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7
The safety issue in aromatherapy

Introduction
Essential oil safety has been monitored in a variety of
different ways, all of which have been geared to the
Many aromatherapists and members of the public perfumery, cosmetics and the food industries. The
consider natural essential oils to be completely safe. continuous synthesis of new aromachemicals and their
This is based on the misconception that all herbs are widespread usage in ‘natural essential oils’ together
safe – because they are ‘natural’. However, it is dan- with many diluents, has brought about many prob-
gerous to assume, just because a tea or alcoholic lems, the worst being sensitisation. The whole aspect
extract of a plant used as a herbal medicine is harm- of safety is now being stringently reviewed and new
less, that the essential oil derived from that plant is regulations may soon impede the sale and usage of
also safe. The dramatic increase in concentration of many essential oils and cosmetic products as well as
the essential oil compared with that in the whole their use in foods.
plant (often the yield is 0.01%) demonstrates that The toxicity of essential oils does not entirely
essential oils are not equivalent to the whole herb. depend on high concentrations. All essential oils are
Essential oils are also volatile and fat-soluble and toxic at very high doses, especially if taken orally.
therefore differ from the mainly water-soluble whole Many essential oils are inherently toxic at very low
herb extracts used in herbal medicine. As suggested concentrations due to very toxic components: these are
in Chapter 1, the comparison is akin to massaging not normally used in aromatherapy (see Appendices 29
butter into the skin of a baby and believing that this and 30). Many essential oils which are considered to be
is equivalent to giving the baby whole milk to drink. non-toxic can have a toxic effect on some people: this
The toxicity of essential oils can also be entirely can be influenced by previous sensitisation to a given
different to that of the herb, not only because of their essential oil, a group of essential oils containing similar
high concentration, but also because of their ability components or some adulterant in the essential oil. It
to pass across membranes very efficiently due to their can also be influenced by the age of the person: babies
lipophilicity. and young children are especially vulnerable and so are
Some aromatherapists believe that aromatherapy very old people (who are also more affected by drugs,
is self-correcting, unlike conventional therapy with etc.). The influence of other medicaments, both con-
medicines, and if errors are made in aromatherapy, ventional and herbal, is still in the preliminary stages of
they may be resolved through discontinuation of the being studied. It is possible that these medicaments,
wrongful application of the oil. There is also the and also probably household products, including per-
belief that if an inflammation follows the use of an fumes and cosmetics, can influence the adverse reac-
irritant oil, it will dissipate as soon as the oil is dis- tions to essential oils. Very small doses of essential oils
continued without having caused lasting damage. It taken/used over many months or years could have
is said that the occasional mistake is never injurious, toxic effects, as shown by many recent studies on
but instead provides valuable guidance about how to sensitisation.
correctly use the often underestimated power of essen- Aromatherapists themselves have also been
tial oils (e.g. Schnaubelt, 1999). affected by sensitisation (Crawford et al., 2004): in a
This is a very dangerous view due to the consider- 12-month period under study, prevalence of hand
able amount of evidence of the risks of essential oils. dermatitis in a sample of massage therapists was 15%

75
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76 Chapter 7 • The safety issue in aromatherapy

by self-reported criteria and 23% by a symptom-based of the components – as this may make them more
method and included use of aromatherapy products in toxic. Citrus essential oils are very unstable and may
massage oils, lotions or creams. In contrast, the sug- last for only a few months. Many already contain
gestion that aromatherapists have any adverse effects added antioxidants, but one can add vitamin E
to long-term usage of essential oils was apparently dis- (squeezed from capsules) to the essential oils as a safe
proved by a non-scientific survey, where adverse reac- and efficient antioxidant; it also supposedly helps the
tions to essential oils were blamed on reactions to skin to remain young and healthy.
the clients themselves (Price and Price, 1999). Most
aromatherapists apparently experienced only beneficial
effects both on the skin and other organs and tissues.
Toxicity testing in animals
This type of survey may be considered unscientific
for reasons of bias of the respondents to the survey,
notably because aromatherapists who had experi- Most aromatherapy suppliers claim to have managed
enced adverse effects would have left the profession; in some way to obtain essential oils, which ‘have
secondly, most of the respondents had practised for never been tested on animals’, information which
under 4 years and had given fewer than ten treatments they pass on to their clientele. Nearly all the essential
per week (as reported by Price and Price, 1999). oils and extractives commonly used in aromatherapy
The International Organization for Standardization have however been tested on animals and their mono-
(ISO) has set up standards to make essential oils more graphs are to be found in the journal Food and
consistent (see monographs), but this often encourages Cosmetics Toxicology from 1973, renamed Food and
adulteration (see Chapter 5). The ISO stipulates that Chemical Toxicology in 1982. This fact is not known
there is a named botanical source, but in commerce the by many aromatherapists, who, in their innocence,
actual plant source is often confused. For example, cit- think they are using only essential oils that have not
rus plants can be grown as scions on a parent plant of been tested on animals, sold to them by reputable
a different species. Furthermore hybrids and cultivars dealers. This is not only erroneous, but it contravenes
are often used, as well as clones obtained by micro- the Trades Description Act and also Health and
propagation (e.g. tea tree). Safety regulations, as only essential oils tested on ani-
mals are legally sold and used for foods, perfumes
and cosmetics.
Apparently suppliers can get round the legislation
General guidance for essential oil
using a loophole that involves the issue of certificates
purchase and storage
stating that ‘the essential oils have never been tested
on animals if they have not been tested in the last
Do not buy essential oils from market stalls – these seven years’. As most were tested from 1973 to 1992,
cheap essential oils are often useful only for usage in this seems to be a good ploy by the suppliers. The
burners and not for skin application. Many of the results of more recent animal tests, published as
essential oils are mixed with considerable volumes of monographs, include essential oil components and
various diluents, which include petroleum spirits. Buy further genotoxicity, mutagenicity and pharmaco-
bottles with child-proof caps and efficient droppers. logical evaluations on both essential oils and com-
On the other hand do not assume that essential oils ponents. Most cosmetic products are now no longer
sold from high street stores are pure, unadulterated tested on animals, but all their ingredients have
essential oils (see Chapter 5). All essential oils should been tested.
be sold in brown bottles or platinum containers: do As most essential oils were tested over 30 years
not buy them in clear glass or plastic containers. ago, the toxicity data may now be meaningless, as
Essential oils should always be stored in the different essential oils are now used, some of which
refrigerator (preferably in an enclosed plastic con- contain different quantities of synthetic components.
tainer to prevent the odours mingling with stored There is also the question as to whether all synthetic
foods) or in a cool, dark place. Storage areas must be components are always made in the same way. If not,
out of reach for children. Do not expose the bottles then there is the possibility of contamination with
to light or air for long periods, to prevent oxidation other chemicals, which changes the composition and
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Toxicity testing in animals 77

