Transfer: Welding current is very low and feed rate is

high

 Electrode is short-circuited with weld pool that leads to

the melting of electrode and transfer of molten drop
 Dip transfer differs from short-circuiting – in terms of arc
gap
 Low welding current and narrow arc gap (at normal feed
rate) results in short circuit mode of metal transfer
 Dip transfer is primarily caused by abnormally high feed
rate

68
 Summary
 Brazing and soldering can used for joining dissimilar
materials, however, joint strength may not be high like
fusion welding
 Curing in adhesive bonding takes considerable time -
hence the process is slow
 In automatic welding process field start is used for
initiation of arc
 DCEN polarity creates maximum heat at the workpiece
 Consumable arc welding processes offer higher arc
efficiency than non-consumable arc welding process
 When welding current density is high, the metal transfer
mode is spray transfer
69
 Surface Active Elements

 Fluid flow - major factor determining fusion zone shape

The dominant driving force for fluid flow - surface tension
gradient
Small concentrations of surface active elements affect weld
pool shape
- by altering surface tension gradients
- Changes the direction of fluid flow in the weld pool
 Impurities (not surface active elements) may affect weld
pool shape
- By reacting with surface active impurities
- Prevent the action of surface active impurities
Surface tension is temperature dependent
70
 Marangoni Convection Mode
 Magnitude and direction of surface

Surface tension
tension gradients - Marangoni
convection
 Surface tension decreases with Weld pool
increase in temperature – negative Temperature
slop

Surface tension
 Small addition of surface active
element - change the surface tension Weld
temperature coefficient to a positive pool
value
 Overall, affect the direction of the Temperature
liquid material flow Marangoni convection mode
 Surface tension of most liquid metals in weld pool
is substantially altered by the
presence of small amounts oxygen 71
and Sulphur
 Surface active elements in welding
 Presence of surface-active agent in the liquid metal
in significant amount, ∂σ /∂T can be changed from
negative to positive

 Marangoni convection influence the weld pool

 Presence of Sulphur and oxygen in Stainless Steel

acts as surface active elements

 Example: 180 – 600 ppm oxygen in SS304 produce

maximum weld penetration
72
Allied welding process using surface active elements

Minor elements can be added to the weld pool by adjusting

 Chemical composition of the base material
 Spreading fluxes (halides or oxides) on the substrate
material
 Using active gaseous addition (CO2) to the argon
shielding gas

Overall, addition of a small amount of minor elements to the

base material significantly changes the weld penetration

Industrially A-TIG process has been developed

73
 Activated TIG Welding Process
A-TIG is a variant of TIG Welding which involves
application of thin coating (10-15 μm thick) of activated
flux on the joint area prior to welding
Results in increase in penetration in single pass welding
Overcomes the limitations of the conventional TIG
welding process
Advantages
 Enables single pass welding of higher thickness plates
 Enhance productivity and reduce consumption of filler
wire
 Residual stresses reduced significantly (> 70%) and the
weld joints are almost distortion free
 Significant reduction in the cost of fabrication (> 50%)
 Magnetic Impelled Arc Butt Welding
Is a forge welding process that relies on an electric arc to generate
necessary heating the surfaces being welded

The arc rotate due to

the presence of
external magnetic
field
Generated with
permanent or
electromagnets

Creates very uniform heating at the joint

The heated parts are rapidly brought under pressure

Forging action produces the final solid-state joint 75
 Stages in MIAB Welding
Arc initiation - Arc stabilization - Arc rotation - Upsetting
 Arc is initiated when the closed joints are slightly
spaced with the applied voltage
 The arc rotation starts due to the interaction of
magnetic and electric fields
 The momentum of the arc gets established
 The arc velocity is stabilized and results in a
visible arc ring around the gap between the joints
 A thin layer of molten metal appears at the tube
end
 The upsetting force to be applied to fuse the metal
joints 76
 Advantages and Limitations
 Advantages
o Less metal loss
o Uniform welding
o Low power consumption
o No edge preparation
o No filler material
o Less internal flash
o Reduced machine maintenance