therefore the adverse effects, either making them acyclic and heterocyclic hydroxylation; N-, S- and
worse or better. O-dealkylation; N-oxidation and S-oxidation; amine
The Living Flavour and Living Flower series oxidation, alcohol and aldehyde oxidation;
(International Flavor & Fragrance Inc.) are produced N-hydroxylation; desulphuration and deamination.
by trapping the natural odours of the living plant The process usually occurs through two phases: the
using SPME (solid phase micro extraction) and then primary phase involves these enzymatic biotransfor-
assembling them using totally synthetic components. mations, the most important being microsomal oxida-
Synthetic products could perhaps account for the tion using cytochrome P450; this is followed by the
increased toxicity of the essential oils bought today, secondary phase, involving conjugation. There can be
especially in the area of sensitisation. numerous biotransformations following the conjuga-
Published monograph data usually include: LD50 tions as well, giving rise to hundreds of metabolites: the
(lethal dose for 50% of the test population) and acute main metabolite(s) vary in different animals, therefore
symptoms after oral dosing in rats and dermal dosing extrapolation from animal to humans becomes diffi-
in rabbits, subacute toxicity data after oral dosing, irri- cult if the major metabolite(s) are entirely different.
tation studies usually after application on the backs of These major metabolites can be influenced by the pres-
hairless mice or intact/abraded rabbit skin (Appendix ence of other components. The latter can also affect
22). Sensitisation tests use a maximisation test on the biological half-life, and thereby its activity and
human volunteers at 1–8% in petrolatum, photoxicity accumulation in different tissues in the body.
on hairless mice/swine and antimicrobial activity. On
occasion, carcinogenicity and mutagenicity studies are
included, together with other references as to the com- Dermal absorption and detoxification
position and bioactivities, including pharmacological
and insecticidal studies and clinical trials, etc. Cutaneous enzymes include esterases and other
enzymes, including oxidases using cytochrome P450.
The activity of these enzymes in the skin is much
Toxicity studies in animals: critique lower than in the liver, but the large surface area of
the skin makes it a significant detoxification process.
The major drawbacks of trying to extrapolate tox- Any chemicals absorbed will then be dealt with by
icity studies in animals to humans concern feelings – the liver and other organs/tissues.
from headaches to splitting migraines; feeling sick, Absorption of essential oil components can be quite
vertigo, profound nausea; tinnitus; sadness, melan- substantial and is influenced by numerous internal
cholia, suicidal thoughts; feelings of hate – which are and external factors: idiosyncracy; skin/air tempera-
clearly impossible to measure in animals. ture, humidity, contact time and concentration, area
The toxicity of an individual essential oil/compon- and site of body as well as the physicochemical nature
ent is also tested in isolation in animals and disregards of each component. There is also the variability intro-
the possibility of modification by other substances, duced by age, follicle number and skin surface status
including food components and food additive chem- (e.g. undamaged, damaged, shaven, suntanned, pro-
icals, the surrounding atmosphere with gaseous and tected by creams, etc.) (Hewitt et al., 1993). The more
other components, fragrances used in perfumes, domes- lipophilic molecules are absorbed quickly, but also
tic products, in the car, in public transport (including volatalise more readily; the more hydrophilic compon-
the people), workplace, etc. These could cause modifi- ents may be very slow in penetrating, if at all, but are
cation of the essential oil/component, its bioavailability also influenced by the presence or absence of occlu-
and possibly the enhancement or loss of its function. sion. Coumarin, present in cassia and other oils,
The detoxification processes in the body are all is rapidly absorbed to 46% (human unoccluded),
directed to the production of a more polar product(s),
-phenylethanol 64% (rat unoccluded), benzyl acetate
which can be excreted mainly by the kidneys regardless 12% (human unoccluded), cinnamaldehyde to 24%
of whether this (these) are more toxic or less toxic than (human unoccluded). Some components will accu-
the initial substance. Any biotransformation in the mulate to form a cutaneous reservoir pool (Hewitt
body is affected by individual enzymes, which attack et al., 1993) in the lipid-rich stratum corneum. Others
certain chemical groups. These include: aromatic, components permeate deeper into the skin to be
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78 Chapter 7 • The safety issue in aromatherapy

biotransformed by the P450 enzyme systems in the regarding their safety can be assessed from data on
dermis and epidermis, and eventually this mixture of their structurally related group(s) (Munro et al.,
biotransformed and unchanged molecules reaches the 1996). The NOELs (no-observed-adverse-effect
systemic circulation via the dermal microvasculature. levels) are more than 100 000 times their exposure
levels from use as flavour ingredients (Adams et al.,
1996). Critical to GRAS assessment are data of meta-
bolic fate and chronic studies rather than acute toxicity.
Inhalation: absorption and detoxification
Most essential oils and components have an LD50 of
1–20 g/kg body weight or roughly 1–20 mL/kg, with a
Similar enzymes occur in the alveolar cells, modifying
few exceptions as follows:
any chemicals absorbed through inhalation. There is
almost a direct entry into the lung cells for lipophilic
molecules in the essential oils as there is only one cell
membrane thickness to traverse. This is why the Boldo leaf oil 0.1/0.9 (oral/dermal)
effect of vaporisers or simply breathing in fragrances Calamus 0.8–9/5
added to bath water can be substantial. Damage can Chenopodium 0.2/0.4
occur to the lungs due to excessive use of certain Pennyroyal 0.4/4
chemicals in essential oils, but the actual concentra- Savory (summer) 1.4/0.3
tion has not been worked out and very few studies Thuja 0.8/4
are available (Cooper et al., 1995). The risk of respira-
tory cancer in workers after 5 years of exposure to
Teratogenicity studies are infrequent and often decep-
industrial terpenes from conifers is greatly increased
tive, as they often involve the study of unusual species
(Kauppinen et al., 1986). However, in another study,
of plant essential oils. For example, Salvia lavanduli-
exposure to -pinene enantiomers for 20 minutes
folia Vahl or Spanish sage, containing 50% of sabinyl
at 10–450 mg/m3 did not cause acute changes in lung
acetate, injected s.c. during pregnancy with 15, 45
function (Falk et al., 1990). Studies on the absorption
and 135 mg/kg essential oil (Pages et al., 1992; see
of inhaled essential oil components are very rare, but
monograph) showed an abortifacient effect, no fetal
one showed that 1,8-cineole was rapidly absorbed
toxicity but significant maternal toxicity. This amount
from eucalyptus essential oil, with plasma concentra-
of sabinyl acetate was similar to that found in
tions at their peak after 18 minutes (Jaeger et al.,
Juniperus sabina and Plectranthus fruticosa, which
1996). The direct entry of lipophilic components
had a teratogenic effect (neither of these are fre-
from essential oils via the olfactory mucosa is quite
quently used, especially in aromatherapy).
substantial and they can act like anaesthetics very
Reproductive organ and hormone studies have
rapidly. Entry via the blood–brain barrier can also be
shown that there are several xenoendocrine disrupters
substantial, especially in neonates and young chil-
in vitro on male reproductive systems; citral has
dren where it is undeveloped.
caused enlargement of the prostate gland in animal
models and has oestrogenic effects (Nogueira et al.,
1995); several fragrances are carcinogenic (e.g. methyl
eugenol in mice), whilst others are possible carcino-
GRAS status/NOELs
gens (Burkey et al., 2000).

Most essential oils have GRAS (generally recognised

as safe) status granted by the Flavor and Extract
Poisonous chemicals
Manufacturers Association (FEMA) and approved
by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for
food use, and many appear in the Food Chemical The National Institute of Occupational Safety and
Codex. This was reviewed in 1996 after evaluation Health (1989) recognised 884 poisonous substances
by the Expert Panel of the FEMA. The assessment (many synthetics from petrochemicals) from 2983
was based on data of exposure, and as most flavour chemicals used in the fragrance industry. Of these,
ingredients are used at less than 100 ppm, predictions many cause cancer, birth defects, CNS disorders,
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Toxicity in humans 79

allergic respiratory reactions, skin and eye irritation. of life. Symptoms include headaches, dizziness, nausea,
The Research Institute for Fragrance Materials fatigue, shortness of breath and difficulty concentrat-
(RIFM) tests the safety of fragrance materials, but ing. Fragrance materials are readily absorbed into the
only about 1500 of more than 5000 materials used in body via the respiratory system and once absorbed
fragrances have been tested. This is in contrast to their cause systemic effects. Migraine headaches are fre-
statement that: ‘Over the approximately 30 years quently triggered by fragrances. Fragrances are known
since its inception, RIFM has tested virtually all to modify cerebral blood flow and several common
important fragrance materials in common use but it fragrance materials are known to have potent sedative
has always been the policy of RIFM that if a material effects via inhalation (Buchbauer et al., 1993a). Recent
is used by only one company, it is that company’s studies in the US by the Institute of Medicine spon-
responsibility to see that the material is adequately sored by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
tested and evaluated’ (Frosch et al., 1998). However, suggest that fragrance materials can act on the same
patented chemicals are not tested until the patent receptors in the brain as alcohol and tobacco, altering
expires, which may be after 17 years. mood and function.
The testing done by the RIFM is generally limited
to acute oral and dermal toxicity, irritation and dermal
sensitisation, and phototoxicity. Testing is limited to Effects on asthmatics
individual materials and there is little effort to address
synergistic and modifying effects of materials in com- Perfumes and fragrances are recognised as triggers
bination, though the RIFM is aware that they occur. for asthma by the American Lung Association and
Materials used in combinations often have synergistic several other organisations concerned with respira-
and modifying effects and more positive sensitisation tory health. The vast majority of materials used in
reactions occur than when the materials are tested fragrances are respiratory irritants and there are a
individually (Johansen et al., 1998). few that are known to be respiratory sensitisers.
Most chemical data sheets and Material Safety Most have not been evaluated for their effects on the
Data Sheet (MSDS) information on fragrance mater- lungs and the respiratory system.
ials clearly state that the chemical, physical and Respiratory irritants are known to make the air-
toxicological properties have not been thoroughly ways more susceptible to injury and allergens, as well
investigated. Many materials that were widely used as to trigger and exacerbate such conditions as asthma,
for decades in the past had severe neurotoxic proper- allergies, sinus problems and other respiratory dis-
ties and accumulated in body tissues (Spencer et al., orders. In view of the recently recorded increase in
1979; Furuhashi et al., 1994). In spite of this, most asthma and other respiratory disorders, reduction in
fragrance materials have never been tested for neuro- exposures to irritants is essential. In addition, there are
logical effects, despite the fact that olfactory path- a subset of asthmatics that are specifically triggered by
ways provide a direct route to the brain (Hastings fragrances (Shim and Williams, 1986; Bell et al., 1993;
et al., 1991). Baldwin et al., 1999), which suggests that fragrances
not only trigger asthma, they may also cause it in
some cases (Millqvist and Lowhagen, 1996). Placebo-
controlled studies using perfumes to challenge people
Toxicity in humans
with asthma-like symptoms showed that asthma
could be elicited with perfumes without the presence
Dermatitis and sensitisation of bronchial obstruction and these were not trans-
mitted by the olfactory nerve as the patients were
A recent clinical review of the adverse reactions to unaware of the smell (Millqvist and Lowhagen, 1996).
fragrances has been published (de Groot and Frosch, People who are sensitive to fragrance often experi-
1997) and many examples of cutaneous reactions to ence great difficulty in obtaining fragrance-free home
essential oils have been reported elsewhere (Guin, and personal care products, and suffer health effects as
1982, 1995). In the USA about six million people have a result of using scented products. Products labelled
a skin allergy to fragrance. Many of these people ‘unscented’ or ‘hypoallergenic’ that actually contain
reported that this has a major impact on their quality fragrance materials are particularly problematical
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80 Chapter 7 • The safety issue in aromatherapy

(HEAL, 2005). Several fragrance chemicals affect the ● Switzerland (Kohl et al., 2002): ACD incidence has
immune response of the skin when inhaled, but the increased over the years and recently 36% of 819
systemic and long-term effects of most fragrance patch tests were positive to cosmetics.
materials are not known. ● Belgium (Kohl et al., 2002): increased incidence of
Adverse reactions to fragrances are difficult or ACD has been noted.
even impossible to link to a particular chemical –
often due to secrecy rules of the cosmetic/perfumery Occupational increases have also been observed.
companies and the enormous range of synthetic com- For example, two aromatherapists were reported to
ponents, constituting about 90% of flavour and fra- have developed ACD: one to citrus, neroli, lavender,
grance ingredients (Larsen, 1998). The same chemicals frankincense and rosewood and the other to geran-
are used in foods and cosmetics – there is therefore a iol, ylang ylang and angelica (Keane et al., 2000).
greater impact due to the three different modes of Allergic air-borne contact dermatitis from the
entry: oral, inhalation and skin. essential oils used in aromatherapy was also reported
(Schaller and Korting, 1995). Allergic contact derma-
titis occurred in an aromatherapist due to French
Increase in allergic contact dermatitis in
marigold essential oil, Tagetes (Bilsland and Strong,
recent years
1990). A physiotherapist developed ACD to eugenol,
cloves and cinnamon (Sanchez-Perez and Garcia Diez,
A study of 1600 adults in 1987 showed that 12%
1999).
reacted adversely to cosmetics and toiletries, 4.3% of
There is also the growing problem that patients
which were used for their odour (i.e. they contained
with eczema are frequently treated by aromather-
high levels of fragrances). Respiratory problems
apists using massage with essential oils. A possible
worsened with prolonged fragrance exposure (e.g.
allergic response to a variety of essential oils was found
at cosmetic/perfumery counters) and even in churches.
in children with atopic eczema, who were massaged
In another study, 32% of the women tested had
with or without the oils. At first both massages proved
adverse reactions and 80% of these had positive skin
beneficial, though not significantly different; but on
tests for fragrances (deGroot and Frosch, 1987).
re-applying the essential oil massage after a month’s
Problems with essential oils have also been increas-
break, there was a notable adverse effect on the eczema,
ing. For example, contact dermatitis and allergic con-
which could suggest sensitisation (Anderson et al.,
tact dermatitis caused by tea tree oil has been reported,
2000).
which was previously considered to be safe (Carson
and Riley, 1995a). It is unclear whether eucalyptol
was responsible for the allergenic response (Southwell,
Photosensitisers
1997); out of seven patients sensitised to tea tree
oil, six reacted to limonene, five to -terpinene and
Berlocque dermatitis is frequently caused by berga-
aromadendrene, two to terpinen-4-ol and one to
mot or other citrus oil applications on the skin (often
p-cymene and -phellandrene (Knight and Hausen,
due to their inclusion in eau de Cologne) followed by
1994).
exposure to UV light. This effect is caused by pso-
Many studies on allergic contact dermatitis (ACD)
larens or furanocoumarins (Klarmann, 1958). Citrus
have been done in different parts of the world
essential oils labelled furanocoumarin-free (FCF)
(deGroot and Frosch, 1987):
have no phototoxic effect, but are suspected carcino-
● Japan (Sugiura et al., 2000): the patch test with gens (Young et al., 1990). Other phototoxic essential
lavender oil was found to be positive in increased oils include yarrow and angelica, neroli, petitgrain,
numbers and above that of other essential oils in cedarwood, rosemary, cassia, calamus, cade, eucalyptus
10 years. (species not stated), orange, anise, bay, bitter almond,
● Denmark (Johansen et al., 2000): there was an 11% ylang ylang, carrot seed and linaloe (the latter probably
increase to the patch test in the last year and of 1537 due to linalool, which, like citronellol, has a sensitising
patients, 29% were allergic to scenteds. methylene group exposed) (Guin, 1995). Photosensi-
● Hungary (Katona and Egyud, 2001): increased tiser oils include cumin, rue, dill, sandalwood, lemon
sensitivity to balsams and fragrances was noted. (oil and expressed), lime (oil and expressed), opoponax
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Toxicity in humans 81

and verbena (the latter being frequently adulterated) adulterated or completely synthetic), Lyral (Frosch
(Klarmann, 1958). Even celery soup eaten before UV et al., 1999; Hendriks et al., 1999) and eucalyptol
irradiation has been known to cause severe sunburn (Vilaplana and Romaguera, 2000).
(Boffa et al., 1996). Some sensitisers have been shown to interact with
Many of these photosensitisers are now banned other molecules. For example, cinnamaldehyde inter-
or restricted. New International Fragrance Research acts with proteins (Weibel et al., 1989), which indi-
Association (IFRA) proposals for some phototoxic cates how the immunogenicity occurs.
essential oils include: rue oil to be 0.15% maximum The international authorities are not satisfied that
in consumer products, marigold oil and absolute to the cosmetics industry has been vigilant enough in
be 0.01% and petitgrain mandarin oil to be 0.165%. their protection of the public, hence the proposed
new EC legislation (7th Amendment), to label cos-
metics/perfumes containing sensitisers and reduce or
Commonest allergenic essential oils and ban them altogether (see Appendices 27–29).
components