Limitations
o High wall thicknesses (more than 6 mm) difficult to
weld due to non-uniform heating
77
 Applications

 Applications of MIAB welding

o Butt welding of thin-walled tubes
o Butt welding of thick-walled tubes
o Butt welding of solid parts
o Tube to plate welding
o Tube to flange welding

Optional Features of MIAB

o Can weld tube to tube or tube to flange, and can weld
irregular or non circular components as easily as circular
o One of the fastest methods of welding tube
78
 Issues and challenges in welding processes

Different variants of electric arc welding facilitate

more than 70% of the demand from the fabrication
industries

Welding with High Intensity Beam

Welds made with high intensity beams are
characterized with exceptionally high rate of
solidification and cooling

79
 Issues and challenges in welding processes

Porosity in aluminium welds is the major challenge

Aluminium exhibits 20% greater solubility of H2 in

liquid state leading to gas entrapment and porosity in
solidified weld

80
 Issues and challenges in welding processes

High distortion and cracks are other problems

High coefficient of thermal expansion and volume

shrinkage during solidification result in severely
distorted weld joints or cracks during solidification

81
 Issues and challenges in welding processes
Welding of titanium alloys is also challenging
Titanium starts reacting with O2, N2 and H2 above
260o C. The molten weld pool must be protected from
atmospheric contamination till it cools below 470o C.

Welds contaminated
with O2 are very
brittle and hard.
Usually, welding is
carried out inside a
chamber.
82
 Issues and challenges in welding processes

Many problems of fusion welding are avoidable by

friction stir welding
Since workpiece does not melt, problems such as
porosity, solidification cracks and thermal distortion
are non-existent.
The harder the workpiece material, the stronger
has to be the tool material.

The weld evolves as function of tool geometry, tool

rotational speed, and welding speed 83
 Issues and challenges in welding processes
Challenges of FSW Process – Bad material flow

It is extremely important to identify appropriate

combinations of tool geometry, tool rotational speed
and welding speed to ensure proper material flow.
Because the tool experiences severe atmosphere of stress and
temperature, commercial use of FSW for hard alloys still
84
remains elusive.
 Issues and challenges in welding processes

Friction welding of nickel based superalloys and of

titanium alloys
Fusion welding of Nickel based superalloys and
Titanium alloys are difficult due to their high melting
temperature and high reactivity at high temperature

Friction Welding is by far the most efficient method

for joining these materials in critical applications

85
 Issues and challenges in welding processes
Laser beam welding of Al- and Ti-alloys is another
attractive alternative
The Laser Beam, produced by a solid state laser (Nd:YAG) or
a gas (CO2) laser, is focussed and directed through optical
lens to achieve high power density.
Laser Beam Welding can produce deep and narrow weld with
minimum heat affected zone and distortion of final weld joint.

Laser Beam Welded Large Panel for Fuselage (main body of

aircraft)
Simultaneous welding from both sides minimize distortion in
large spherical or cylindrical panels used for fuselage
structure. 86
 Issues and challenges in welding processes

Electron beam welding in aerospace

 Welding in a vacuum ensures no gas
contamination.
 Provides deepest penetration irrespective of type of
material or surface conditions.
 Proven track record and widely accepted for
critical aerospace materials.
Critical aerospace components such as spiral bevel gear, and
compressor rotors rotate at very high speeds under high
loads and thus, need totally defect free welds.
Electron beam welding is the only approved joining process
87
 Issues and challenges in welding processes

Challenges in electron beam welding

Material
Thermoelectric magnetic field
B
Material
A
Cu - Steel

Electron beam

88
 Issues and challenges in welding processes

Micro scale welding process

Resistance
Arc (TIG, MIG and plasma)
Laser
Electron beam welding - modification of
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) optics
The geometric precision and cost of equipment is
main challenge for mass production
- Fixture design and handling (robotic arm)
- Development under microscope 89
Thank you
for your kind attention

End of Module 1
Fundamentals of Welding and Joining

90