The most common fragrance components causing Synthetic musks: a special problem
allergy are: cinnamic alcohol, hydroxycitronellal,
musk ambrette, isoeugenol and geraniol (Scheinman, There have been very few published reports on neuro-
1996). These are included in the eight commonest toxic aromachemicals such as musk ambrette (Spencer
markers used to check for allergic contact dermatitis, et al., 1984), although many synthetic musks took over
usually as a 2% mix. Other components considered as perfume ingredients when public opinion turned
allergenic are: benzyl salicylate, sandalwood oil, against the exploitation of animal products. Musk
anisyl alcohol, benzyl alcohol and coumarin. ambrette was found to have neurotoxic properties in
The IFRA and the Research Institute for Fragrance orally fed mice in 1967. However, it was in 1985, after
Materials (RIFM) have forbidden the use of several studies were again published on its neurotoxic effects,
essential oils and components, including costus root that it was also realised that musk ambrette was read-
oil, dihydrocoumarin, musk ambrette and balsam of ily absorbed through the skin. The IFRA then recom-
Peru (Ford, 1991; see also Appendices 28 and 29). mended that musk ambrette should not be used in
There is also a concentration limit imposed on the use direct skin contact products, even though it had been
of isoeugenol, cold-pressed lemon oil, bergamot oil, used since before the 1920s. In 1991, the FDA still
angelica root oil, cassia oil, cinnamic alcohol, hydroxy- found musk ambrette in skin contact products, prov-
citronellal and oakmoss absolute. Cinnamic aldehyde, ing that the recommendations by the IFRA are not
citral and carvone oxide can only be used with a binding.
quenching agent. Photosensitivity and phototoxicity A similar story occurred with acetylethyltetra-
occurs with some allergens such as musk ambrette and methyltetralin (AETT), another synthetic musk, also
6-methyl coumarin and has been removed from skin known as versalide, patented in the early 1950s.
care products. Children were often found to be sensi- During routine tests for irritancy in 1975, it was noted
tive to Peru balsam, probably due to the use of baby- that with repeated applications the skin of the mice
care products containing this (e.g. talcum powder turned bluish and they exhibited signs of neuro-
used on nappy rash). toxicity. On further application, the internal organs
As fragrances and foods contain essential oils and also turned blue and there was severe neurological
components, it is not surprising that fragrance mater- damage. The myelin sheath was damaged irreversibly
ials have been found to interact with food flavour- in a manner similar to that which occurs with multiple
ings. This is of increasing concern. For example, a sclerosis. In spite of legitimate concerns, the industry
‘balsam of Peru-free diet’ has been devised in cases does not demand testing for the neurological and
where cross-reactions are known to occur (Veien respiratory effects of fragrance materials.
et al., 1985). ‘Newer’ sensitisers include ylang ylang Musk xylene, one of the commonest fragrance
(Romaguera and Vilplana, 2000), sandalwood oil materials, is found in blood samples from the general
(Sharma et al., 1987) (caution should be considered population (Kafferlein et al., 1998) and bound to
in accepting this as so much of this essential oil is human haemoglobin (Riedel et al., 1999). Nitro- and
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82 Chapter 7 • The safety issue in aromatherapy

non-nitrobenzenoid musk compounds are also found samples of children’s cosmetics were found to contain
in human adipose tissue (Riedel et al., 1999) and geraniol, hydroxycitronellol, isoeugenol and cinnamic
nitro musk metabolites are found in human breast alcohol (Rastogi et al., 1999). Children are more sus-
milk (Liebel and Ehrenstorfer, 1993). These musk ceptible than adults to any chemical, so the increase in
products have been found to have an effect on the life childhood asthma reported in recent years could be
stages of experimental animals such as the frog, caused by fragrance components in fast foods (whose
Xenopus laevis, and the zebra-fish, Danio rerio consumption is escalating). There is also an increase in
(Chou and Dietrich, 1999) and the rat (Christian fragrance chemicals in everyday products from air-
et al., 1999). The effects on animal development have fresheners, soaps, cosmetics, bathroom products, ‘new-
been extended to studies on reproduction and fertil- car smells’, all of which may interact.
ity, including hyperplasia of the prostate and testicu-
lar effects (Ford et al., 1990; Api et al., 1996). The
hepatotoxic effect of musks is under constant study
Selected toxicities of certain essential
(Steinberg et al., 1999).
oils and their components

Limonene
Toxicity in young children:
a special case
This is a common industrial cleaner and is also the
main citrus oil component, the latter being often
It is clear that there are severe dangers associated with used in aromatherapy in pregnancy and childbirth.
the bad or ill-informed advice given by many aroma- D-Limonene is used for degreasing metal before indus-
therapy books about the treatment of babies and trial painting; it oxidises to R-(–)-carvone, cis- and
children. For example, one book recommends giving trans-isomers of limonene oxide. D-Limonene causes
5–10 drops of ‘chamomile oil’ three times a day in a allergic contact dermatitis, particularly when aged
little warmed milk to their babies to treat colic. As (Chang et al., 1997). In one series of studies, 2% of
there is no indication as to which of the three com- car mechanics with eczema on their hands tested posi-
mercially available chamomile oils is to be used and tive to oxidised D-limonene, as did 2% of dermatitis
because, depending on the dropper size, the dose patients (Karlberg et al., 1994a,b).
could easily approach the oral LD50 for the English Allergic contact dermatitis was noted in a histo-
and German chamomile oils, this could result in a pathology laboratory technician using Parasolve
fatality. In the same publication ‘syrup of elderflower (containing D-limonene) instead of xylene (Wakelin
and peppermint’ was recommended for ‘fever’. The et al., 1998). Pulmonary exposure of human volun-
peppermint could possibly be given by mothers in the teers to D-limonene caused a decrease in the lung vital
form of peppermint oil, which has been known to kill capacity at highest doses (Falk-Filipsson et al., 1993).
a week-old baby (Evening Standard, 1998). The major volatile component of lactating mothers’
Dosages given in terms of drops can vary widely milk in the USA was found to contain D-limonene and
according to the size of the dropper in an essential oil the component is used as a potential skin penetration
bottle (see Appendices 9 and 10) and dilutions for promoter for drugs such as indometacin, especially
massage also vary widely from author to author when mixed with ethanol (Falk-Filipsson et al., 1993).
(e.g. 4–6 drops in 10 mL carrier oil; 1 drop for Lastly, cats and dogs are very susceptible to insecticides
every 20 mL of vegetable oil). This could make a and baths containing D-limonene giving rise to neuro-
considerable difference to the toxicity regarding chil- logical symptoms including ataxia, stiffness, appar-
dren, especially babies. ent severe CNS depression, tremors, coma (von Burg,
1995; see also Beasley, 1999).
In contrast to all the toxicity, D-limonene was
Children’s cosmetics and toys shown to have anticarcinogenic properties in vivo
when applied subcutaneously to mice which were then
Many ‘cosmetics’ designed for use by children contain injected with benzopentaphene. Although the lung
fragrance allergens (Rastogi et al., 1999). In Denmark, tumours took longer to develop and therefore the
07.qxd 04/10/05 16:58 Page 83

Abortifacient and teratogenic oils 83

animals lived longer, it did not prevent the cancer from 11 February 2004 on drug precursors) and are listed
forming in the first place (Homburger et al., 1971). as category 1 substances, as they are precursors for
illicit manufacture of hallucinogenic, narcotic and
psychotropic drugs (e.g. ecstasy).
Linalool

It has been established that linalool hydroperoxide Thujone

increases as the linalool decays and the rate of chem-
ical decay is rapid compared with the potential shelf- In large quantities thujone can cause convulsions
life and age of oils used in aromatherapy. When associated with lesions of the cerebral cortex (Keith
linalool was oxidised for just 10 weeks the linalool and Starraky, 1935; Opper, 1939) but thujone is per-
content fell to 80% and the remaining 20% consisted mitted at 0.5 mg/kg in foods as  or
or combination
of a range of breakdown chemicals including linalool (Council Directive, 88/388/EEC, of 21 June 1988) and
hydroperoxide, which was confirmed as a sensitising at 35 mg/kg in bitters.
agent. The fresh linalool was not a sensitiser, there-
fore the EC regulations which are warning about sen-
sitisation potential are looking for potential harm Wormwood
even on storage (Skoeld et al., 2002).
The sensitising activity of linalool was assessed using Wormwood essential oil, obtained via the Internet by
a commercial grade of 97% purity, which included a young man who thought it was equivalent to
linalool hydroperoxide. The sample of commercial absinthe, caused acute renal failure and rhabdomyol-
linalool was then purified and the only sensitisation ysis when just 10 mL was drunk (Weisboro et al.,
reaction was obtained when it was used at 100%; a 1997). In another incident a 2-year-old child survived
dramatic reduction in sensitisation occurred when the after drinking 15 mL of the oil. Absinthe was drunk
linalool was 98.6% pure and the dihydrolinalool was by Van Gogh, together with camphor and turpentine
below 1.4%. It was suggested that some of the other (Bonkovsky et al., 1992), which may explain his style
oxidisation chemicals may also have sensitisation of painting!
potential apart from linalool hydroperoxide (Basketter
et al., 2002).

Abortifacient and teratogenic oils

Safrole
Apiol
This is the main component of sassafras oil and sweet
basil and was used previously in perfumes and food: When apiol (in dill) was studied in animals (Patoir
it is now limited to 1 mg/kg in foods (Council et al., 1936) it was found that the largest doses (not
Directive 92/109/EEC, 14 December 1992), except in stated) gave rise to bleeding and hepatonephritis as
foods containing mace, nutmeg (15 mg/kg) and alco- well as abortion (i.e. it was an overall poison). A
holic drinks containing more than 25% of alcohol by woman with fatal acute haemolytic anaemia, throm-
volume (5 mg/kg) and other alcoholic drinks (2 mg/kg). bocytopenic purpura, nephrosis and hepatitis was
Safrole and isosafrole were first studied in 1885 by found to have taken a high dose of a compound
Heffer, and numerous further studies reported their containing apiol for amenorrhoea for three months.
effects on tumorigenesis in animals and humans Other overdose cases of apiol resulted in CNS effects
(Chen et al., 1999) and the mode of action (Luo and (Lowenstein and Ballew, 1958).
Guenthner, 1996). Safrole and sassafras oil are con-
trolled under the Controlled Drugs Regulations
(1993) (Controlled Drugs with subsequent European Pennyroyal oil
Directives 3677/90 as amended by Council Regula-
tion 900/92 and Regulation (EC) No 273/2004 of A large dose of pennyroyal oil taken by a woman in
the European Parliament and of the Council of the USA to induce an abortion proved fatal (Gold and
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84 Chapter 7 • The safety issue in aromatherapy

Cates, 1980). Other cases of toxicity of pennyroyal to (Zondek and Bergman, 1938; Albert-Puleo, 1980).
women who tried unsuccessfully to induce abortion The activity of anethole was much less than that of
have been described (Tisserand and Balacs, 1995). oestrone itself, and had a more profound effect on
rats than mice, but there may be a remote danger of
producing more oestrogens in the body by fennel.
Camphorated oil trans-Anethole has some minor oestrogenic proper-
ties (Zondek and Bergman, 1938).
Taken by mistake instead of castor oil during preg-
nancy, camphorated oil resulted in one fatality of the
baby at birth out of four cases (Weiss and Catalano,
1973). Several cases of accidental poisoning in children Genotoxic oils
are also reported, causing excitation of the CNS result-
ing in delirium and convulsions followed by depression Dill, peppermint and pine
including uncoordination and coma. Camphor oil was
also reported to cause intoxication in 500 people in Genotoxicity of dill, peppermint and pine essential
one year in the USA (Tisserand and Balacs, 1995). oils has been reported using chromosome aberration
and sister-chromatid exchange tests in human lympho-
cytes in vitro and Drosophila melanogaster somatic
Nutmeg
mutation and recombination tests in vivo (Lazutka
et al., 2001). All these oils were cytotoxic for human
Nutmeg intoxication during pregnancy (1 table-
lymphocytes. Other cytotoxic and/or genotoxic studies
spoonful of grated nutmeg instead of 1/8th teaspoon
have recently been published on methyl eugenol
in cookies) resulted in acute anticholinergic hyper-
(Burkey et al., 2000), mint (Franzios et al., 1997),
stimulation, i.e. palpitations, agitation and blurred
camphor, 1,8-cineole, citral, citronellal, menthol and
vision (Lavy, 1987). Treated with morphine and acti-
terpineol (Nogueira et al., 1995; Gomes-Carneiro et al.,
vated charcoal, the expectant mother was well after
1998), oregano essential oils (Karpouhtsis et al., 1998),
24 hours and the baby was born later after slight pre-
allyl benzene etheric oils estragole, basil and trans-
eclampsia symptoms. Nutmeg oil/grated seed can
anethole, D-limonene (Whysner and Williams, 1996).
cause hallucinations and convulsions in large doses;
Negative evidence for in vivo DNA-damaging and
myristicin itself was also shown to produce narcotic
mutagenic and chromosomal effects of eugenol were
effects (Weil, 1965) and in large quantities, nutmeg
also shown (Maura et al., 1989; Abraham, 2001).
and mace also showed these effects, which were com-
parable to alcohol intoxication.

Neurotoxic oils
Antifertility oils
Thuja, sage, cedar, hyssop

-Myrcene
The toxicity of Salvia officinalis, thuja, Arbor vitae and

-Myrcene above 0.25 g/kg was found to be detri- cedar Chaemocyparis thyroides, hyssop Hyssopus
mental to the fertility and progeny number and officinalis (containing pinocamphone and isopino-
development in the rat when given during pregnancy camphone), as well as thujone-containing Dalmatian
by gavage (Delgado et al., 1993). sage, were investigated in 65 male and female rats
intraperitoneally at progressively increasing doses; the
components thujone and pinocamphone were also
Phenol methyl ethers tested (Millet et al., 1981; see also sage oil monograph).
The animals were equipped with four skull electrodes
Phenol methyl ethers, in particular anethole, found in for EEG and convulsions were elicited by all the oils,
fennel and anise are related to the oestrone and but varied according to the plant. For hyssop, the
oestradiol methyl ethers; however, dill oil is inactive dose for no effect was 0.08 g/kg; convulsions were at
07.qxd 04/10/05 16:58 Page 85

Phytols 85

0.13 g/kg and it was lethal at 1.25 g/kg. For sage oil it 1999a). Many solvent extracts are sensitisers (IFRA)
was 0.3, 0.5 and 3.2 g/kg respectively. A daily repeated and are usually used in lower percentages in all per-
subclinical dose of hyssop oil (0.02 g/kg) for 15 days fumes and cosmetic products. About 4% is the usual
precipitated convulsions after just 5 days, but after recommendation (ISA, 1993): except for neroli, laven-
cessation of injections, the rats returned to normal. der, hyacinth, benzoin (strong sensitiser), myrrh,
Convulsions were shown for thujone and pinocam- olibanum at about 8%, also mastic although it is a
phone at lower doses: thujone: at 0.2 g/kg and strong sensitiser and causes irritation. Genet is used at
pinocamphone at 0.05 g/kg. This suggests that small 12% and vanilla at 10%. The absolutes and concretes
doses every day for a short time could produce con- of verbena are decreased to 2% and tobacco leaf to
vulsions. 1%. Some have not been tested for toxicity dermally,
Eight cases of poisoning by the four essential oils e.g. violet leaf, honeysuckle, orris, narcissus, mimosa,
showed a period of latency of a few minutes to but are used at about 1–2% in perfumes.
2 hours, the patients vomited and had convulsions, Untested common essential oils include: catnip,
resembling epileptic fits, sometimes with cyanosis chamomile (Maroc), Eucalyptus oils other than E.
(Millet et al., 1981). In six clinical cases the patients globulus and E. citriodora, Inula graveolens, kanuka
had ingested the oils for therapeutic purposes (e.g. (Kunzea ericoides), manuka (Leptospermum scopar-
10 mL thuja oil to be ‘in shape’, 30 drops of hyssop ium), melissa, naouli, Ravensara aromatica and other
oil for a common cold). Repetitive intake occurred in Ravensara species, spikenard, thyme chemotypes,
an asthmatic 6-year-old girl who had 2–3 drops of valerian and yarrow.
hyssop oil per day, but during a dyspnoeic crisis, she
received half a teaspoonful of hyssop. Ten drops of
hyssop oil was taken ‘for flu’ during two consecutive
Phytols
days; on the second day the convulsions appeared. A
woman with facial acne took 20 drops of undiluted
thuja at lunch and dinner for 5 days; after the tenth Herbal oils (real phytols or infused oils) are coming into
dose she got convulsions (Millet et al., 1981). fashion with certain aromatherapists. These include
Three case studies associated with the induction arnica (Arnica montana), calendula (Calendula offic-
of epileptic seizures in normal people, including a inalis, pot-marigold), centella (Centella asiatica, gotu
child, were reported due to sage and other essential kola or hydrocotyle), comfrey (Symphytum officinalis),
oils. One adult took ‘a mouthful’ of sage essential oil Devil’s claw (Harpagophytum procumbens), echinacea
for hyperlipaemia over several years but after a larger (Echinacea purpurea), fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-
dose she had tonic seizures and became unconscious graecum), lime blossom (Tilia sp.), meadowsweet
for an hour, but recovered. Lastly, a baby given five (Filipendula ulmaria) and St John’s wort (Hypericum
long baths with addition of eucalyptus, pine and perforatum) (Lis-Balchin, 1999a). Most are tea-like
thyme over a 4-day period to cure her upper respira- or alcoholic extracts, not essential oils, and have no
tory infection had a fit, followed by two more that aroma.
day. She was hospitalised and the tests were normal, All are well known as herbal remedies, usually taken
but she started to have multiple fits with a maximum internally or applied to burns or bruises, as poultices
of 133 in a day and was treated with phenobarbital or compresses, but many are potentially toxic orally
and phenytoin. Her development was very depressed and are sensitisers (Newall et al., 1996; Lis-Balchin,
(Burkhard et al., 1999). Eucalyptus and camphor 1999a) and should be given only at the advice of a
have been reported to have an effect on the rat cere- qualified herbalist – not an aromatherapist. There is
bral cortex (Steinmetz et al., 1987). no toxicological evaluation for their aromathera-
peutic application and their possible dermal irritation
or sensitisation is often unknown, therefore their use
should be restricted in pregnancy (especially meadow-
Absolutes and concretes
sweet and St John’s wort, which are both said to be
uteroactive).
Absolutes and concretes are potentially dangerous as Phytol is also the name given to a particular solv-
they have not all been tested on the skin (Lis-Balchin, ent extraction technique, which does not involve the
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86 Chapter 7 • The safety issue in aromatherapy

usual benzene or hexane (now considered toxic if not Some dangerous advice is given in aromatherapy
potentially carcinogenic) to produce concretes, which books, such as swabbing down the whole of the lower
are normally re-extracted with absolute alcohol to body with flower water following parturition, includ-
give absolutes (Wilde, 1994). The main object of this ing swabbing lightly over stitches and even leaving a
method was to be able to provide ‘absolutes’ without clean swab in place. Helichrysum italicum and gera-
the use of alcohol for people who, for religious rea- nium (Pelargonium graveolens) waters have also been
sons, cannot drink alcohol or even use perfumes with recommended for the care of open wounds. Other
alcohol. The actual ‘phytols’ are very similar to the floral waters stated to be useful for wound healing
absolutes and CO2 extracts and none of them has included rose (Rosa damascena), myrtle (Myrtus
been tested for toxicity, especially on the skin. These communis) and rosemary borneol (Rosmarinus offic-
phytols contain similar ‘plant impurities’ to those of inalis ct. borneol).
absolutes (i.e. the solvent-soluble pigments, alkaloids,
etc.) which could cause sensitisation. They could
however be useful as food additives, provided safety
Interactions between essential oils
studies are done, or people accept them as being
and conventional medicines or
equivalent to absolutes or CO2 extracts.
medical conditions

Possible microbiological dangers of hydrolysates There is growing evidence that adverse effects are
or hydrolysats often caused by mixing alternative and conventional
therapies. This is shown by reports on herbal medi-
Many companies are now selling the by-products of cine interactions, including Chinese herbs (Lis-Balchin,
essential oil distillation (e.g. rosewater) as alternative, 1999a). A report on the adverse action of a massage
gentle, aromatherapy products. As these products are with wintergreen oil (containing 98% methyl salicyl-
meant to be pure and wholesome, no preservative is ate) on a patient taking warfarin (given as an anti-
usually added. This means that microbial contam- coagulant), which caused haematomas, is a serious
ination is very likely, even before leaving the factory, reminder of such dangers (Yeo et al., 1994). Many of
let alone after several months of usage. Many aroma- the cautions reported were for oral intake of herbal
therapists recommend these for treating eye and other remedies, but where absorption of the active com-
infections and spraying the rooms of asthmatics: this ponents occurs in large concentrations, essential oils
could have very serious effects due to possible bacter- must also come under the same risk category.
ial contamination. Over a third of samples of bottled Some examples include cautions against the use,
water tested contained Cryptosporidium, Giardia and via any route, of cornmint or peppermint in cardiac
other cysts (Rose et al., 1993): the same level of con- fibrillation (Tisserand and Balacs, 1995) and against
tamination can happen to aromatherapy hydrolysates. the use of annual wormwood, balsamite, camphor,
As many of these waters are used for skin complaints, ho leaf, hyssop, cotton lavender in people with
the addition of microbes could greatly exacerbate the epilepsy or patients with fever. All those examples,
condition – not alleviate it. plus Indian dill, parsley leaf and seed, sage (Spanish)
Hydrosols from unusual and toxicologically and savin, should not be used in pregnancy and cau-
untested plants (e.g. verbenone-type rosemary, raven- tion is also given for Lavandula stoechas, oakmoss,
sara and thyme chemotypes) should be avoided. State- rue and treemoss (Tisserand and Balacs, 1995).
ments like: ‘They are like homeopathic essential oils’ Indian dill, parsley leaf and seed is cautioned
are incorrect as their flower remedies have added against in people with kidney or liver disease and
alcohol as a preservative. It seems that to date the Backhousia citriodora, Eucalyptus stagierana, lemon-
Food Safety Laws do not apply to hydrosols. This situ- grass, may chang and melissa in prostatic hyperplasia
ation should be remedied as they are often drunk as (Tisserand and Balacs, 1995). Advice is also given to
well as applied to the skin. Insurance policies cover- avoid certain essential oils via dermal administration
ing aromatherapy practices do not permit therapists in certain cases: basil, fennel, ho leaf (camphor/saf-
to practise herbal medicine (i.e. to treat internally), role) and nutmeg (East Indian) except at very low
especially using unknown products. concentrations of up to 2% (Tisserand and Balacs,
07.qxd 04/10/05 16:58 Page 87

Possible dangers of novel essential oils and plant extracts 87

1995). For cancers and for oestrogen-dependent can- nodes in mice) have shown no quenching at all.
cer patients, caution is given against fennel, anise and The RIFM produced limited studies that show citral
star anise. For patients with glaucoma, avoidance of quenched by limonene, but Unilever tests on Opdyke
Backhousia citriodora, lemongrass, may chang and quenchers using guinea-pig models failed to support
melissa is recommended and in patients with glucose- his work. Ageing perfume mixtures showed no
6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency, avoid- quenching effect either; studies on humans showed
ance of cornmint and peppermint is advised. no quenching (Basketter and Allenby, 1991). In con-
Oral intake of certain essential oils is also pro- clusion, there is no satisfactory physicochemical or
hibited (mainly as stated for dermal application before) immunobiological proof for quenching; it is, at best,
and caution is advised with bay (West Indian), betel a hypothesis, and no ‘good components’ have been
leaf, cinnamon leaf, clove (bud, leaf and stem), garlic, found as yet. Furthermore, as many commercial essen-
Ocimum gratissimum, onion, pimento (berry and leaf) tial oils are adulterated, potential sensitisers can be
and tejpat leaf, where anticoagulants are used (which added: so it’s a no-win situation.
include aspirin, heparin and warfarin). In one instance a high D-limonene-containing
There is considerable reluctance to accept all these (unknown) oil was added to lemongrass (containing
cautions as they are probably overexaggerated and citral) by an aromatherapist on the advice of a per-
the dosage of essential oils is overlooked, however, fumer, to counteract, by quenching, the sensitising
wormseed (Chenopodium) was used to treat intestinal effect on the skin (Price, 1993). One can only wonder
worms and caused poisoning in many children (Mele, if this was a wise move in view of D-limonene’s
1952) and experiments on monkeys have shown that toxicity.
citral given in small daily doses causes symptoms
similar to those of glaucoma (Geldof et al., 1992).
Occasionally, completely unfounded contraindications
Possible dangers of novel essential oils
are given in aromatherapy books and it is advisable
and plant extracts
to cross-reference any such advice with more scientific
works (e.g. Tisserand and Balacs, 1995).
There is a trend by some ‘clinical aromatherapists’ to
use uncommon essential oils, often derived from
plants which are grown wild and which have a ten-
The phenomenon of ‘quenching’:
dency to produce numerous cultivars with different
true or false?
chemical compositions (i.e. chemotypes). These oils
are very much more expensive, as they are produced
Many essential oils do not cause sensitisation even in small amounts; the quality will be variable as
though their main components are very potent sensi- well as the yield and composition. The real benefit
tisers (Opdyke, 1974). Quenching is the term given remains a mystery. The International Federation of
to this amelioration or complete stoppage of sensi- Aromatherapists (IFA), which represents well-trained
tisation of sensitisers when used in a mixture of com- therapists, has published articles in its journal pro-
ponents as in essential oils or even perfumes. One moting such potentially hazardous oils and even
should not rely on quenching, however, as most com- the use of Verbena essential oil on the skin (Autumn
mercial essential oils are commonly adulterated and 1999 edition), stating that this oil ‘used sensibly,
may contain potent sensitiser chemicals anyway. is safe’ despite well-documented evidence proving
Some components like aldehydes (e.g. citral) can that this oil should never be applied to the skin due
quench potent sensitisers in essential oils (Opdyke, to sensitising and phototoxic potential (IFRA, see
1974). For example, cinnamal was apparently Appendix 30).
quenched by eugenol not limonene and citral was The vast majority of the commonest essential oils
quenched by limonene. have been well tried and tested and safety levels have
The latest survey at Unilever Toxicology Unit been ascertained; however, when an aromatherapist
(2000) pours doubt on the original study as there are uses novel essential oils, they are using their clients as
no signs of interaction (e.g. Schiff base formations). human guinea-pigs (Lis-Balchin, 1999b). This is also
Studies using modern methods (e.g. murine lymph unethical unless the client is told that the safety of
07.qxd 04/10/05 16:58 Page 88

88 Chapter 7 • The safety issue in aromatherapy

such oils is unknown, and legally it could possibly Oral/rectal/vaginal usage

leave the therapist open to court action if the essen-
tial oils caused a harmful reaction. Oral/rectal/vaginal usage of essential oils is advo-
South American and other novel plants and their cated by aromatherapists in France and Germany,
essential oils, introduced at recent aromatherapy con- who are sometimes medically qualified, but also by
ferences as potential cures for numerous ailments, some medically unqualified aromatherapists in the
include muna (Minthostachys spicata), a peppermint- UK. The use of essential oils in this way is potentially
smelling herb consisting mainly of pulegone, whose dangerous due to possible damage to the delicate
folk usage is as a digestive and spasmolytic when mucosal cells, adulteration of the oils and the use
drunk as a tea (Lunny, 1997), and the Bolivian herb of high dosages. There is also the potential for
Satureya boliviana, which also has a high pulegone illegality in the use of untested oils, which are often
content. The pulegone-containing European worm- advocated.
wood (Artemisia absinthium) must not be used in The effects of chemicals, especially cosmetics, are
aromatherapy as aromatherapists believe pulegone to tested on various larger mammals for their potential
cause abortions. It seems rather odd that Mentha effects on the sensitive mucous membranes such as in
pulegium (pennyroyal) is banned, but a new exciting the eyes and mouth. Other specialist products are
Bolivian herb with a similar composition is thought to tested on the membranes of the anus, vagina, and so
be good! Another novel plant, molle (Schinus molle), forth. The animals tested are specially chosen for
otherwise known as Peruvian mastic, is also suggested each type of membrane. For eyes, the rabbit is the
as beneficial in aromatherapy (Lunny, 1997), but it is only choice due to its large eyes and sensitivity, whilst
closely related botanically and toxicologically to poison oral products are tested on the hamster, due to its
ivy (Toxicodendron radicans), one of the most potent natural way of storing anything in its food pouches.
dermal irritants and sensitisers known (Lis-Balchin, Dogs or cats are often used for testing penile or
1999b). vaginal membranes.
Not all essential oils are tested on all membranes,
as most are used in cosmetics and foods and are not
Dangerous practices of some intended to be used medicinally within the body.
aromatherapists However an increasing number of aromatherapists
are using these very strong chemicals on tampons
A number of particularly dangerous items and sugges- inserted into the vagina or anus, and there is a possi-
tions have been published in the many aromatherapy bility of a patient having a severe reaction to the
books and journals and presented at aromatherapy chemicals on the delicate membranes. This practice is
conferences. Among them are aromatic perfusion, professionally irresponsible, as aromatherapists should
oral/rectal/vaginal usage, and the use of essential oils not be diagnosing and treating venereal disease unless
during pregnancy and childbirth. medically qualified to do so.

Aromatic perfusion Use of essential oils during pregnancy and

childbirth
This practice involves using up to 20 mL of undiluted
essential oils directly on the skin for specific condi- It has been shown that uterine contractions may pos-
tions (Guba, 2000). Apparently the use of red thyme, sibly be decreased or stopped by essential oils (Lis-
ajowan, clove bud oil, oregano at concentrations not Balchin and Hart, 1997b). Over 40 essential oils and
exceeding 10% for massage, compared with the use 20 components studied in vitro on the rat uterus
of 90% of non-irritant essential oils (true lavender, had a spasmolytic effect, and at higher doses they
Eucalyptus radiata, tea tree) and up to 10% of completely stopped the spontaneous contractions,
phenolic essential oils is considered to be perfectly following a rapid reduction in their intensity. This
acceptable. This treatment could, however, cause could be a dangerous event during childbirth, where
severe burns/irritation to the skin, especially if the strong contractions are so vital. It was also found that
person is slightly sensitive. during the oestrus cycle, some animals developed
07.qxd 04/10/05 16:58 Page 89

Possible dangers of using essential oils internally and externally in large doses 89

irregularity in their uterine spontaneous contractions when used in the treatment of chronic leg ulcers
in response to some essential oils: this suggests their (Romaguera et al., 1986; Guerra et al., 1987). Geraniol
potential danger during pregnancy, as a spontaneous may be an allergen, as cross-reactions occur with
abortion could be initiated. There is also the possibil- citronella (Keil, 1947), however, the main sensitiser
ity of anaesthetising the baby in the womb if essential found is citronellal (mainly in palmarosa, Eucalyptus
oils are used during parturition, resulting in the baby’s citriodora and melissa), with citronellol less reactive;
inability to display the crying reflex on birth. geraniol was even weaker, as was citral. In two cases,
Almost all of the claims made in aromatherapy strong reactions were obtained with 1% solutions of
books and journals regarding the use of restricted or citronellal and weaker ones with citronellol, geraniol
banned essential oils during pregnancy are largely and geranyl acetate (see Appendix 22). In 23/23 cases
based on the traditionally claimed effects of the no response was found using lemon oil, which sug-
water-soluble herbal extracts, which were mainly gests specificity of the response. However, sensitisa-
taken internally. Such extracts are totally different tion to geraniol using a maximisation test proved
from the plant essential oils extracted from them. negative.
The common essential oils used in aromatherapy are Most cosmetics and perfumes are tested on
all used as food flavourings and in perfumery, there- human ‘guinea-pigs’ using similar tests to those
fore one would have imagined that the slightest evi- described for animals. These are demanded by the
dence of toxicity of these essential oils to the baby RIFM as a final test before marketing a product.
would have restricted their usage by legislation. Further data are accumulated from notifications
However, not many teratogenic studies have been from disgruntled consumers who report dermatitis,
conducted on essential oils, although they have been itching or skin discoloration in use. These notifica-
used for years as food additives. The main problem tions can result in legal claims, although most cases
these days is seen as the sensitisation potential of are probably settled out of court and not reported to
many essential oils, and of course these could also the general public.
have possible effects on the unborn child.

Possible dangers of using essential

‘Safe’ essential oils and their toxicity oils internally and externally in
large doses
The two main essential oils considered by aromather-
apists to be safe (and therefore recommended for Essential oils are used in the food industry usually in
usage during pregnancy, parturition and on small very minute amounts of 10 ppm, and even up to
babies) are lavender and geranium oil, but even these 1000 ppm and above in the case of mint confec-
are not without risk. In one case a hairdresser with tionery or chewing gum. This does not make it safe to
allergy problems on her hands due to a variety of use drops of undiluted essential oils on sugar lumps
products reacted most strongly to a lavender shampoo for oral application or on suppositories for anal or
and lavender oil itself (Rudzki et al., 1976). Lavender vaginal application. Severe damage to mucous mem-
was said to be a photosensitiser (Brandao, 1986) and branes could result from such practices, and the dan-
patch tests have shown a few allergies due to photo- gers are magnified if cheap, adulterated oils are used.
sensitisation (Lovell, 1993). Pigmentation has also The Internet has made it possible for a trusting,
been reported (Klarmann, 1958). though often ill-informed, public to purchase a wide
Most of the references to geranium oil are to con- range of dubious plant extracts and essential oils.
tact dermatitis and sensitisation (Romaguera et al., Even illegal essential oils can now be obtained.
1986) especially due to one of the main components, Furthermore, unqualified people can offer potentially
geraniol. Although patch tests to geraniol proved neg- dangerous advice, such as internal usage or the use of
ative, dermatitis caused by perfumes containing gera- undiluted essential oils on the skin for ‘mummifica-
nium oil has been observed in a few cases (Klarmann, tion’, or in order to rid the body of toxic waste. The
1958). Ointments containing geraniol (e.g. Blasto- latter can result in excruciating pain from the burns
estimulina) have been reported to cause sensitisation produced and the subsequent loss of layers of skin.
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90 Chapter 7 • The safety issue in aromatherapy

In one study, aromatherapy trials in high-dose lemongrass (Cymbopogon flexuosa), also Tagetes oil
chemotherapy patients were not only unscientific but (Basnyet, 1999).
also very dangerous: essential oils, diluted in water, Melaleuca rosalina (M. ericifolia), 1,8-cineole
were given internally or applied externally to very 18–26%, is apparently especially useful for the respi-
sick patients in a rather haphazard way (reported in ratory system (Pénoel, 1998). Because it is so mild to
Aroma ’93). The ‘experiments’ were conducted by an the skin, 2–3 drops can be applied neat on the side of
aromatherapist who probably had little knowledge the neck at the area of the lymphatic nodes when
of essential oil chemistry, function or toxicity. Such treating infections of the upper respiratory system.
studies should not have been passed by the hospital This essential oil is untested and could be a sensitiser.
safety committee in the first instance. ‘Nurses warn against rash use of herbal oil treat-
In an aromatherapy book steam distillation at ments’ (The Guardian, 12 March 1999, p. 9) was the
home was illustrated by a drawing of a kettle perched unexpected title of a report from the Royal College
on a gas flame over the stove; this was loosely of Nursing Congress, as nurses are usually very keen
attached to a tube passing through ice in a pan, and to support aromatherapy. Several dangerous scenarios
the essential oil was then collected into a jamjar close were mentioned, including the intensive marketing of
by (Rose, 1992a). From the point of health and aromatherapy treatments in a 3-year trial on cancer
safety, this was extremely dangerous. patients and the danger of non-qualified nurses imple-
In another book, readers were advised that a menting the treatment. An incident concerning a
woman in labour can be given jasmine or lemon ver- nurse’s daughter, who had been given aromatherapy
bena compresses or massages in the sacral area when treatment in a hospital during a 5-day stay, was
suffering pain. Even taking lemon verbena internally reported. Apparently no choice, no parental consent
was recommended to stimulate uterine contractions and no agreement was given. There was also a warning
(Fischer-Rizzi, 1992). Such advice was very dangerous, about the possible use of aromatherapy oils poured
especially as no concentrations were given and lemon over children’s heads against headlice by inexperienced
verbena is a potent allergen. To suggest that it is to be parents.
used internally for uterine contractions is totally irre-
sponsible as there has been no scientific verification.
The same book gives a recipe for suntan oil,
Reporting of adverse effects by
including bergamot, carrot seed and lemon essential
aromatherapists
oils (Fischer-Rizzi, 1990). These are all phototoxic
essential oils. The author then advises that bergamot
oil is added to suntan lotion, to get the bonus of the There have been no reports on any adverse effects in
substance called ‘furocumarin’, which lessens the the extensive aromatherapy literature, despite the
skin’s sun sensitivity while it helps one to tan quickly. many reports appearing in the scientific literature.
This could cause severe burns. There is at present no ‘yellow card’ scheme or other
Elsewhere, sassafras (Ocotea pretiosa) was said to regarding the thousands of aromatherapists practis-
be only toxic for rats, due to its metabolism and not ing in the UK or elsewhere in the world, although this
dangerous to humans (Pénoel, 1991) and a 10% solu- could provide useful data. There seems to be a reluc-
tion in oil was suggested for treating muscular and tance by aromatherapists to participate in any scheme
joint pain and sports injuries. Safrole (and sassafras which could prove damaging to their profession and
oil) is, however, controlled under the Controlled thereby jeopardise their income. The few clinical
Drugs Regulations (1993) and listed as a category 1 studies on aromatherapy carried out have not only
substance, as it is a precursor for the illicit manufac- shown no benefits in using essential oils in massage
ture of hallucinogenic, narcotic and psychotropic compared with massage alone, but have also yielded
drugs like ecstasy (see also nutmeg oil monograph). no significant data on adverse effects.
French practitioners and other therapists have The yellow card scheme operates for those few
apparently become ‘familiar’ with untested oils essential oils sold as licensed products, including
(Guba, 2000). The use of toxicologically untested peppermint oil (e.g. as Colpermin), but these oils are
Nepalese essential oils, etc. includes lichen resinoids, all GRAS and therefore unlikely to be hazardous
sugandha kokila oil, jatamansi oil and Nepalese unless grossly misused.
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Legislation: present and future 91

Safety warnings in the aromatherapy ● Benzyl benzoate

industry ● Citronellol
● D-Limonene
● Oakmoss and treemoss extract.
Many aromatherapy suppliers, especially on the
Internet, continue to sell dangerous essential oils with-
This list is greatly increased by the fragrance indus-
out adequate warnings. There are also examples of
try, which has now produced a Labelling Manual
inadequate labelling as to sell by or use by dates, which
(EFFA-IOFI-IFRA, 26.3.2001) for health and envir-
should always be given especially for essential oils of
onmental effects. The proposals could form the basis
the citrus and pine families, which develop skin sensi-
of an individual supplier’s classification and labelling,
tising chemicals on ageing. Shelf-life can be lengthened
and it is recommended that they label their goods
by the addition of artificial antioxidants; these are dis-
within six months of the proposal. Sensitisers are
liked by aromatherapists, but vitamin E could be used
labelled ‘Xi (irritant); R43’ and it is recommended
instead. Warnings should be given that essential oils
that a 1% concentration is adhered to. Aspiration
without antioxidants should not be used on the skin
hazard is ‘Xn (harmful); R65’ and is recommended
after about six months, but can still be used as fra-
now for all substances with a hydrocarbon greater
grances and that storing such oils in optimum condi-
than 10%. Some chemicals do not require labelling;
tions, such as in sealed containers in a refrigerator will
these include citronella oil (Java type) and farnesol.
slow down the chemical changes in the oil.
Citronella oil Ceylon type is however Xn. Pinus
nigra, terpenes and terpenoids, limonene fraction,
turpentine oil are now Xn, N. Most of the other com-
Legislation: present and future ponents have an Xi or Xn label, with exceptions like
safrole which is T (see Appendices 24–26).
The Medicines and Healthcare Products Regula-
The Health and Safety at Work Act (1974) together
tory Agency in the UK may bring about changes in
with COSHH (Control of Substances Hazardous to
aromatherapy practice similar to their threat on
Health) Regulations (1994) and CHIP (Chemical
herbal remedies. The freedom to describe what the
Hazard Information and Packaging) Regulations
essential oils used in aromatherapy are apparently
1998 now control all chemicals in the UK. The New
capable of doing will be restricted. Legislation in the
7th Amendment: European Parliament 2002: To
USA has already led to several prosecutions follow-
Annex III – Part 1 (Directive 76/768/EEC) covers the
ing false claims by aromatherapy distributors (see
conditions of use and warnings which must be
Chapter 3). Legislation brought in by the Health and
printed on the label.
Safety Executive (HSE) (R65), which came into force
The following components must be indicated in
on 20 June 1999, classified 89 essential oils as ‘harm-
the list of ingredients and a warning given that they
ful’. The danger of this legislation is that aromather-
can cause an allergic reaction (see also Appendices 28
apists are now using some harmful products in their
and 29):
therapy. This immediately places them at serious risk
● Benzyl alcohol if there is any untoward reaction to their specific
● Cinnamyl alcohol treatment. It virtually means that bottles and con-
● Eugenol tainers of essential oils now rank with domestic
● Hydroxycitronellal bleach for labelling purposes. It also means that com-
● Isoeugenol panies are now obliged to self-classify their essential
● Benzyl salicylate oils on their labels and place them in suitable con-
● Cinnamaldehyde tainers; this applies both to large distributing com-
● Coumarin panies as well as individual aromatherapists reselling
● Geraniol essential oils under their own name.
● Anisyl alcohol The EU Biocide Directive, which covers about
● Benzyl cinnamate 40 oils, including lavender, was adopted for imple-
● Farnesol mentation on 20 May 2000 but has not yet been
● Linalool implemented. It implies that essential oils cannot
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92 Chapter 7 • The safety issue in aromatherapy

be used as biocides, as they are not included in technological advances in the manufacture of syn-
the list. thetic components and ‘designer’ essential oils to suit
Finally, new legislation has gone to the Council of every pocket, there is an increasing danger of tox-
Ministers and may imply that only qualified people icity, which can manifest itself as sensitisation. New
will be able to use essential oils, and retail outlets for legislation has now become a reality, and warning
oils will be pharmacies. Their definition of ‘qualified’ consumers of the dangers of essential oils on bottle
is limited to academic qualifications – doctors or labels, as well as the labels on other cosmetic prod-
pharmacists. ucts, is imminent. The next stage could be the restric-
tion of sales of concentrated essential oils to
pharmacies, under the supervision of pharmacists
and medically qualified personnel only.
Conclusion

In the past essential oils have been considered to be

relatively safe, with a few exceptions, but with new